Thumbnail - Startseite...ChaPter 5 Lubricant aDDitiVes anD tHeir eVaLuatiOn 61 ChaPter 6...

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Developments in lubricant technology


S P SrivaStava

Copyright copy 2014 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley amp Sons Inc Hoboken New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording scanning or otherwise except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc 222 Rosewood Drive Danvers MA 01923 (978) 750-8400 fax (978) 750-4470 or on the web at wwwcopyrightcom Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department John Wiley amp Sons Inc 111 River Street Hoboken NJ 07030 (201) 748-6011 fax (201) 748-6008 or online at httpwwwwileycomgopermission

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Srivastava S P (Som Prakash) 1940ndashDevelopments in lubricant technology SP Srivastava pages cm Includes index ISBN 978-1-118-16816-5 (cloth)1 Lubrication and lubricants I Title TJ1077S74 2014 6218prime9ndashdc23

2013051266

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

v

Preface vii

Part I Lubricant basics 1

ChaPter 1 intrODuctiOn Lubricant scenariO 3

ChaPter 2 cLassificatiOn Of Lubricants 7

ChaPter 3 MineraL anD cHeMicaLLY MODifieD LubricatinG base OiLs 23

ChaPter 4 sYntHesiZeD base OiLs 43

ChaPter 5 Lubricant aDDitiVes anD tHeir eVaLuatiOn 61

ChaPter 6 LubricatiOn frictiOn anD Wear 87

Part II inDustriaL Lubricants 103

ChaPter 7 steaM anD Gas turbine OiLs 105

ChaPter 8 HYDrauLic fLuiDs 117

ChaPter 9 cOMPressOr VacuuM PuMP anD refriGeratiOn OiLs 137

Part III Gear OiLs anD transMissiOn fLuiDs 159

ChaPter 10 inDustriaL anD autOMOtiVe Gear OiLs 161

ChaPter 11 autOMatic transMissiOn fLuiDs 179

cOntent

vi Content

Part IV autOMOtiVe Lubricants anD MWfs 195

ChaPter 12 PassenGer car MOtOr OiLs 197

ChaPter 13 enGine OiLs fOr cOMMerciaL VeHicLes 219

ChaPter 14 tWO-strOKe anD sMaLL enGine Lubricants 239

ChaPter 15 raiLrOaD Marine anD naturaL Gas enGine OiLs 249

ChaPter 16 MetaLWOrKinG fLuiDs 271

Part V bLenDinG re-refininG MOnitOrinG anD test MetHODs 289

ChaPter 17 Lubricants bLenDinG QuaLitY cOntrOL anD HanDLinG 291

ChaPter 18 rerefininG anD recYcLinG Of useD LubricatinG OiL 299

ChaPter 19 in-serVice MOnitOrinG Of Lubricants anD faiLure anaLYsis 309

ChaPter 20 Lubricant tests anD tHeir siGnificance 323

inDex 338

vii

Lubricating oils are extremely important products without which no machinery or engines can run Modern high-quality industrial products cannot be manufactured without the application of specific lubricants Each class of equipment needs a distinctive product Lubricants constitute a group of more than 600 products with different viscosity and quality levels and hence oil companies manufacturing them continuously strive to develop and upgrade these products through extensive research and development Lubricant development is a multidisciplinary effort that involves various fields such as chemistry physics metallurgy chemicalmechanicalautomobile engineering surface science and polymer science and requires good teamwork for successful production There are several advanced books that deal with lubricants lubricant additives and tribology but there is a shortage of a simple concise book that would be useful for scientists and engineers who want to have in-depth knowledge on the subject Unfortunately this subject does not form part of a universitycollege curriculum mainly because of the fact that this knowledge is regarded as a trade secret and open literature is not available During my 40 years of interaction with lubricant users scientists engineers technical service staff and production and marketing professionals I have found that there is a considerable gap in knowledge between the users and developers However there are some orga-nized industrial sectors such as the OEMs where engineers are highly knowledge-able about their equipment and lubricant requirements If the science of lubrication and its application is understood properly by all users tremendous benefits can be derived by realizing fuel economy energy efficiency reduced wear and tear of equipment and consequently longer life

It is with this objective that this concise book has been written and I am confi-dent that it would be well received by students and all those connected with the development manufacturing marketing and application of lubricating oils The book covers all the major classes of lubricants such as turbine hydraulic compressor gear transmission gasoline engine diesel engine two-stroke engine marine engine natural gas and rail road engine oils However it has not been possible to cover all the grades of minor lubricants such as specific industry-related products for the textile cement paper sugar mill and food industry Nevertheless it would not be difficult to understand the minor grades of lubricants after going through the major classes covered in this book

Dr S P SrivastavaFaridabad IndiaJune 2014

PreFace

Part ILUBRICANT BASICS

3

Developments in Lubricant Technology First Edition S P Srivastava copy 2014 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2014 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Lubricants are required in every machinery and engine for reducing friction wear and energy consumption Depending upon the operating and design parameters of the equipment a properly formulated lubricant can play a major role in extending equipment life and saving energy For manufacturing modern lubricating oils lube base oils and chemical additives are required While base oils are produced in the refineries chemical additives are manufactured separately in chemical plants as it involves chemical reactions between several materials and specialized testing facil-ities Currently about 41 MMT (million metric ton) of lubricants are produced glob-ally and the market is growing slowly at the rate of about 2 per annum The demand pattern has been described in several publications [1ndash5] The growth is mainly in Asia India and China are the fastest growing countries in this sector (3ndash5) Asia Pacific is the largest consumer of lubricants (35) followed by North America (28) central and southern America (13) western Europe (12) and others (12) Asian market is dominated by China (4 MMT) Japan (28 MMT) India (24 MMT) and Korea (1 MMTyear) Asia Pacific countries contribute to about 14 MMT of lubricant business per year

These 41 MMT of lubricants constitute more than 600 grades of products to meet automotive and industrial requirements Lubricants for automotive applications constitute the major share of lubricants (55) followed by industrial oil (30) process oil (10) and marine oils (5) Among industrial oils turbine hydraulic gear and compressor oils constitute major products (60) About 15ndash20 of industrial oils are metal working oils and 5 are greases The balance constitutes other miscellaneous industrial oils

There are large numbers of small and major manufacturers of lubricants around the world but in the last two decades major consolidation has taken place and four major global companiesmdashExxon-Mobil Chevron-Texaco-Caltex BP-Amoco-Castrol and Total-Fina-Elfmdashoperate Two major regional companiesmdashChinese SinopecCNPC and Indiarsquos Indian Oil Corporationmdashhave substantial market share in their respective countries

Chapter 1INTRODUCTION LUBRICANT SCENARIO

4 Chapter 1 INtrODUCtION LUBrICaNt SCeNarIO

Synthetic lubricants [6] constitute about 3 of the total world lubricants These are mainly aviation and high-temperature application fluids used in situations where mineral oil-based products cannot provide adequate service Synthetic lubricants use several additives that are common in mineral-based products but also use special chemicals that provide high-temperature high-pressure performance Synthetic lubricants are based on several synthetic materials as base oils such as alkylated aromatics polyalphaolefins organic esters halogenated hydrocarbons phosphate esters polyglycols polyphenyl esters and ethers silicate esters and silicones Synthetic oils are also used when there is a need for longer drain capabilities lower oil consumption fuel economy and environmental issues like biodegradability emissions and recyclability Low-viscosity multigrade engine oils like 0W-30 or 5W-30 also need synthetic base oils to meet the low-temperature viscosity requirements

Lubricant market is dynamic and quality levels are continuously changing Every year new specifications of automotive lubricants are generated to meet the OEM requirements The use of multigrade engine oils in both gasoline and diesel engines has given a new dimension to the engine oil formulations Multifunctional additives like dispersant viscosity modifiers change the ratio of detergentdispersant Use of American Petroleum Institute (API) group II III and IV base oils also changes the additive requirements For example it is possible to formulate multigrade engine oils with polyalphaolefins without or minimal use of viscosity modifiers and pour point depressants These variations lead to the reformulation of products and therefore the additive pattern also changes The demand pattern provided earlier therefore should serve as broad guideline only

The last two decades have seen a very fast-track upgradation of engines fuels and lubricants US European and Japanese OEM efforts have resulted in several upgraded engine oil specifications and test procedures The highest diesel engine oil quality till 1985 was API CD level and gasoline engine oil till 1988 was API SF cat-egory However after 1988 there has been upgradation every year Currently API SN and ILSAC GF-5 for gasoline and API CJ4 for diesel engine are the latest stan-dards for automotive lubricants There has been a similar trend in the development of automatic transmission fluid specifications These were however heavily driven by two major OEMs General Motors and Ford whose Dexron and Mercon fluid specifications are accepted worldwide

This improvement in oil quality led to higher oil drain intervals improved fuel economy and reduced emissions Simultaneously the gasoline and diesel fuel quality was also improved to match the emission standards imposed by legislation From gasoline lead was phased out octane number was improved and benzene content and sulfur content were drastically reduced Gasoline was reformulated to allow the use of oxygenates and multifunctional additives Similarly the diesel fuel quality was improved with respect to improved cetane number reduced aromatics and olefin content distillation and drastic reduction of sulfur content To formulate improved lubricants it was also necessary to improve the base oil quality API responded to this need and came out with its base oil classification where all base oils were categorized into five groups (groups IndashV) In groups II and III sulfur levels

Chapter 1 INtrODUCtION LUBrICaNt SCeNarIO 5

have been reduced to less than 300 ppm and saturate content to minimum 90 The viscosity index for group III base oil has been specified as 120 minimum All synthetic polyalphaolefins have been categorized in group IV and remaining synthetic oil of different molecular structure in group V To match this development in lubricant specifications fuel quality and base oil quality it is obvious that the additive technology has to improve The new specification of diesel engine oil API CJ-4 imposes restrictions on sulfur phosphorus and ash content which will restrict the use of ZDDP or sulfonatephenate detergent Newer additives would therefore be required to formulate these and future lubricants Biodegradability environmental friendliness and toxicity would further impose restrictions on the choice of additives

Oil is limited and reserves are depleting The search for alternate fuels is cur-rently at its peak Following options are currently being considered as an alternative to petroleum fuel

1 Biofuels such as biodiesel

2 Light gaseous hydrocarbons (CH4 based) such as CNG LNG coal bed

methane gas hydrate propane and butane (LPG)

3 Oxygen-containing fuels such as methanol ethanol dimethyl ether and ethers

4 Hydrogen

The increasingly higher cost of crude petroleum and its depleting reserves is driving the development of alternate fuels In the next few decades we may witness a shift in the use of alternative fuels depending on the techno-commercial viability of these options The application of CNG and biodiesel has already taken place in several countries There is considerable activity in the development and use of biodiesel which is nontoxic free from aromatics low in sulfur and biodegradable Biodiesel can be manufactured from renewable sources using varieties of vegetable oils and animal fats through a process of trans-esterification with methylethyl alcohol These are called fatty acid methyl esters or FAME It may be necessary to have a separate biodiesel lubricant to take care of specific character of this fuel

There are several technological issues like cost of manufacture energy require-ment in the production of hydrogen and its use in the field that needs to be addressed before hydrogen can be adopted as a transportation fuel Hydrogen is the most ideal and clean burning fuel With hydrogen fuel cell-based engines the crankcase engine oils will not be required Fuel cell-based engine will have electric motors to drive the wheels which will require only grease for lubrication However hydrogen-fired engine would need special lubricant to meet the changed engine environment

With these changes the lubricants and their quality will undergo substantial change and new innovative technologies need to be developed to meet the chal-lenges lying ahead

The book discusses various aspects of formulating modern lubricants to meet the modern industrial and automotive vehicle requirements while complying with the environmental regulations The changes that are taking place in lubricant technology are discussed specifically


referenCes

[1] Srivastava SP Chapter 1 In Modern Lubricant Technology Dehradun Technology Publications 2007

[2] Srivastava SP Chapter 1 In Advances in Lubricant Additives and Tribology New Delhi Tech Books International 2009 p 1ndash10

[3] Fuchs M The world lubricant market current situation and outlook 12th International Colloquium Tribology January 11ndash13 2000 Esslingen

[4] Thomas JA Change and challenges the future of Asia-Pacific and Indian lube and additives market 3rd International Petroleum Conference Petrotech-99 January 9ndash12 1999 p 299

[5] Srivastava SP Lubricant and fuel scenario in the new millennium International Symposium on Fuels and Lubricants ISFL-2000 March 10ndash12 2000 New Delhi New Delhi Allied Publisher 2000 Vol 1 p 19ndash27

[6] Srivastava SP Synthetic lubricant scenario in 21st century Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Industrial Tribology December 1ndash4 1999 Hyderabad p 7ndash17

7


Lubricants are classified in several ways these could be liquid semisolid (greases) and solids such as graphite molybdenum disulfide boron nitride tungsten disulfide and polytetrafluoroethylene Majority of lubricants are however liquids with differ-ent viscosities and other physicochemical characteristics Semisolid greases are used in several applications where liquid lubricants cannot be used conveniently such as in the antifriction and roller bearings of automotiverail car wheels and other industrial machinery Solid lubricants on the other hand are used as coatings in the fine powder form or used as additives in greases and liquid lubricants Another classification used in the industry is based on the type of base oil utilized for the for-mulation of products such as the following

1 Mineral oil-based lubricants

2 Synthetic oils

3 Biodegradable environmentally friendly oils (based on esters or fatty oils)

Synthetic oils are based on synthetic base oils produced in a chemical or petrochem-ical plant such as esters diesters polyalphaolefins polyalkeleneglycols silicones alkyl benzenes and polyphenyl ethers Synthetic oils are used in a wide variety of critical applications such as in engines turbines compressors and hydraulic gear aviation and space equipment It is possible to formulate biodegradable oils from both selected mineral base oils and synthetic oils However vegetable oils and synthetic ester-based products are regarded as highly biodegradable and are preferred in those applications where spillage in soil and water is expected These applications include products used in agricultural forestry outboard motors snowmobiles etc

Lubricants are most conveniently classified according to their applications irrespective of the type of base oil utilized such as the following

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE OILS

These are further classified as gasoline engine oils diesel engine oils rail road oils marine oils two-stroke engine oils tractor oils off-highway equipment lubricants gas engine oils etc Rail road and marine oils are also considered as a separate class

ChApTEr 2CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANTS

8 Chapter 2 CLaSSIFICatION OF LUBrICaNtS

since the chemistry used in formulating these oils is slightly different but these are basically engine oils The modern API classification system was established only after 1970 SAE developed viscosity classification of engine oils Initially three types of oils were proposed by API regular premium or heavy duty The regular type was straight mineral oils The premium type contained antioxidants and were meant for gasoline engines The heavy-duty oils meant for diesel engines contained both antioxidant and detergentdispersant This was a rough classification and did not address issues connected with the fuel differences (such as sulfur content and distil-lation characteristics) and operating conditions API later developed a new system including three categories for gasoline engines (ML MM and MS) and three for diesel engines (DG DM and DS) Finally the modern classification system was established with sequence testing standardized testing and performance require-ments agreed by both engine manufacturers and lubricant suppliers This practice has largely prevented the introduction of multiple OEM specifications Presently only Mack Truck Companyrsquos EO-X system is prevalent under the modern API licensing system Gasoline engine oils have been classified as SX and diesel engine oils are given classifications in the format of CX-24 S represents service category for spark ignition engines and C represents commercial for compression ignition engines The X is given in alphabetical order representing the sequence of introduction For example SB and CB come after SA and CA respectively The number 2 or 4 denotes 2T or 4T engine applications Because of the rapid change in emission regulations and engine technology in the 1990s and onward a new API classification comes out every 3ndash4 years Before this API-CD remained in place for a long time The fast change presents a major challenge to the lubricant industry Sometimes new OEM or industry specifications are reappearing faster than the API standards For example Cummins has issued CES 20071 1 year ahead of API-CH-4 and has again issued CES 20076 in 1999 to promote the use of premium oils with better soot-handling capability

In Europe engine manufacturers continue to specify their own oil require-ments as of today The specifications issued by Comite des Constructeurs drsquo Automobiles du Marche Commun (CCMC) have been in place for years but are now obsolete Mercedes Benz has the most comprehensive testing and approval require-ments Volkswagen Volvo MAN and others all have their own test requirements Association des Constructeurs Europeens de lrsquo Automobile (ACEA) has replaced CCMC in 1996 and ACEA-comprehensive specifications for gasoline and diesel engine oils applicable from the year 2012 have been issued (A1B1-12 A3B3-12 A3B4-12 A5B5-12 C1-12 to C4-12 E4-12 E6-12 E7-12 and E9-12)

INDUSTrIAL OILS

Industrial oils constitute large number of products used in a variety of industrial machinery such as in turbine hydraulic systems compressor gear boxes bearings refrigeration machine tools and other industrial equipment These are known by their names such as turbine oil compressor oil and gear oils

GreaSeS 9

METAL WOrKING FLUIDS

These products are generally referred to as fluids rather than oils since they are used as emulsions or dispersions in many applications Metal working fluids constitute cutting grinding quenching honing broaching forming forging wire drawing and rolling oils for various ferrous and nonferrous metals

ISO has evolved a viscosity-grade system of classifying industrial and metal working and this system is now universally accepted Earlier different companies were marketing different viscosity products for individual applica-tions depending on the customer need These oils were further classified into family L and classes AndashY

AVIATION OILS

Aviation oils are specifically formulated mineral and synthetic hydraulic and gas tur-bine oils for aviation industry These groups of products form a different category and are manufactured by limited companies due to their highly specialized quality control procedures and approval system

GrEASES

Greases are further classified according to the soap used for the manufacture of products such as lithium lithium complex calcium calcium complex clay poly urea sulfonate complex moly graphited greases and mixed soap greases

In oil industry lubricants are also sometimes classified based on the additives used in them such as EP oil (containing extreme pressure additive) detergent oil (containing detergent and dispersant additives) RampO oil (rust and oxidation inhibited) antiwear oil (containing antiwear additive) compounded oil (containing fatty oil to reduce friction) and FM oil (containing friction modifier)

Lubricants are used in equipment under different operating conditions of tem-perature speed and load and require different viscosity grades (VGs) to satisfy performance characteristics Lubricants are thus classified according to the viscosity and applications by the following organizations

1 SAE Viscosity Classification of Engine Oils

2 SAE Viscosity Classification of Automotive Gear Oils

3 ISO Viscosity Classification of Industrial Oils

4 National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) Classification of Greases

5 American Gear Manufacturers Association Classification of Industrial Gear Oils

6 US Military Classification of Engine and Gear Oils


Lubricants have been further classified according to their performance characteris-tics in a series of following documents

1 API service classification of gasoline engine oilsmdashS (service) category

2 API service classification of diesel engine oilsmdashC (commercial) category

3 API service classification of gear oilsmdashGL category

4 ISO-6743 classification of industrial oils

5 Two-stroke engine oil classification by API NMMA JASO and ISO

6 Automatic transmission oil classification by GM Ford Allison and Caterpillar

7 Rail road oil classification by Locomotive Maintenance Officers Association (LMOA)

Similar to ISO-3448 ASTM D-2422-2007 Standard Classification of Industrial Fluid Lubricants by Viscosity System has also been worked out There are various other regional or country- or OEM-specific classifications of lubricants but these generally follow the above described international approach The classification is then followed by the detailed specifications of the finished products

ISO 3448 VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION FOr INDUSTrIAL OILS

The ISO viscosity classification is generally used for industrial lubricants and the VG number from VG 10 grades and above indicates viscosity in centistokes at 40degC VG 2 to VG 7 however have different midviscosities (refer to Table 21) Each subsequent

TAbLE 21 ISO viscosity classification of industrial oil

ISO 3448 viscosity grades

Kinematic viscosity at 40degC (mm2s = cSt)

Midpoint Minimum Maximum

ISO VG 2 22 198 242ISO VG 3 32 288 352ISO VG 5 46 414 506ISO VG 7 68 612 748ISO VG 10 10 90 110ISO VG 15 15 135 165ISO VG 22 22 198 242ISO VG 32 32 288 352ISO VG 46 46 414 506ISO VG 68 68 612 748ISO VG 100 100 90 110ISO VG 150 150 135 165ISO VG 220 220 198 242ISO VG 320 320 288 352ISO VG 460 460 414 506ISO VG 680 680 612 748ISO VG 1000 1000 900 1100ISO VG 1500 1500 1350 1650

eNGINe OIL CLaSSIFICatION 11

VG has approximately 50 higher viscosity whereas the minimum and maximum values of each grade range plusmn10 from the midpoint For example ISO VG 100 refers to a VG of 100 cSt plusmn 10 at 40degC

ENGINE OIL CLASSIFICATION

The VGs of engine oils are classified by the Society of Automotive Engineers into six winter (W) grades and five mono grades There can be cross grades as well for example SAE-10W-40 which is designated as multigrade oil Such oils have to satisfy the requirements of both 10W and SAE 40 mono grade The first number (10W) refers to the VG at low temperatures (W stands for winter) whereas the sec-ond number (40) refers to the VG at high temperatures All automotive oils including rail road marine and natural gas engine oils follow SAE viscosity classification (Table 22) Performance of individual oil is however decided by the actual applica-tion and the applicable standard

TAbLE 22 Automotive lubricant viscosity gradesa

Engine oilsmdashSAE J 300 January 2009

SAE Low-temperature viscosities High-temperature viscosities

Viscosity grade

Cold crankingb viscosity

(mPas) max at temp (degC)

Pumpingc viscosity


Kinematicd (mm2s) at 100degC

High shear e rate viscosity (mPas)

at 150degC

Minimum Maximum Minimum

0W 6200 at minus35 60000 at minus40 38 mdash mdash5W 6600 at minus30 60000 at minus35 38 mdash mdash10W 7000 at minus25 60000 at minus30 41 mdash mdash15W 7000 at minus20 60000 at minus25 56 mdash mdash20W 9500 at minus15 60000 at minus20 56 mdash mdash25W 13000 at minus10 60000 at minus15 93 mdash mdash20 mdash mdash 56 lt93 2630 mdash mdash 93 lt125 2940 mdash mdash 125 lt163 35 f

40 mdash mdash 125 lt163 37g

50 mdash mdash 163 lt219 3760 mdash mdash 219 lt261 37

aAll values are critical specifications as defined by ASTM D-3244bASTM D-5293cASTM D-4684dASTM D-445eASTM D-4683 CEC L-36-A-90 (ASTM D-4741) or ASTM D-S481fApplicable for 0W-40 5W-40 and 10W-40 gradesgApplicable for 15W-40 20W-40 25W-40 and 40 grades


Selection of proper base oil with satisfactory low pour point and low-temperature rheological properties is necessary to meet the winter grade requirement The use of low pour synthetic oils such as PAOs and polyol esters is advantageous in formulating lower viscosity multigrade oils

VISCOSITY

Both industrial and automotive oils use viscosity for classification It is therefore impor-tant to understand various terminologies used in viscosity measurement techniques

AbSOLUTE AND KINEMATIC VISCOSITIES

Viscosity is a measure of internal friction of the fluid which is experienced when an external force is applied on the fluid Kinematic viscosity is a measure of this internal friction under the influence of gravity In other words viscosity can be determined by measuring force required to overcome the fluid friction Absolute viscosity some-times called dynamic or simple viscosity is the product of kinematic viscosity and density of the fluid

Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity density( )η = times

The dimension of kinematic viscosity is L2T where L is the length and T is the time Commonly the centistoke (cSt) is used The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m2s which is 106 cSt The SI unit of absolute viscosity is milli Pascal-second (mPa-s)

NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

When a fluid follows Newtonrsquos viscosity law that is its viscosity is independent of shear stress or rate of shear the fluid is called Newtonian fluid Most lubricating base oils solvents and formulated lubricants without polymers are Newtonian fluids Thus Newtonian fluids have constant viscosity under shear stress at a particular tem-perature On the other hand non-Newtonian fluids have different viscosity at differ-ent shear stress

Multigrade engine oils and high VI industrial oils formulated with viscosity modifiers (usually polymers) are non-Newtonian fluids since their viscosity changes with shear rates The viscosities of such oils decrease with an increase in shear rate

VISCOSITY MEASUrEMENT

Kinematic viscosity of oil is measured by capillary viscometers (ASTM D-445) The time to flow a fixed volume of oil through the capillary orifice at controlled tempera-ture (40 and 100degC) under gravity is measured Shear rate in this measurement is very low High-temperature high-shear (HTHS) viscosity is measured by high-pressure

apI aND ILSaC CLaSSIFICatION OF eNGINe OILS 13

capillary viscometer (ASTM D-4624) In this system a known volume of fluid is forced through a small-diameter capillary by applying gas pressure The rate of shear can be varied up to 106 Sminus1 This viscosity is called high-temperature high-shear viscosity and is measured at 150degC and 106 Sminus1

Rotary viscometers use the torque on a rotating shaft to measure the resistance of the fluid to flow The cold-cranking simulator (CCS-ASTM D-2602) Mini-Rotary Viscometer (MRV-ASTM D-3829 and D-4684) Brookfield viscometer and tapered bearing simulator (TBS) are all rotary viscometers Rate of shear can be changed by changing rotor dimensions speed of rotation and the gap between rotor and stator wall HTHS viscosity is also measured by the TBS by ASTM D-4683 procedure Very high-shear rates are obtained by using a smaller gap between the rotor and the stator wall in the TBS

The CCS measures an apparent viscosity in the range 500ndash200000 cP in the temperature range of 0 to minus40degC Shear rate ranges between 104 and 105 Sminus1 The CCS data correlate with engine cranking at low temperatures The SAE J300 viscosity classification specifies the low-temperature performance of engine oils by both CCS and MRV

The MRV is a low-shear rate measurement and measures apparent yield stress which is the minimum stress required to initiate the flow of the oil It also measures an apparent viscosity under shear rates of 1ndash50 Sminus1 MRV measurement correlates with the oil pumpability in the engine The cooling cycle of ASTM D-3829 is used to measure the borderline pumping temperature

VISCOSITY INDEX

Viscosity index (VI) is an empirical number indicating the change in viscosity of oil with respect to increased temperature A high VI signifies a relatively small change in viscosity with increase in temperature whereas a low VI reflects greater viscosity change with temperature Most solvent-refined mineral base oils have a VI between 60 and 100 Naphthenic oils may have lower VI between 0 and 50 The API groups II III and IV category oils have higher VI Polymeric viscosity modifier-containing oils have higher VI as compared to their base oil VI VI is calculated from kinematic vis-cosities at 40 and 100degC by using tables in ASTM D-2270 or ASTM D-39B It how-ever does not predict low-temperature or HTHS viscosities These values are derived from CCS MRV low-temperature Brookfield and high shear rate viscometers The term VI is now obsolete and is not used in characterizing engine oils SAE classification of engine oils has no requirement of VI The term is however useful in defining viscosityndashtemperature behavior of oils and is still used to describe industrial oils

ApI AND ILSAC CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINE OILS

API and ILSAC have further classified gasoline and diesel engine oils according to their performance to guide users to select proper lubricants API-S category means service category for gasoline engine Over a period of time several categories of API and ILSAC (Table 23) have been evolved as follows


Similarly diesel engine oils are classified according to API-C category C denotes commercial Following categories have been identified in Table 24 Combined gasolinendashdiesel cross lubricants are also permitted and have been marketed widely for example SCCC SDCF or SGCF The current high- performance gasoline and diesel engine oils are now highly specialized such as API-SN and API-CJ-4 and the cost of testing is too high to qualify them for both applications However technically it is possible to formulate combined API-SNCJ-4 oil

Four-stroke motor cycle oils have been classified by Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan (JASO T 903-2005) into MA MA1 MA2 and MB categories specifying dynamic and static coefficient of friction (Table 25)

TAbLE 23 Development of gasoline engine oil specifications

API-SA SB SC SD SE 1950ndash1979 all are obsoleteAPI-SF 1980 obsoleteAPI-SG 1988 obsoleteAPI-SH 1993 obsoleteAPI-SJ Developed in 1997 and suitable for 2001 and older enginesAPI-SL Developed in 2001 and suitable for 2004 and older enginesAPI-SM Developed in 2004 and suitable for 2010 and older enginesAPI-SN Developed in 2010 and suitable for 2011 and older engines

Resource conserving grade matches with ILSAC-GF-5ILSAC-GF1 1990 obsoleteILSAC-GF2 1996 obsolete

ILSAC-GF3 2000 obsoleteILSAC-GF4 2004 was valid till September 2011ILSAC-GF5 2010 current for 2011 and older vehicles

Note SI category was left out since this denotes spark ignition SK category was also left out due to its similarity with a country name

TAbLE 24 Development of diesel engine oil specifications

API-CA CB CC CD 1950ndash1985 all are obsoleteAPI-CE 1985 obsoleteAPI-CD-II 1988 obsoleteAPI-CF-4 1991 obsoleteAPI-CF and CF-2 1994 obsolete CF-2 for two-stroke enginesAPI-CG-4 1995 obsoleteAPI-CH-4 1998 current designed to meet 1998 emission standardsAPI-CI-4 and CI-4 plus Introduced in 2002 for 2004 exhaust emission standardsAPI-CJ-4 For low-emission vehicles of 2010 using 15 ppm sulfur diesel fuel

Note The numbers 2 and 4 indicate two-stroke and four-stroke engine applications Each category identifies the oil with several performance characteristics including engine tests

Sae CLaSSIFICatION OF aUtOMOtIVe Gear OILS 15

SAE CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOTIVE GEAr OILS

Eleven grades of auto gear oils have been identified (four winter W grades and seven mono grades) by SAE For wider temperature applications and energy efficiency multigrade gear oils are recommended (Table 26)

API has further classified automotive gear oils into several categories according to the severity of operation

API-GL-1 for gears operating under mild conditions not requiring EP additives

API-GL-2 for worm gear axles requiring lubricity or friction modifier additives GL-1 type oils will not be satisfactory for this application

API-GL-3 for gears operating under moderately severe conditions

TAbLE 25 Four-stroke classification JASO T-903 2011

JASO T-904

Dynamic friction characteristics index (DFI)

Static friction characteristics

index (SFI)Stop time index

(STI)

JASO MA 130 le DFI lt 25 125 le SFI lt 25 145 le STI lt 25JASO MA1 130 le DFI lt 18 125 le SFI lt 170 145 le STI lt 185JASO MA2 185 le DFI lt 25 170 le SFI lt 250 185 le STI lt 250JASO MB 050 le DFI lt 13 050 le SFI lt 125 050 le STI lt 145

TAbLE 26 SAE viscosity of automotive gear oilsmdashSAE J306 June 2005

SAE viscosity grade

Maximum temperature for a viscosity of 150000 cP (degC)a

Minimum viscosityb at 100degC (cSt)

Maximum viscosity at 100degC (cSt)

ASTM D-2983 ASTM D-445 ASTM D-445

70W minus55 41 mdash75W minus40 41 mdash80W minus26 70 mdash85W minus12 110 mdash80 mdash 70 lt11085 mdash 110 lt13590 mdash 135 lt185110 mdash 185 lt240140 mdash 240 lt325190 mdash 325 lt410250 mdash 410 mdash

aUsing ASTM D-2983 additional low-temperature viscosity requirements may be appropriate for fluids intended for use in light-duty synchronized manual transmissionbLimit must also be met after testing in CEC l-45-T-93 Method C (20 h)


API-GL-4 with antiscore properties No testing support is now available but still used commercially Oils are formulated with half the dosage of GL-5 oil additives

API-GL-5 for hypoid gears operating under high-speed shock load high-speed low-torque and low-speed high-torque conditions Performance is described in ASTM STP-512A requiring CRC L-33 L-60 L-37 and L-42 tests

API-GL-6 now obsolete

API-MT-1 issued in 1995 for nonsynchronized transmission of heavy trucks and buses

Proposed API-PG-2 a GL-5 plus oils

TWO-STrOKE ENGINE OILS

API has classified these oils into API-TA and API-TC categories JASO (Japanese) have categorized into FA FB and FC and ISO have categorized into ISO E-GB E-GC and E-GD categories (Table 27) For outboard motors NMMA has categorized oils into TC-W TC-W-II TC-W-3 and TC-W-3R

Test engines

Honda DIO AF27 lubricity torque index detergency piston skirt varnish

Suzuki SX800R exhaust smoke exhaust blocking

Piston skirt deposit rating is not required by JASO

Thailand TISI classification of two-stroke engine oils is provided in Table 28 India follows both API and JASO system for 2T and 4T oils for small engines Most of the motor cycles in India are manufactured with Japanese designs

rAIL rOAD OILS

These are diesel engine oils recommended for rail road applications LMOA has classified these oils into five generations (Generations 1ndash5) based on oil performance

TAbLE 27 Two-stroke classification ISOJASO

ISO mdash E-GB E-GC E-GDJASO FA FB FC mdashLubricity 90 min 95 min 95 min 95 minTorque index 98 min 98 min 98 min 98 minDetergency 80 min 85 min 95 min 125 minPiston skirt deposits mdash 85 min 90 min 95 minExhaust smoke 40 min 45 min 85 min 85 minExhaust blocking 30 min 45 min 90 min 90 min

Note All limits are indices relative to reference oil JATRE-1

raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1

First introduced in 1940 Generation 1 oils were generally straight mineral oils as well as some containing detergents and antioxidants Total base number (TBN) of Generation 1 oils was generally below 7

Generation 2

Introduced in 1964 Generation 2 engine oils contain ashless dispersants and moderate levels of detergency These oils were developed to reduce engine sludge and extend filter life Generation 2 engine oils had a TBN of around 7

Generation 3

Introduced in 1968 Generation 3 engine oils possess improved alkalinity retention detergency and dispersancy With TBN of around 10 Generation 3 oils were intro-duced to overcome increased piston ring wear

Generation 4

Generation 4 oils introduced in 1976 provided added protection under severe operating conditions and were designed to permit 90-day oil change intervals LMOA set higher base number (13) detergency and dispersancy characteristics for Generation 4 oils Generation 4 engine oils should also meet API-CD performance level

Generation 5

Before the introduction of Generation 5 category oils that eventually were to meet this qualification were described as Generation 4 Long-Life

TAbLE 28 Two-stroke classification TISI 1040

Test Parameter Limits

Bench tests Viscosity 100degCcSt 56ndash163Viscosity index 95 minFlash point degC 70 minPour point degC minus5 maxSulfated ash wt 05 maxMetallic element content wt Report

Kawasaki KH 125M Piston seizure and ring scuffing at fuel oil ratio of 2001

No seizure

Detergency (general cleanliness)Ring sticking 8 merit minPiston cleanliness 48 merit minExhaust port blocking None

Suzuki SX800R (JASO M 342-92) Exhaust smoke 85 min

Note Since mid-1991 all two-stroke oils used in Thailand are required to meet TISI requirements


Introduced in 1989 Generation 5 oils are required to meet extended oil drain period of 180-day performance to meet the requirements of new-generation fuel-efficient and low-oil-consuming diesel locomotive engines TBN for these oils are not specified but the products have improved alkalinity reserve deter-gency and antioxidation performance Oils meeting LMOA Generation 5 must also meet API Service Classification CD and have to be field tested and approved by both GE and EMD Multigrade versions of Gen IV and Gen V oils (mainly 20W-40) have also been developed field tested and approved by OEMs to obtain fuel efficiency and low oil consumption With the introduction of ULSD having max 15 ppm sulfur a new category of rail road oil with low SAPS and low TBN of 9 has emerged recently

NLGI CLASSIFICATION OF GrEASES

Greases have been classified according to the worked cone penetration since these are semisolids and viscosity cannot be determined under normal conditions (Table 29) Greases are described by NLGI numbers NLGI 000 grade is the thinnest grease and No 6 grade is the thickest

METAL WOrKING OIL CLASSIFICATION

ISO and DIN have classified metal working oil into several groups according to the application Table 210 provides ISO system and Table 211 shows DIN classification

DIN 51385 has identified metal working fluids into seven categoriesIndustrial oils have been systematically classified by ISO under class L and family AndashY The following ISO documents have been issued Readers are advised to refer to the original documents for details This classification is then followed by the ISO specifications of individual classes

TAbLE 29 NLGI classification of greases by cone penetration

NLGI grade60-stroke worked penetration at 25degC tenth

of mm ASTM D-217

000 445ndash47500 400ndash4300 355ndash3851 310ndash3402 265ndash2953 220ndash2504 175ndash2055 130ndash1606 85ndash115

MetaL WOrKING OIL CLaSSIFICatION 19

1 ISO 6743-12002 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 1 Family A (Total loss systems)

2 ISO 6743-21981 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 2 Family F (Spindle bearings bearings and associated clutches)

3 ISO 6743-32003 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 3 Family D (Compressors)

TAbLE 210 ISO 67437 metal working lubricant classification LmdashFamily M and applications

Neat oils Aqueous fluids

MHAmdashrefined mineral oil or synthetic fluid

MAAmdashmilky emulsions with anticorrosion properties

MHBmdashwith friction reducing properties in MHA

MABmdashemulsions with friction reducing properties

MHCmdashwith EP properties in MHA (noncorrosive)

MACmdashemulsions with EP properties

MHDmdashwith EP properties in MHA (corrosive)

MADmdashemulsions with friction reducing and EP properties

MHEmdashwith friction reducing properties in MHC

MAEmdashmicroemulsions with anticorrosion properties

MHFmdashwith friction reducing properties in MHD

MAFmdashmicroemulsions with friction reducing andor EP properties

MHGmdashgrease type MAGmdashsolutions with anticorrosion propertiesMHHmdashsoap type MAHmdashsolutions with friction-reducing andor

EP propertiesMAImdashgreases and pastes blended in water

ApplicationsCutting MHA to MHF MAA to MAF and MAH

Abrasion MHC MHE MHF MAG and MAH

Rolling MHA MHB and MAG

Sheet metal forming MHB to MHG and MAA MAB MAD MAI

Forming and stamping MHB MAG and MAH

Wire drawing MHB MHG MHH MAB and MAI

Power spinning MHB MHE and MAD

TAbLE 211 DIN 51385 classification of metal working fluids

Term Fluid type Code letter

0 Metal working fluids S1 Nonwater-miscible MWF SN2 Water-miscible metal working concentrate SE21 Emulsifiable metal working concentrate SEM22 Water-soluble metal working concentrate SES3 Diluted metal working fluids SEW31 Metal working emulsionmdashoil-in-water SEMW32 Metal working solution SESW


4 ISO 6743-41999 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 4 Family H (Hydraulic systems)

5 ISO 6743-52006 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 5 Family T (Turbines)

6 ISO 6743-61990 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 6 Family C (Gears)

7 ISO 6743-71986 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 7 Family M (Metalworking)

8 ISO 6743-81987 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 8 Family R (Temporary protection against corrosion)

9 ISO 6743-92003 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 9 Family X (Greases)

10 ISO 6743-101989 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 10 Family Y (Miscellaneous)

11 ISO 6743-111990 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 11 Family P (Pneumatic tools)

12 ISO 6743-121989 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 12 Family Q (Heat transfer fluids)

13 ISO 6743-132002 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 13 Family G (Slide ways)

14 ISO 6743-141994 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 14 Family U (Heat treatment)

15 ISO 6743-152007 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 15 Family E (Internal combustion engine oils)

16 ISO 6743-992002 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashClassificationmdashPart 99 General

17 ISO 77452010 Hydraulic fluid powermdashFire-resistant (FR) fluidsmdashRequirements and guidelines for use

Following ISO specifications have been worked out and others are in the pro-cess of being finalized Details of some of these specifications have been discussed in individual chapters dealing with the subject However there are several OEMs and national and international standards of lubricants ISO efforts are to consolidate these different standards into unified internationally accepted ISO standards

1 ISO 80682006 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashFamily T (Turbines)mdashSpecification for lubricating oils for turbines

2 ISO 100502005 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashFamily T (Turbines)mdashSpecifications of triaryl phosphate ester turbine control fluids (category ISO-L-TCD)

3 ISO 111582009 Lubricants industrial oils and related products (class L)mdashFamily H (hydraulic systems)mdashSpecifications for categories HH HL HM HV and HG



S P SrivaStava









2013051266


10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

v

Preface vii















cOntent

vi Content












inDex 338

vii




PreFace


3


















4 Hydrogen






referenCes







7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217



























































2013051266


10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

v

Preface vii















cOntent

vi Content












inDex 338

vii




PreFace


3


















4 Hydrogen






referenCes







7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217



















































v

Preface vii















cOntent

vi Content












inDex 338

vii




PreFace


3


















4 Hydrogen






referenCes







7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217



















































vi Content












inDex 338

vii




PreFace


3


















4 Hydrogen






referenCes







7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217



















































vii




PreFace


3


















4 Hydrogen






referenCes







7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217




















































3


















4 Hydrogen






referenCes







7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217































































4 Hydrogen






referenCes







7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217




















































referenCes







7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217



















































7




2 Synthetic oils










INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217






















































INDUSTrIAL OILS


GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217



















































GreaSeS 9




AVIATION OILS


GrEASES


































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217











































































Viscosity grade



Pumpingc viscosity




at 150degC








VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217





















































VISCOSITY
















VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217
























































VISCOSITY INDEX























JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217






































































JASO T-904




(STI)



SAE viscosity grade















Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217



























































Test engines





rAIL rOAD OILS





raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217



















































raIL rOaD OILS 17

Generation 1


Generation 2


Generation 3


Generation 4


Generation 5






No seizure













of mm ASTM D-217




























































of mm ASTM D-217



















































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