Threats & Remedies in Aquatic Ecosystems Professor Mike Elliott & research staff from IECS...

Threats & Remedies in Aquatic Ecosystems

Professor Mike Elliott & research staff from IECS

[email protected]

Institute of Estuarine & Coastal Studies, University of Hullhttp://www.hull.ac.uk/iecs

Relevant texts:• Clark, RB, (2001). Marine Pollution, OUP, (5th Ed)

• Gray, JS & M Elliott (2009) Ecology of Marine sediments: science to management, OUP (2nd Ed.).

• Kaiser, M et al (2005) Marine Ecology Processes, Systems, and Impacts, OUP

• McLusky, DS & M Elliott (2004) The Estuarine Ecosystem: ecology, threats & management, OUP (3rd Ed)

• especially journals: Marine Pollution Bulletin, Estuarine Coastal & Shelf Science, Estuaries & Coasts, Marine Ecology Progress Series, Ocean & Coastal Management, etc.

‘The Appliance of Science’

understand the problem

&

understand the biology, physics and chemistry

then

interpret, understand and predict the effects

then

society (i.e. us) to act and either pay for solving problems or to stop the problems occurring?

‘My husband writes Whodunnits, Thriller, Suspense and Horror stories - he specialises in books and articles on global pollution.’

What do we expect for/from the sea?

‘Hold it! I don’t know about you lot, but I’m not jumping into that!’

Dead guillemots on the beach - why?

Dying bottle-nosed whale in an estuary - why?

Large-scale incidents - high in public awareness

but: the sperm whale died of old age rather than pollution

Challenges for science & management:

• Recovery/coping with historical legacy• Endangered coastal and marine ecosystem

functions• Legal & adminstrative framework• Economic prosperity and delivery of societal

benefits• Coping with climate change & moving baselines

There is only one big idea in marine management: how to maintain and

protect ecological structure and functioning while at the same time

allowing the system to produce ecosystem services from which we

derive societal benefits.

DPSIR Approach (NB cyclical to helical)

Pressures (suite from each driver)

State changes (environmental/natural variables)

Impact (on human uses and on users)

Response (economic, governance actions, etc)

Drivers (human activities responsible)

Fulfil ‘The Ecosystem Approach’ (D+P)+R ≠ (S+I)

Approach

Is it a definitio

n

or a tool for th

e

EcoApp?

Hence we need:Drivers for managementTools for management

Endpoints/Outcomes of management

Therefore:

Manage for both ecology and economy (reason)

Using both technology and administrative bodies (tools)

Within both laws and governance (drivers)

For both society and politics (drivers)

Aim (economic & ecological goods & services)

Set indicators (birds/fishes; tonnage/ wealth creation, quality of life/non-infraction)

Perform monitoring (surveillance, condition, compliance, investigative)

Measure status (EII, habitat mapping)

Action required (defined in advance)

Set objectives (ecological, economic, societal, legislative)

Fulfil ‘The Ecosystem Approach’

Action not required Tool!

Tool!

Tool!Tool!

Outcome!

Drivers

10 Tenets

Pressures

Objectives

State Change

SMART

HypothesesAims

ImpactsPESTLE

The Ecosystem Approach - Unifying Concepts

Symptoms of Ecosystem Pathology

12 Principles

Indicators

Indicators

Indicators

Response

P.E.S.T analysis (modified)

• The organisation of an environment can be analysed by conducting a P.E.S.T analysis.

• This is a simple analysis of an environment’s Political, Economical, Social and Technological organisation.

• By adding legal aspects, this extends to P.E.S.T.L.E.

The six tenetsTo be successful, management measures or responses to changes resulting from human activities should be:•Ecologically sustainable•Technologically feasible•Economically viable•Socially desirable/tolerable•Legally permissible•Administratively achievable•Politically expedient•Ethically defensible (morally correct)•Culturally inclusive•Effectively communicable

The seven tenetsThe ten tenets

What goes into the sea?

• sewage & organic matter

• Biological pollutants incl. microbes

• oils• chemicals• agro-chemicals• minerals• heat• litter

• land claim• barrages• water removal• navigation• fisheries• dredging• mineral exploration• recreation & amenity

So what else do we do?

Effects of Human Activities

Aim:

description & prediction (scientific questions)

then:

reduction (socio-economic-political questions)

Need knowledge of:

features of the system

how the system works

type of threats

how the system responds to threats

The need for Indicators to describe:

• Condition of ecological/ecosystem elements• extent of Pressures exerted on elements

• Responses to either the condition or changes to it

Leading to: DPSIR approach:• Driving forces (human activities responsible)• Pressures (e.g. emissions)• State change (environmental variables)• Impact (changes in system) (also Welfare)• Response (measurement of policy options)

Main Questions for Science:

What is the normal situation?

How does it vary?

Has there been a change?

How big is the change?

What caused it?

(Can something be done about it?)

Functioning, legislative drivers, & in-situ & ex-situ pressures

Ecological & economic goods & services

Ecosystem Approach

Hey, YOU the ecology-manager -

how many invertebrates do you want in the estuary?

how many fishes do you want in the estuary?

how many birds do you want in the estuary?

how much saltmarsh do you want around the estuary?



Ecosystem Approach

Hey, YOU the Lord Mayor -

how much protection do you want around the estuary?

how many fishermen do you want in the estuary?

how much land claim do you want from the estuary?

how much pollution do you want in the estuary?

how many ships do you want in the estuary?

how many people do you want around the estuary?



Ecosystem Approach

Hey, YOU -

how much science do you want for the estuary?

how much ecological carrying capacity do you want in the estuary?

how much socio-economic carrying capacity do you want in the estuary?

Functioning

What should there be (status)?


Ecosystem Approach

& why (habitat needs)?

What is lost (reduced carrying capacity)?

No

Pro

duce

M

an

age

me

nt P

lan

!

Can it be recovered?

HMWB (hydromorphology)

Yes

Recreate habitats

Economic justification (xGEcS)

Report to EU

Compensate the system

Temporary habitat loss

Water quality barrier

Remedial action - pollution control

Restore habitat

Measure functioning (need indices of change)

Regain carrying capacity

Permanent habitat loss

Legislative Drivers

Decide SMART objectives


Ecosystem Approach

Decide conservation goals

Decide quantitative standards

Check AQC/QA

Pro

duce

M

an

age

me

nt P

lan

!

Create/agree methods

Perform compliance monitoring

Report to EU/OSPAR

Check compliance with standards

Pass

Fail

Investigative monitoring

Remedial work

Agree licences/permits/consents

Surveillance monitoring

Response to In-situ pressures

What does society want?


Ecosystem Approach

Materials taken out Materials

put in

Quantify EII 1 (hydromorphology)

Produce Management Plan!

Maintenance of socio-economic carrying capacity

Quantify EII 2 (pressures)

Reported to EU/OSPAR

Lead to (quantify) EII 3 (environmental quality)

Breach legislative driver

Remediation/mitigation/ compensation

Spatial & temporal change

Loss of ecological carrying capacity

Response to Ex-situ pressures

Unmanaged exogenic pressures


Ecosystem Approach

Relative sea-level rise

Coastal squeeze

Produce Flood Risk, Shoreline Management, Habitat etc Management Plans

Mitigation/ compensation/ acceptance

Soft/hard engineering

erosion

Wins for safety, economy, ecology

Options: Hold the line / retreat the line / advance the line / do nothing

Flooding/ storminess

Best practice in habitat creationNeed for single management plan?!



Ecosystem Approach

Overfishing of migratory & nursery species

Anthropogenic

External effects on breeding populations

Natural

Influences far from TW (e.g. eels breeding in Atlantic, waders in high Arctic)

Upstream

Physical & chemical barriers (e.g. weirs & on salmonids)

⇒ Catchment and marine management plans and marine spatial planning linked to climate change strategies!

At sea

Impacts on indigenous species, communities & their prey & predators



Ecosystem Approach

Climate and weather patterns (incl. NAO) Freshwater

resources and run-off

Influence on organisms’ distributions and reproduction

Point source pollution and WQ impacts

Temperature effects related to organisms’ tolerances

⇒ Catchment and marine management plans and marine spatial planning linked to climate change strategies!

Impacts on indigenous species, communities and their prey and predators

Encouragement for invasive and introduced species

Diffuse (nutrient) inputs

Salinity balance

Creation of biological pollution

relative sea level rise

set-back/ managed

retreat

wetland/habitat creation

increase in refugia

fisheries support

“coastal squeeze”

tidal area reduction

loss of prey/ feeding area

reduction in carrying capacity

fisheries repercussions

marine incursion

salinity/depth alteration

increased storminess

erosionincreased need for refugialoss of

habitat

substratum change

community displacement

e.g. movement of brackish

specieschange in

prey availability

Climate Change - Effects on Invertebrates, Fishes & Fisheries I

coastal adjustment

‘Exogenic Unmanaged Pressures’

Climate Change - Effects on Invertebrates, Fishes & Fisheries II

Altered temperature regime

disruption of breeding cycle

northern species

reproduction delayed

southern species

reproduction enhanced

competitive disadvantage

competitive advantage

species distribution change

e.g. northern species decrease

in area

e.g. southern species increase

in area

change in community structure

fisheries repercussions

increase / decrease of ‘rare’ / ’fragile’

species

conservation management repercussions

Physico-chemical attributes

Fundamental niche

Community functional attributes

Community structural attributes

Anthropogenic

distortions

Anthropogenic

distortions

Anthropogenic

distortions

Anthropogenic

distortio

ns

env.-biol. linksbiol.-env.

links

biol.-biol. links

Marine/Estuarine Community – Forcing Variables

Causes of Estuarine/Coastal Change Resulting from Human Activities

(a) Sources of inputs/pollutants:

• natural solids - to offshore areas, from river catchment (erosion, leaching);

• urban areas - domestic wastes (effluent, sludge);

• industrial processes - brewing, distilling, pulp and paper making, chemical, petrochemical (onshore and offshore);

• dredging, mineral exploration and extraction, marine excavation and drilling - disturbance and effects;

• shipping - accidents, garbage, illegal practices (e.g. tanker washings);


(a) Sources of inputs/pollutants (continued):

• power generation - thermal pollution, fly-ash production, radionucleiides, biocides;

• industrial wastes - collieries, china-clay waste, land-claim schemes;

• agriculture and aquaculture - practices and malpractice (erosion, pesticides, fertilisers, food);

• atmosphere - solids and soluble inputs.


(b) Other activities:

• barrages (for safety, amenity, power) - hydrographic changes;

• abstraction (cooling water, desalination) - biota removal, mortality;

• commercial fishing - bycatch mortality;

• land-claim and coastal protection - habitat loss, disruption of sediment and hydrophysical regime;

• offshore and onshore wind power - environmental disruption;

• naval activities - mortalities, reduction of habitat.

Human needs for/uses and abuses of the coast:fisheries (potting, trawling, etc.) telecommunications cablesurban areas, infrastructure recreation/tourismalternative energy generation(wind, tidal, wave)

conventional energy generation(nuclear, coal, oil, gas)

land claim waste dischargecoastal defence military usesnavigation/shipping safety (lifeboats/coastguards)ports/harbours aquaculturedredging/spoil disposal agricultureaggregate extraction water abstractionindustry (petrochemical, food,etc.)

oil and gas exploration/extraction

barrages (amenity, safety) education, researchwildlife, conservation

Anthropogenic Causes of Change

xenobiotics/toxins

physical additions

energy change

physical structures

overstimulation of biota

introduced organisms (microbes (health) &

macrobes)

mutagenic response

removal of biota

Categories of Pollutants

trace metals

synthetic organic compounds

hydrocarbons

radioactivity

inert (physical) materials

nutrients

organic matter

energy

Traditional Threats (a) vs. Emerging Issues (b)

(a)• Contaminant levels• Physical & chemical

Pollutants• Water quality• Toxicity• Fisheries• Land claim• Land use• Microbial pollutants

(b) • Irreversible habitat change – loss• Reduction in productivity and

biodiversity• Nutrient cycling modification• Land change and use• Climate variability and global

change• Macro-biological pollution• Sustainable fishing• Marine energy• Trace organics, POPs, EDS,

antibiotics

(modified & greatly expanded from Boesch & Paul 2001)

Pollutants (old vs. new problems)Chemical:

• Heavy metalsO

• Organic matterO

• RadioactivityO

• HydrocarbonsO

• HeatO

• NutrientsN • Persistent organicsN

Biological:• MicropathogensO • Ballast water migrantsO • Invasive macrophytesN

• Introduced parasitesN

• GMO’sN

• Escapees from cultureN

Physical:• Inert solids (sediment)O

• Thermal deformationsO • Litter/garbageN

• Large structuresN

Endangered & Fragile Habitats:

Sabellaria

Introduced & nuisance species: Eriocheir sinensis

Introduced and harvestable species: Neogobius

melanostomus

(Elliott 2003)

BMNH

Biodiversity changes & challenges:

• Biological pollution – introduced species• Effects of global warming – changing

distributions (e.g. Red Sea migrations; surrogate information from thermal discharges)

• Examples of habitat modification effects e.g. Eriocheir, Caulerpa

(Elliott, 2002; McLusky & Elliott, 2004; Olenin et al., 2011)

Future – biodiversity change:

• Determine what’s there and what’s been lost• Quantify niche creation• Quantify rate & processes of filling niches• Determine sequence depending on time of start• (Fulfil management actions in these)

(Elliott, 2002;

McLusky & Elliott, 2004)

Comparison of the health of medical and environmental systems (modified from Elliott & Cutts 2004; see Tett et al., MEPS 2013)

Unhealthy systems?

Medical (*1) –• Diagnosis• Prognosis• Treatment• Recovery

Prevention (*1 Steevens et al 2001 - Human Ecol. Risk Ass.)

Environmental –• Assessment (*2)

• Prediction• Remediation/Creation/

Restoration• Prevention

(* 2 using extension of symptoms for the diagnosis of ecosystem pathology)

Attributes for the diagnosis of ecosystem pathology:

= 7 indicators for general application:

• primary production• nutrients (fate & effects)• species diversity (abiotic areas)• community instability (biotic composition)• size and biomass spectrum• disease/anomaly prevalence• contaminant uptake and response

Biological change

changes in cells

changes in organisms

changes in populations

changes in communities

changes in ecosystems

Speed of response

Inherent variability

Ease of detection of effect

Complexity of system

Specificity of cause

Confidence in methods?

Biological change

changes in cells

changes in organisms

changes in populations

changes in communities

changes in ecosystems

Pollution effects in fishes – conceptual model (Elliott & Hemingway, 2002; also Elliott et al 2003; Lawrence & Hemingway 2003 - XENOFISH)

Environmental

homeostasis -

resilience?

Temporal severity (longevity/duration)

• instantaneous

• short-lived (hours-weeks)

• intermediate (weeks-months)

• long-lived (years-decades)

• ‘infinite’ (centuries/millennia)

Spatial severity (area affected)

• local/district

• regional

• national (intra-boundary)

• international (transboundary)

• intercontinental

• global

Extent of Impact

Content & (Spurious) Definitions:

Ecosystem = ((Σp.Δp) + (Σc.Δc) + (Σb.Δb) + (δb/δc) + (δb/δp) + ((Σc.Δc)-Σb) + ((Σp.Δp)-Σb)).h

Where p, c, b, h = physical, chemical, biological, human attributes

And:

Ecosystem Approach = ((D + P) + R) (S + I)

A strategy for the integrated management (*) of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation (*) and sustainable use (*) in an equitable way.

Its application will help to reach a balance of the three objectives (*) of the Convention.

Based on applying appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment.

It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems.

www.biodiv.org

CBD Ecosystem Approach

Where it is mentioned?

The Ecosystem Approach is implicit or explicit in all recent marine management initiatives, including estuarine management plans.

This includes, within Europe:• the EC Water Framework Directive (WFD), • the EC Habitats Directive, • the EU Marine Strategy (and the proposed Marine

Framework Directive) and the ICZM Directive, • OSPAR Annex V, • the EU Common Fisheries Policy ecosystem

approach for fisheries, • ICES ecosystem approach, • Strategic Environmental Assessment, • FAO Ecosystem Approach to fisheries management, • English Nature, Environment Agency, etc.

And millions of

sites on Google!

The Ecosystem-based Approach:

• Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) (January 2003) - the incorporation of a more ecosystem-based approached to fisheries management through the introduction of recovery plans for threatened stocks and management plans for non-threatened stocks; way forward to a sustainable fishing industry.

• JNCC - Marine fisheries ……. dependent on the productivity of

the ecosystem, and fisheries have an effect on, and are affected by, the supporting ecosystem of the target species. It, therefore, follows that prudent and responsible fisheries management should take account of the profound interactions between fisheries and their supporting ecosystem.

• Convention on Biological Diversity: 'a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way.'

( explicit, I implicit)

Ecol Econ Tech Soc Leg Adm Polit Mor Cul Com

1 Societal choices I

2 Subsidiarity I I

3 Inter-ecosystem effects I I I

4 Economic management I I

5 Maintain ecosys. serv. I I I I

6 Maintain ecosys. func.

7 Appropriate spatial & temporal scales

I I

8 Long-term management

I I I I I I

9 Manage for variability

10 Manage to conserve & use biodiversity

I

11 Use best practice, all 'data'

12 Stakeholder input, incl. science

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES & FATE OF INTRODUCED MATERIALS

Aim: description, prediction, reduction:

Need knowledge of:

Behaviour/characteristics of the system;

Physical/chemical nature of system;

Physical and chemical behaviour of additives to system;

Behaviour/characteristics of an activity in environment;

Habitat at risk from modification or materials addition;

Inert or biologically effective action;

Biotic and non-biotic component(s) at risk;

Behaviour of contaminants within organisms;

Structure & functioning of biological system;

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES & FATE OF INTRODUCED MATERIALS

Aim: description, prediction, reduction

Variability of components leading to:

increase in 'signal to noise' ratio,

prediction & quantification of effect (scientific questions);

reduction or removal of effect (socio/economic/political questions).

Integrated Environmental Assessments

e.g.community health

(sea-bed quality as shown by benthic analyses);

individual health (as shown by invertebrate bioassay, e.g. Macoma

burrowing);

environmental (abiotic component) degree of contamination

(concentration of persistent chemicals in sediments)

Topics for Consideration

1. Occurrence of pollutants in steady-state.

2. Movement of pollutants through system.

3. Fate of pollutants if persistent.

4. Lethal effects structural changes.

5. Sub-lethal effects, functional changes.

The nature of European Union Directives: control and assessment of contaminants

Note the changing nature of EU Directives and the OSPAR, HELCOM & Barcelona

Conventions:

from a sectoral (pollutant orientated) approach to an holistic, ecosystemic

approach

Changes to Legislative/Administrative/Policy Drivers

The Estuary & Coast - Major European Union Legislative /Administrative/Policy Drivers

From the Sectoral:

• Urban Waste-water Treatment

• Integrated Pollution Prevention & Control

• Titanium Dioxide

• Shellfish Growing Waters & Health

• Shellfish Harvesting

• Bathing Waters

• Dangerous Substances + Daughters

• Freshwater Fishes

To the Holistic:

• Environmental Impact Assessment

• Habitats & Species

• Wild Birds

• Nitrates

• Strategic Environmental Assessment

• Water Framework

• Environmental Liability

• Marine Spatial Planning & Coastal Management?

• Marine Strategy Framework

Examples of the transition:

From the Dangerous Substances Directive (and its Daughter Directives)

to:

the IPPC Directive (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control).

From the Nitrates Directive

to:

the WFD (Water Framework Directive).

Changes in Direction of EU Directives:

The Estuary & Coast - Major Legislative/Administrative/Policy Drivers (2)

EU Agreements:• Common Fisheries Policy• Common Agricultural Policy• Integrated Coastal Zone Management?

UK Enabling Legislation

International:• North Sea Ministerial Conferences• OSPAR Convention & Strategies• London Convention• IMO – Marpol• ICES

The Health & Integrity of the Humber Environmental Quality Objectives

1. The protection of all of the existing defined uses of the estuary system;

2. The ability to support on the mud bottom the biota necessary for sustaining sea fisheries;

3. The ability to allow the passage of migratory fish at all stages of the tide.

(Based on those proposed by Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 3rd report 1972)

(Define EQO, derive EQS, set consent conditions and discharge limits bearing in mind EU Directives, PARCOM,

the 'precautionary principle and the Red list')

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

What are the 'legitimate' uses of the system?

(What are the accepted uses?)

What are the human demands on the system?

What/where are the conflicts?

(Do activities conflict spatially/temporally?)

Can the physical/biological system cope?

(Can adverse effects be detected?)

Should/can the activity be stopped?

(Can the conflicts be tolerated?)

Would zoning resolve potential/actual conflicts?

Are mitigation measures feasible?

(Should mitigation measures be carried out?)

Environmental Impact AssessmentImpact:

distinguish between substantial, moderate, slight, according to:

(i) magnitude of impact itself;(ii) value and sensitivity of receiving landscape;(iii) sensitivity of the potential visual receptors;

(methods suggested by the Institute of Environmental Assessment and the Landscape Institute Guidelines);

Main Steps in EIA:1) identification of the potential sources of impact;2) description of the receiving landscape;3) the evaluation of the potential impacts;4) the determination of mitigation measures possible;5) the identification and quantification of residual impacts which may be medium or long term.

EU - "EIA" DIRECTIVE (85/337/EEC)(on the assessment of the effects of certain public

and private projects on the environment)

EIA to identify, describe and assess in an appropriate manner the direct and indirect effects of a project on

the following:

humans, fauna and flora;soil, water, air, climate and the landscape;

the interaction between i) and ii);material assets and the cultural heritage.

Developer to provide Minimum InformationResponsibility of Member States

Minimum Information provided by the developer:(i) a description of project (e.g. site, design and size of

project);(ii) measures envisaged to avoid, reduce and, if possible,

remedy significant effects;(iii) data to identify and assess the main environmental

effects;(iv) a non-technical summary of i) to iii).

Member States' responsibility:make information available to public;

allow public opinion before project started;specify methods of public consultation (time and place);

notify public of the decision and conditions;comply with Directive from July 1990.

Aim:

to define the spatial importance of any receptor and the significance of any impact on the receptor; include synergistic/antagonistic interactions and cumulative impacts:

EIA – Quantification of change (spatial extent and temporal duration)

Potential impact scenarios:

MOLF Construction & Operation (e.g. Solway estuary)

Potential impact scenarios:

Effluent Dispersal Pipeline

Operation (e.g. Solway estuary)

EIA – Impact quantification, e.g. EDP Solway Estuary

Ecosystem health assessment (or monitoring) programme:

1. Analysis of main processes and structural characteristics of ecosystem;

2. Identification of known or potential stressors;

3. Development of hypotheses about how those stressors may affect each ecosystem;

4. Identification of measures of environmental quality and ecosystem health to test hypotheses.

Selection Criteria for Ecosystem Response

- high signal to noise ratio

- rapid response

- reliability/specificity of response

- ease/economy of monitoring

- relevance to end point

- monitoring feedback to regulation

Activity

Organic enrichment from domestic sewage, paper mills, etc.

Persistent contaminant inputs from industry

Port activities, dredging and spoil disposal

Effects

Poor water quality, effects on fish migrations, especially in upper reaches.

Bioaccumulation, induction of detoxifying mechanisms.

Damage to feeding and nursery grounds.

e.g. Estuarine impacts on fishes and fisheries

e.g. Estuarine impacts on fishes and fisheries (continued)

Activity

Power generation and water abstraction

Commercial fishing

Land-claim, engineering works

Naval activities, underwater testing

Effects

Thermal pollution effects and mortalities on intake-screens.

By-catch mortalities of non-commercial sizes and species.

Loss of feeding areas, especially disproportionately rich intertidal areas.

Mortalities of pelagic species.

The need for Indicators to describe:

• Condition of ecological/ecosystem elements• extent of Pressures exerted on elements

• Responses to either the condition or changes to it

Leading to: DPSIR approach:• Driving forces (human activities responsible)• Pressures (e.g. emissions)• State change (environmental variables)• Impact (changes in system)• Response (measurement of policy options)

‘Joined-up Environmental Thinking’:

Ecological Integration: habitat integrity, fit-for-purpose; User/Use Integration: move from sectoral approach; Management Integration: WFD / HSD / IMO(PSSA) /

OSPAR(Annex V) / BAP / WBD / ICES; Monitoring Integration: joint programmes for cost-

effectiveness; Environmental Integration: from site-based to wider

study (sites influencing and being influenced by events remote from the site);

Scientific Integration: responses to multiple stressors at several levels of biological organisation.

Threats & Remedies in Aquatic Ecosystems Professor Mike Elliott & research staff from IECS...

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Transcript of Threats & Remedies in Aquatic Ecosystems Professor Mike Elliott & research staff from IECS...