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Transcript of thesis Presentation on Early Marriage
DETERMINANTS AND PSYCHOSOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF EARLY MARRIAGE ON RURAL
WOMEN OF BHILWARA DISTRICT
byMrs. Ranjana Vaishnav
2
Presentation Outline INTRODUCTION
RATIONALE, OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES
METHODOLOGY
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Determinants of early marriage
Psychosocial consequences of early marriage
SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3
INTRODUCTION
Child marriage intro
is one of the burning problems of Indian society.
In India, despite amended laws advocating 18 as the legal minimum age at
marriage for females, a substantial proportion i.e. every third adolescent girl
in the age group of 15-19 year is married and every second married
adolescent girl has given birth to a child. According to the Registrar General
of India (RGI) Report (2001) Rajasthan has the highest (40.8) percentage of
females ever married among 15-19 year old girls as compared to India (24.9
%) followed by Bihar (39.6 %), Madhya Pradesh (34.1%), Jarkhand (32.9%)
and Andhra Pradesh (32.3%). Among the various districts of Rajasthan,
Bhilwara is at the top with 61.9 percent.
4
Child Marriage
nfhs
reflecting the country’s diversity, few women (12%)
marry before age 18 in Goa and Himachal Pradesh, while nearly 57 to
61 percent do so in Rajasthan, Jharkhand and Bihar. Differences by
area of residence are also stark: 28% in urban areas vs. 53% in rural
areas.
Yet, there has been a slow trend toward delaying marriage:
Nationally, the proportion of women marrying before their 18th
birthday declined by five percent from 1993 to 2006 (50% to 45%).
5
NFHS
Vicious Circle of Girl Child's Neglect
6
High Mortality
Mal Nutrition Non-Preference for Girl Child
Low Expenditure on Health Care of Girls
Low Literacy Level, Low Investment on Girl Education
Victims of Oppression
Low Awareness LevelDowry,Child Marriage
Girls are socialized from the very beginning to accept the culture of male supremacy,
which willingly or unwillingly, subjects them to discriminatory practices. They actually
adopt, support, promote and transmit inter-generationally the dominant social and
cultural values. Gender inequality begins even before birth and is consistently becoming
adverse throughout the life of the Indian women. The plight of rural women in India
irrespective of their age is a matter of concern.
7
Child Marriage: Age view
Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, India defines Child marriage is a marriage of
individuals before they attain the legal age i.e. 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys.
UN's Convention on the Rights of Children define the union of children or adolescents
under the age of 18 as child marriage.
IAC (2003) Child marriage, also known as early marriage, is defined as “any marriage carried
out below the age of 18 years, before the girl is physically, physiologically, and
psychologically ready to shoulder the responsibilities of marriage and childbearing.
Early Marriage: In the present study the term early marriage used, is understood as child
marriage i.e. below the age of 18 years for female as prescribed by law.
8
INTRODUCTIONChild Marriage: Facts
(UNICEF -2009) 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before 18, with 56% in rural areas and 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.(NGHS-3) 57.1 percentage of women aged 20-24, married by the time they are 18 in Rajasthan.Median age at marriage among urban and rural women age 20-49- 18.8 years and 16.4 years.(RGI-2001) Rajasthan has the highest (40.8) percentage of females ever married among 15-19 year old girls as compared to India (24.9 %) followed by Bihar (39.6 %), Madhya Pradesh (34.1%), Jarkhand (32.9%) and Andhra Pradesh (32.3%). Among the various districts of Rajasthan, Bhilwara is at the top with 61.9 percent. According to Census 1981, 1991 and 2001, mean age at marriage for female in Bhilwara district is 14.5, 16.2 and 16.4 years respectively.
Mean age at marriage for females since 1961
S. No
Year India Rajasthan
1 1961 Census
16.1 14.2
2 1971 Census
17.2 15.1
3 1981 Census
17.3 16.3
4 1991 Census
17.7 17.5
5 1998-99 (NFHS-2)
16.7* 15.3*
6 2001 Census
18.3 16.6
7 2005-06 (NFHS-3)
- 17.2*
8 2007-08 DLHS-3
- 17.7
*Median age at marriage among women 20-49 years.
9
Acts and Legal Perspective
Acts Major concerns
Child Marriages Restrain Act, 1929 or Sharda Act
•Prohibit the solemnization of child marriages, but did not declare them illegal or invalid. It prescribes 14 years for girls and 18 for boys for marriage.
Child Marriage Restraint (amendment) Act, 1978
•Limited Power to social organizations, police or any public-spirited person.•Punishment: imprisonment up to three months and a fine of Rs 1000.•No legal remedy, compensation or maintenance available to the girl. Age for marriage are 18 years for girls and 21 for boys.
The Prevention of Child Marriage Bill, 2004
•Appointment of Child Marriage Prevention Officer (CMPO)•Granting maintenance and residence to the girl till she remarriages, in a case a decree of nullity has been made.•Punishment: 2 years of imprisonment and/or a fine up to Rs.1, 00,000. •Sale of children for the purpose of marriage has been recognized and these marriages are made null and void.
Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006
•Declaring the marriage void within 2 years of the child attaining maturity. •Maintenance and residence for the girl till her remarriage and custody for any child born from the marriage.•Punishment: for anyone who performs, conducts, directs or abets any child marriage.
Conceptual Framework of the Study
• Traditions and Customs• Lack of Education• Childhood Residence• Caste • Exposure to Mass Media• Protection of Girls & Absence of Father• Socio- Economic Status
DETERMINANTS
10
Age at MarriageAge at Gauna
Conceptual Framework of the Study
• Upper• Middle• Lower
0 to 9, 10 to 14 and 15 to 18 (in Years)
0 to 9, 10 to 14 and 15 to 19 (in Years)
Determinants of Early Marriage
Traditions and customs: Traditions are beliefs with particular consensus
through time. Custom is a practice followed by people of a particular group or
a pattern of habitual activity. Rajyalaxmi (1990) mentioned that the custom of
early marriage is more prevalent in Rajasthan, in the spoken language it was
said that the infant was being married in Pile Potare (yellow napkin).
Lack of Education: High rate of early marriage is caused due to low level of
female literacy and low status of women (Sharma, 2003; UNICEF, 2001).
Childhood Residence: According to Savitridina (1997), childhood residence
refers to that place where the respondent spent the longest period of time till
reaching the age of 12.
11
Determinants of Early Marriage
Caste: The caste has immense control over the social and economic life of people; the
traditions and practices of castes are rigidly followed by them. The caste hierarchy also
perhaps had its role to play in perpetuating early marriage (Birodkar, 2006). Findings of
the study (Reddy, 1998) revealed a marked caste differences in the age at marriage of
females among the different Hindu castes.
Protection of Girl and Absence of Father: Early marriage is one way to ensure that a wife
is ‘protected’, or placed firmly under male control. She is submissive to her husband and
works hard for her in-laws’ household; that the children she bears are ‘legitimate’; and
that bonds of affection between couples do not undermine the family unit. Girls will be
better off and safer with a regular male guardian (Caldwell, John & Pat, 1977).
According to study by Santhya, Haberland, Singh (2006) at Rajasthan State,
girls’ emerging sexuality is viewed as a threat, puberty as a signal to promptly place a girl
under the safety of the label “married”. Deviating from this practice elicits community
pressure. The developing body of an adolescent girl is viewed as a liability or danger that
can be dealt best by pre-emotively marrying her off.
12
D eterm in an ts o f Early M arriage
Exposure to Mass Media: Exposure to mass media has a significant effect on age at
marriage. Women with no access to any of the mass media were more likely to have
married early as compared with those who had access to all three of the media (audio,
video & print) or at least one of them. The age at marriage, according to media
exposure in big cities and towns, was similar; however, some differences prevail in
rural areas. The proportion of women who married early compared with those who
had no access to mass media is slightly lower than for those who had access to at least
one medium. For rural residents, radio is the most popular media (Savitridina, 1997).
Socio- Economic Status: Caste, occupation, income and educational backgrounds of
the people are considered as the important socio- economic variables to assess the
socio economic status of the people in the society. These socio- economic differentials
significantly affect the age of marriage (Reddy, 1998).
13
Psychosocial Consequences
Exploitation of Girl Child as Loss of Adolescence: For the majority of girl children in India, there is no period of "Adolescence" as they shift from childhood to adulthood and soon become a pregnant adult. (NIPCCD, 1992-93).
The time when she needs support, confidence and advice, an adolescent bride has to adjust to the unfamiliar set up of her new home. She also cope with the post pubescent bodily changes along with the feelings and sensation that are unfamiliar and people with whom she must maintain a respectful distance (Kakar, 1978).
Denial of Education: Once married, girls are rarely permitted to continue their education, except in a few families. It is only through education that the girl child can arm herself to be independent and self-reliant, and hence have a fighting chance in life (Patel, 2007).
Denial of Freedom: (Population Council, 2006), women are not allowed to go out and in many cases, permission of the family is required. Similarly, girls are restricted from moving freely. A girl becomes a mother, she is crushed under multiple responsibilities of being a wife, mother and daughter-in-law at very tender age. Despite growing up together, the boys are not completely connected or committed to their wives and some even seek relationships outside their marriage.
14
Ps y c h oso c i a l C on se q ue n c e s
Personal Development and Inadequate Socialization: UNICEF (2001) focused that child marriage, along with little or no education, economic dependence, denial of decision-making power, inequality within the home, and sexual exploitation adversely affect the mental health. A girl child tends to be more attached emotionally to her parental family than a boy child. She is more prone to psychological stress and tension because of detachment from parents after marriage. Many women get depressed following the incident. They suffer from an inability to enjoy things, find it difficult to sleep and eat, face concentration problems, and experience feelings of guilt and decreased self-esteem.
Early marriage typically cuts girls off from established support networks and friends (Santhya & Jejeebhoy,2003). Access to Contraception: Selvaratnam (1988) revealed that women who married early were less likely to use contraception, this is because women who married late with higher education have a better knowledge of contraception. Education exposes women to family planning knowledge, attitudes and practices.
15
P sy cho s oc i a l C on s e que nc e s
Violence and Abandonment: A study among women in Calcutta found that half had
been married at or below the age of 15, and that this group were highly vulnerable to
sexual violence in marriage (Sen, 1997).
UNICEF (2005) Domestic violence is more common among women, who had
been married during childhood. India has the highest levels of domestic violence (67%)
among women married before 18 years.
Life Satisfaction: Satisfaction is a mental state where an individual expresses positive
feeling about what he has done or has been able to achieve. Whatever one does, its
merit is determined in terms of satisfaction it brings to the doer. . A happy and satisfied
woman can make better adjustment and modify the internal and external environment,
reduce the tension and increase harmony at home. A satisfied woman gives due
regards to other people’s feelings, is kind and tolerant to others and in general is more
cautious, less touchy, less irritable and less critical (Narang,1996) .
16
Gauna or Muklawa: A ceremony is performed for consummation of marriage after girl
attains maturity/puberty or the virtual transfer of girl from her family to conjugal family,
after few days or years of formal marriage. Akshya Tritiya or Akha Teej : A day of Mass Child Marriages, the third day of the bright
fortnight of Baishakh (May-June). People do not consult almanac or Pandit.Mausar and Gangoj: is a practice of giving a feast to relatives, villagers and people of
same caste on 12th and 13th day of death of an elder person. These occasions Mausar
(12th day) and Gangoj (13th day) are utilized by those who are not well off to get their
child married. Nata (Re marriage): After marriage when a woman establishes marital relation with
another man with her will or by her parents wish or force.Mayas and Jhagra: parents do not perform Gauna of their married daughter and
remarry her to another person, in return they get money from new husband (Mayas).
Previous husband get compensation or bride price known as “Jhagra”. The amount of
Jhagra is decided by caste and community leaders. Aata-Sata: parents used to marry their daughters in the same family where their son is
married or vice versa. 17
Customs Surrounding Child Marriage
RATIONALEWomen, a weaker and depressed section Indian Society. The neglect and
discrimination of the woman is subjected to severe and deep-rooted criticism. The “lost
years” of adolescence, can be harnessed fruitfully, and girls can be equipped for a better
and more productive life if they are addressed to a special target category of
developmental programmes. They need to be educated, confident and have decision-
making skills. This would have far-reaching implications for the status of women in the
coming generations.
Most studies have focused on the impact of early marriage on fertility rather
than to better understand psycho-social consequences. The present investigation was
planned to examine the marital age and its determinants in varying socio-cultural set up
and psycho-social consequences of marriage age on development of a girl child or women.
From the cited literature and personal observations, it was found that early marriages are
more common in rural area with its hard consequences, especially in Bhilwara district of
Rajasthan state. It was felt necessary to study the effects of various socio-economic and
other factors on the pattern of age at marriage and its psycho-social consequences in
certain selected rural areas. 18
OBJECTIVES To assess the socio- economic status (SES) and demographic components of the
respondents under study. To find out the significant differences and impact of SES components on age at marriage
(M-age) and age at Gauna (G-age) of the respondents belonging to different SES. To find out the significant differences and impact of determinants of early marriage
(DEM) components on M-age and G-age of the respondents belonging to different SES. To find out the significant differences and impact of M-age and G-age on psycho-social
consequences (PSC ) components of the respondents belonging to different SES. To find out the significant differences and impact of M-age and G-age on life satisfaction
(LS) components of the respondents belonging to different SES. To predict the determinants of age at marriage (within different age groups) of the
respondents under study. To predict the psycho-social consequences and overall life satisfaction in relation to age at
marriage (within different age groups) of the respondents under study. To find out relationship (a) among determinants of early marriage and psycho-social
consequences components and (b) inter correlation of SES components and life satisfaction components. 19
20
HYPOTHESES SES components will show significant differences and impact on M-age and G-age of
the respondents belonging to different socio- economic status.
DEM components will show significant differences and impact on M-age and G-age of
the respondents belonging to different socio- economic status.
M-age and G-age of the respondents belonging to different socio- economic status will
show significant differences and impact on their PSC components.
M-age and G-age of the respondents belonging to different socio- economic status will
show significant differences and impact on their LS components.
Age at marriage (within different age groups) of the respondents under study will be
significantly predicted by the determinants.
Psycho-social consequences and overall life satisfaction of the respondents will be
significantly predicted by their age at marriage (within different age groups).
(a) There will be a significant relationship between determinants and psycho-social
consequences of early marriage. (b)There will be a significant inter-correlation among
SES components and LS components.
21
METHODOLOGY
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS• Early Marriage/Age at Marriage (M-age): In the present study the term age at marriage
(early marriage) used is understood as child marriage i.e. below the age of 18 years for
female as prescribed by law, categorized in three groups i.e. 0 to 9, 10 to 14 and 15 to 18
years.
• Age at effective marriage (Gauna) (G-age): In rural context, especially for Rajasthan age at
marriage itself does not depict the virtual transfer of girl from her family to conjugal family.
After few days or years of formal marriage husband returns to take her wife back to his
home to live with him permanently and this occasion is known as “Gauna” ceremony. In
demographic literature it is known as effective marriage which marks the time when sexual
union between husband and wife starts. For the present study G-age is categorized in three
groups i.e. 0 to 9, 10 to 14 and 15 to 19 years.
• Socio- economic Status: For the present study socio-economic status can be operationally
defined as scores obtained on 15 items of socio- economic status scale developed by
investigator. 22
O P ER A TIO N A L D EFIN ITIO N S
Determinants of early marriages (DEM): For the present study determinants
of early marriage can be operationally defined as scores obtained on 60 items
under 6 dimensions of DEM scale developed by investigator.
Psycho-social consequences (PSC): For the present study psychosocial
consequences can be operationally defined as scores obtained on 66 items
under 6 dimensions of PSC scale developed by investigator.
Life Satisfaction (LS): For the present study life satisfaction can be
operationally defined as scores obtained on 60 items under 6 dimensions of
tool developed by Alam and Shrivastava (1973).
23
O PE R AT I ON A L D E F I N I T I O N S
Locale of the study: Rural areas of Bhilwara district of Rajasthan state
were selected purposively as the locale of study.
Sample and its selection: The multistage sampling procedure includes
selection of Tehsils, villages and finally, selection of respondents.
Criteria of sample selection
Socio-economic status – The subjects belonging to different socio-
economic status i.e. Upper, middle and lower were included in the
sample.
Age at marriage- Respondents married before the legal age of
marriage i.e. 18 years.
Duration of marriage – minimum 5 years to maximum 15 years. 24
State Rajasthan Purposive
District Bhilwara Purposive
Tehsils Random
Households (n=600) Purposive
Respondents (n=300) Purposive
Upper SES Middle SES Lower SES
n1 = 100 n2 = 100 n3 = 100(n1=5X20) (n2=5X20) (n3=5X20)
1. Bhilwara 2 . Banera 3. Hurda 4. Asind 5. Shahpura
(20 Villages- Random)
1 Mahua 1 Dabla 1 Hurda 1 Antali 1 Kothiya
2 Richara 2 Baira 2 Aanguncha 2 Shambhugarh 2 Dhanop
3 Aatun 3 Raisinghpura 3 Lamba 3 Jainagar 3 Etdia
4 Khayada 4 Raila 4 Gagera 4 Parasoli 4 Khamor
SAMPLING PROCEDURESam p lin g p ro ced u re
n1=100Upper SES
n2=100Middle SES
n3=100Lower SES
Review of Literature
Designing & selection of
toolsPilot testing
of tools(4 Months)Planning
(6 months)Sample Selection
(12 months)Data
Collection
(6 months)Data
Analysis
(8 months)Thesis Writing
Population Universe (600 HHs) Village Mapping and Wealth Ranking
SES (self developed scale)
RESE
ARC
H D
ESIG
N
Tools & MeasuresQuantitative Questionnaire cum
interview schedule (Self developed)
• Baseline proforma• DEM scale• PSC scale
Standardized Life Satisfaction Scale (Alam & Shrivastava, 1973)
Qualitative Case studies & FGD Extreme cases (20)
Presentation, interpretation, & discussion of results
n = 300
Time Plan
Frequency, Percentage, Mean, z test, ANOVA, Pearson’s ‘r’ and
Regression
Activities
Research Design
27
The following tools were used:
Baseline Pro forma: (self developed) It consists of 10 questions on background
information of the subjects i.e. current age, marital status, marital duration, age
of marriage, age at Gauna, education, family composition, exposure to media,
legal awareness etc.
MEASURING TOOLS
Socio- Economic Status Scale (SES scale): For determining the SES of subjects, a self framed SES scale was used. This tool aims to gather general socio-economic information of the respondents and includes total 15 items such as Caste, Occupation, Education Level, Total monthly income, Family type, Family size, Asset-1, Asset-2, Social membership and Social participation. Asset-1& Asset-2: consists of check list and the total scores depends on number of asset possessed by the Ss.
Asset-1: consists of items on house type, land size and land type. Total scores obtained in this group were kept in three categories from low to high i.e. Score 1 to 8 (low), Score 9 to 12 (middle) and Score 13 to 18 (high).Asset-2: consists of items on household equipments, available vehicle, agriculture instruments and livestock and scores obtained in this group was also categorized in three sub groups i.e. Score 1 to 10 (low), Score 11 to 18 (middle) and Score 19 to 23 (high).
The total scores were obtained by counting the tick mark (√) against each item.
28
S. No. Category Score on the scale
1. Upper socio- economic status Above 50
2. Middle socio- economic status 31 to 50
3. Lower socio- economic status 1 to 30
Determinants of Early Marriages (DEM scale):
A self made questionnaire cum interview schedule was developed to find out
the determinants of early marriage. The tool consists of 60 questions on the following
components (10 questions each):
D – 1 Traditions and customs
D – 2 Lack of education
D – 3 Childhood residence
D – 4 Caste
D – 5 Protection of girls & absence of father
D – 6 Exposure to mass media
The question needs to be responded in yes or no. one score was given for yes
response and zero score for no response. The maximum score one could obtained is 60
and minimum is zero.
29
Psycho-Social Consequences (PSC Scale):
Psycho-Social Consequences (PSC Scale):
A self made questionnaire cum interview schedule was developed to find out the
psychosocial consequences of early marriage. The tool consists of 66 questions on the
following components (11 questions each):
C – 1 Exploitation of girl child as loss of adolescence
C – 2 Denial of education
C – 3 Denial of freedom
C – 4 Personal development & inadequate socialization
C – 5 Access to contraception
C – 6 Violence & abandonment
The question needs to be responded in yes or no. one score was given for yes
response and zero score for no response. The maximum score one could obtained is 60
and minimum is zero.
30
L ife Satisfaction Scale (LS scale):
Life Satisfaction Scale (LS scale):
The standardized tool by Alam and Shrivastava (1973) was used to
measure life satisfaction. The scale consists of 60 items on six components viz.,
health, personal, economic, marital, social and job. The responses are to be
given in yes/no. Yes responses were marked as one and no as zero. Higher the
score, higher the life satisfaction. Test retest reliability is 0.84 and validity of
the scale was obtained by correlating with Saxena’s adjustment inventory and
Srivastava adjustment inventory, which is 0.74 and 0.82 respectively.
31
Case studies
Case studies: were conducted separately with 20 percent of the selected respondents.
Focus group discussions: were done with selected respondents and their families.
32
Frequency distribution of age at marriage and age at Gauna in selected villages Mean age at marriage and GaunaSocio-economic Status and Early marriageDeterminants and Early MarriagePsychosocial Consequences and Early MarriageLife Satisfaction and Early MarriageAge at Marriage: Its Determinants and Psycho-Social ConsequencesRelationship between Determinants and Psycho-social Consequences Inter-correlation among SES components and LS components
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
33
34
S.No. VillageAge at marriage (in years) Age at Gauna (in years)
Total0-9 10-14 15-18 0-9 10-14 15-191 Khamor 9 6 0 1 8 6 152 Aoongucha 9 4 2 1 9 5 153 Gagera 7 4 4 1 4 10 154 Dhanop 7 3 5 0 4 11 155 Dabla 6 8 1 0 4 11 156 Lamba 6 5 4 1 5 9 157 Aatoon 6 3 6 1 4 10 158 Raisinghpura 5 8 2 0 3 12 159 Mahua 5 5 5 1 3 11 15
10 Khayada 4 11 0 0 9 6 1511 Parasoli 4 10 1 0 5 10 1512 Jayagarh 4 9 2 0 6 9 1513 Shambhugarh 4 9 2 0 7 8 1514 Raila 4 8 3 0 4 11 1515 Richara 4 8 3 0 5 10 1516 Ittadiya 3 10 2 0 5 10 1517 Baira 3 8 4 0 4 11 1518 Antali 2 11 2 0 6 9 1519 Kothiya 1 11 3 0 8 7 1520 Hurda 1 11 3 0 2 13 15 Total 94 152 54 6 105 189 300
Frequency distribution of age at marriage and age at Gauna in selected villages (Lower age to Higher age of marriage)
Frequency distribution of age at marriage and age at Gauna
35
Mean age at marriage and Gauna of different SES respondents
Upper Middle Lower Total
13.72
10.69
6.69
10.45
15.3314.51
13.32
14.8
Age at Marriage Age at Gauna
36
SES Components and M-age & G-age
Illiterate Upto 5th standard
Up to 10th
Up to 12th
Gr. & above
9.15
11.5112.44 12.36 12.50
14.0114.77 14.97 14.29
15.33
Education
ST SC OBC General
8.369.30
11.32
13.6813.70 13.8914.80 15.23
Caste
Soci o-e conomi c Stat us and Ear l y m ar r i age
M-age G-age
Socio-economic Status and Early marriage
37
Labour Caste Agriculture Business Government
7.59
11.9012.90 13.27
14.3313.60
14.76 14.9816.00
15.11
Occupation
Up to 2500 Up to 5000 Up to 10000 Up to 20000 Above 20000
8.15
12.1614.17 13.69
16.00
13.7914.71 15.49 15.46
16.50
Monthly Income
Nuclear Joint
10.0311.94
14.28 14.75
Family Type
Small Medium Large
9.95 10.17
13.1714.17 14.2415.69
Family Size
No any One group More than 1 Group leader
9.35
12.2713.52
12.00
14.1014.92 15.35
14.32
Social Membership
No any Moderate Highly active
9.12
12.4813.8313.94
15.02 15.72
Social Partnership
Mean distribution of M_age and G_age according to SES Components
38
Low Middle High
9.85 9.74
13.1614.2 14.21
13.13
Socio-economiAssettus and Early marriage
One way ANOVA for SES Components among M-age and G-age
SES componentsM-age G-age
S.S. D.F. M.S. F S.S. D.F. M.S. F
Caste51.44 16 3.22
4.14**26.61 11 2.42
2.85**219.94 283 0.78 244.78 288 0.85271.38 299 271.39 299
Occupation172.91 16 10.8
11.22**71.31 11 6.48
4.99**272.48 283 0.96 374.09 288 1.3445.39 299 445.4 299
Education117.41 16 7.34
4.03**79.50 16 4.97
2.36**515.33 283 1.82 672.22 283 2.38632.74 299 751.72 299
Income104.71 16 6.55
13.34**41.39 11 3.76
5.36**138.86 283 0.49 202.19 288 0.7243.58 299 243.59 299
FamilyType
5.31 16 0.332.01*
1.76 11 0.160.9946.71 283 0.17 50.28 288 0.18
52.03 299 52.04 299
Family size12.2 16 0.76
2.56**6.94 11 0.63
1.71*100.78 283 0.36 106.05 288 0.37112.98 299 112.99 299
SocialMembership
185.33 16 11.64.03**
72.55 11 6.62.05**812.78 283 2.87 925.57 288 3.21
998.12 299 998.12 299
Social Participation
327.08 16 20.4
5.54**
173.08 11 15.74
3.78**1044.06 283 3.69 1198.06 288 4.16
1371.14 299 1371.15 299
Asset1163.57 16 10.2
6.23**68.22 11 6.2
3.19**464.37 283 1.64 559.73 288 1.94627.94 299 627.95 299
Asset2215.46 16 13.5
8.68**111.68 11 10.15
5.39**439.08 283 1.55 542.87 288 1.89654.54 299 654.55 299
O n e w a y A N O V A f o r S E S C o m p o n e n t s a m o n g M - a g e a n d G - a g e
**
Childhood Resid
ence
Caste
Prote
ction of G
irls &
Abse
nce of F
ather
Lack
of Educa
tion
Traditions a
nd Customs
Exposu
re to
Mass
Media
82.50%70.37% 69.83% 68.67% 68.07%
56.27%
D e t e r m i n a n t s a n d E a r l y M a r r i a g e
40
Percentage responses of DEM components with regard to early marriage
41
D e t e r m i n a n t s a n d E a r l y M a r r i a g e
53.3
71.1
76.2
62.4 62.4
68.573.1
67.5
83.4
72.270.3
55.2
77.8
67.4
87.9
76.5 76.8
45.1
Upper Middle Lower
Percentage responses of DEM components with regard to early marriage in different SES
Mean, S.D. and ‘Z’ value of DEM components in different SES
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DEM Components
Upper(n1 = 100)
Middle(n2 = 100)
Lower(n3 = 100)
Z value(Groups)
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. U-M M-L U-L
Tradition and custom 5.25 1.60 7.18 1.48 7.65 1.30 8.86** 2.39* 11.66 **
Lack of education 7.24 1.29 6.96 1.07 6.87 1.27 1.67* 0.54 2.05 *
Childhood residence 7.71 1.58 8.34 1.49 8.79 1.15 2.90** 2.39** 5.53**
Caste 6.32 1.38 7.22 1.14 7.65 1.37 5.01** 2.41* 6.84**
Protection of girls and
absence of father
6.31 1.40 7.03 1.86 7.68 1.78 3.09** 2.53** 6.04**
Exposure to mass media 6.94 2.03 5.52 2.72 4.51 1.96 4.18** 3.02** 8.61**
Mean, S.D. and ‘Z’ value of DEM components in different SES
DEM componentsM-age G-age
S.S. D.F. M.S. F S.S. D.F. M.S. F
Tradition and custom
120.63 16 7.544.20**
133.81 11 12.17 4.24**507.32 283 1.79 825.98 288 2.87627.95 299 959.79 299
Lack of education129.36 16 8.09
4.35**39.71 11 3.61 2.01*
525.19 283 1.86 516.33 288 1.79654.55 299 556.04 299
Childhood residence
102.51 16 6.413.01**
23.56 11 2.14 1.81*602.24 283 2.13 340.61 288 1.18704.75 299 364.17 299
Caste163.72 16 10.20
3.76**26.25 11 2.39 1.20*
769.07 283 2.72 569.55 288 1.98932.79 299 595.80 299
Protection of girls and absence of
father
174.47 16 10.903.51**
63.52 11 5.78 1.89**878.45 283 3.10 880.47 288 3.06
1052.92 299 943.99 299
Exposure to mass media
171.50 16 10.701.71*
28.80 11 2.62 1.73*1784.83 283 6.31 434.39 288 1.511956.33 299 463.19 299
One Way ANOVA for DEM components with M-age and G-age One Way ANOVA for DEM components with M-age and G-age
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The traditions and customs were found highly significant cause of early marriage Chandrasekhar (1996); Santhya, Haberland & Singh (2006). Savitridina (1997) Childhood residence has an effect on age at marriage and those who were brought up in villages were more likely to get married early. Parents may genuinely feel that their daughters will be better off and safer with a regular male guardian (Caldwell, John & Pat, 1977).
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90.07%84.07%
80.07% 77.70%
67.93%63.90%
Percentage responses of PSC components with regard to early marriage
45
95.8
81.677.7 75.4
66.2 65.8
92.5
85.380.4
76.9
69.263
81.985.3
82.1 80.8
68.462.9
Upper Middle Lower
Percentage responses of PSC components with regard to early marriage in different SES
Upper (n1 = 100)
Middle (n2 = 100)
Lower (n3 = 100)
Z value(Groups)
PSC Components Mean S D Mean S D Mean S D U-M M-L U-L
Exploitation of girl child as loss of adolescence
5.82 1.19 5.76 1.36 5.70 1.34 0.33 0.31 0.67
Denial of Education 8.78 1.11 8.50 1.16 7.60 1.79 1.74* 4.22** 5.60**
Denial of freedom 6.91 2.13 6.53 1.39 6.06 1.72 1.49* 2.13** 3.10**
Personal development
and inadequate socialization
0.24 0.43 0.21 0.41 0.21 0.41 0.50 0.00 0.50
Access to contraception 5.72 1.95 5.30 2.35 5.15 2.35 1.38* 0.45 1.87*
Violence and abandonment 8.53 1.82 8.70 2.28 8.78 2.29 0.58 0.25 0.85
* significant at 0.05 level, ** significant at 0.01 level
Mean, S.D. and ‘Z’ value of PSC components in different SES
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Mean, S.D. and ‘Z’ value of PSC components in different SES
PSC componentsM-age G-age
S.S. D.F. M.S. F S.S. D.F. M.S. F
Exploitation of girl child as loss of
adolescence
133.81 16 12.16
4.24**
78.29 11 7.12 1.47*825.97 283 2.67 1392.62 288 4.84959.78 299 1470.92 299
Denial of education
77.62 16 4.85
2.2**
55.73 11 5.07 2.25**
624.04 283 2.2 645.93 288 2.24
701.66 299 701.67 299
Denial of freedom
68.74 16 4.29
1.35*
78.29 11 7.12 1.47*
902.26 283 3.19 1392.62 288 4.84
971 299 1470.92 299
Personal development and
inadequate socialization
143.06 16 8.94
1.9*
28.80 11 2.62 1.73*
1327.86 283 4.69 434.39 288 1.51
1470.92 299 463.19 299
Access to contraception
172.68 16 10.79
2.32**
39.71 11 3.61 2.01**
1316.68 283 4.65 516.33 288 1.79
1489.37 299 556.04 299
Violence and abandonment
44.41 16 2.77
1.26*
23.56 11 2.14 1.81*
340.61 288 1.18620.97 283 2.19
665.38 299 364.17 299
One Way ANOVA for PSC components on M-age and G-ageOne Way ANOVA for PSC components on M-age and G-age
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Percentage responses of LS components with regard to early marriage
Social Marital Personal Economic Job Health
58.73 57.36 55.34
47.66
37.40
29.60
DeterminantsAge at marriage (in years)
0 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 18 0 to 18Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value
Traditions and Customs .16** 2.73 .14** 2.24 .10* 1.65 .25** 3.83Lack of Education .18** 3.00 .17** 2.75 .15** 2.30 .23** 2.92
Childhood residence .13** 2.47 .12 1.88 .09 1.78 -.19 3.21Caste .18** 3.00 .13 1.92 .19 3.21 .21** 3.32
Protection of girl and absence of father .17** 2.55 .12* 1.60 -.03 -.76 .26** 4.35
Exposure to mass media .08 1.44 .10 1.08 .11* 1.56 12* 1.98
Socio-Economic status .66** 15.22 .54** 7.50 .37** 6.93 .76** 12.33N 94 152 54 300
Multiple R .49 .24 .56 .68R2 .24 .05 .32 .46
Standardized Regression Coefficients for different age groups for Determinants of Early Marriage
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According to Sagade (2005); Singh (2008), in most cases, marriage is the mere transference of the father's domination over a woman in favour of a husband's. When done at an early age, it is felt, it is easy to get the bride to adapt well to her socially determined position. It also helps to control her sexuality and reproduction. Another author Santhya, Haberland & Singh (2006) showed that pressure to abide by societal norms was cited as a reason for the persistence of early marriage. Kulkarni (1994) also found that anxiety about grown-up daughters is another reason forcing less educated or illiterate parents to marry their daughters early..
Psycho-social Consequences
Age at marriage (in years)0 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 18 0 to 18
Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value
Exploitation of girl child and loss of adolescence
.16** 3.33 .14** 3.10 .13** 2.64 .21** 3.32
Denial of Education .18** 3.91 .13* 2.60 .14** 2.82 .16** 2.82
Denial of freedom .10* 2.80 .12* 2.58 .12* 2.40 .15* 2.30Personal development
and inadequate socialization
.10* 2.80 .12* 1.60 .09 1.78 .11* 1.92
Access to contraception .17** 2.61 .18** 2.77 .10* 1.67 .25** 4.35
Violence and abandonment
.12* 2.48 .12* 2.48 .15** 3.01 .14* 2.82
Life Satisfaction .17** 2.55 .18** 3.88 .23** 4.9 .22** 3.89N 6 105 189 300
Multiple R 0.235 0.244 0.177 0.222R2 0.05 0.059 0.039 .049
Standardized Regression Coefficients for different age groups and Psycho-Social Consequences
Saxena (1999) corroborated that the “Inadequate socialization, discontinuation of education, great physiological and emotional damage due to early marriage and repeated pregnancies devastates these girls.” Santhya & Jejeebhoy (2006) documented several studies in India indicating that young women's early sexual encounters within marriage are often described as frightening and non-consensual. 50
DeterminantsPsycho-social Consequences
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7
D1 .08 .19** .12** .06 .06 0.06 .34**
D2 .01 .13** .02 .12* .17** 0.17** .20**
D3 .11 .09 .09 .01 .01 0.01 .16**.
D4 .16** .12* .13* .07 .07 0.11 0.32
D5 .06 .10 .03 .06 .12* 0.03 .11**
D6 .10 .25** .24** .11* .27** 0.06 0.20**
D7 .07 .28** .18** .33** 0.12* .13* .24**
Pearson’s correlation with Determinants and Psycho-social Consequences
** Significant at .01 level, * Significant at .05 level
Pearson’s correlation with Determinants and Psycho-social Consequences
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Implications of the StudyPresent study had shown psychosocial consequences of early marriage on girls where parents are found to show interest in marrying off their daughter as soon as possible due to many determinants.Parents should be encouraged to evaluate and empower their daughter with life skills enhancing their self esteem rather than escaping from their responsibilities. If they do so they should be given some incentive in the form of cash or employment or some financial support in name of their daughter’s marriage.Community leaders, social workers should also be sensitized and mobilized to change the mind set of the people. The person or the society should be awarded and recognized as a role model and be provided some extra financial help to improve the status of women.Religious leaders can play the most important role in changing attitudes of the people. They can force the public to delay the marriage of the girls following the legal norms and justifying the status of girl.GO’s and NGO’s should jointly raise awareness through strict implementation of the acts about marriage preventing ill health of girl child.Media, an utmost and powerful source of change. Producers should take the themes of social relevance to spread the message of adverse consequences of early marriage eg. Balika Vadhu, Lado.Families and societies responsible for early marriage should be given legal and non bail able punishment and social boycott.
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Suggestions
• Present study was conducted on determinants of early marriages and its’ psycho-
social consequences. Further study could be planned by taking different variables
like physical health, mental health, and reproductive health, personal and marital
adjustment.
• Present study was conducted in Bhilwara district of Rajasthan state. Samples from
different districts of Rajasthan would cater in-depth understanding about
determinants and consequences of early marriages.
• Only female were taken for present study. A comparative study of male and female
could give clearer picture of their married life.
• A comparative study of urban and rural setting could be planned by taking wide
samples.
• Intervention programmes can be planned to raise awareness at micro, meso and
exo level for unmarried boys and girls and their parents.
Major Findings• Early marriages are more prevelant in those villages, which are at distance from
connecting road to tehsil or district headquarter or remote villages have little awareness of ill effects of early marriages, lack of media awareness and less approach of GOs and NGOs programmes. Also it was found that early marriage is customary in those villages, which are densely populated with Jat, Gurjar, Jogi and Rebari castes.
• The SES of a person does have major role in determining the age of marriage or effective marriage. It was found that age of marriage and Gauna is low among the people belonging to lower castes and illiterate or less educated. The lower occupational level or agriculture base of the respondent also seems to be related with early age of marriage.
• Major differences were observed in mean age at marriage and age at effective marriage or Gauna among upper, middle and lower socio- economic status i.e. 13.72, 10.69 and 6.69 years for age at marriage and 15.33, 14.51 and 13.32 years for age at effective marriage respectively.
• It is found that childhood residence is highly and significantly affect the age at marriage, followed by traditions & customs, castes, lack of education, Protection of Girls & Absence of Father and Exposure to Mass Media. Among all, lower SES families were more rigid in following traditions and customs, had less educated, more affected by rural culture, blindly follow the caste ethics, more protecting in nature and less expose to mass-media.
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Major Findings• It was found that early marriage denies the right of education of girl child followed
with denial of freedom, violence & abandonment, personal development and inadequate socialization, exploitation of girl child as loss of adolescence and less access to contraception, and lower level to life satisfaction. Also it was found that Psycho-social consequences of early marriage are significantly different among different SES groups.
• Correlation between determinants and psychosocial consequences of early marriage shows that respondents’ castes significantly affect the exploitation of girl child and loss of adolescence, whereas traditions and customs not only deny education of a girl child but freedom also. This pathetic situation leads to very low life satisfaction. At tender age she has to bear lots of responsibilities of house hold chores.
• Lack of education, as a determinant of child marriage, leads to less access of contraception for girl and violence against wife and abandonment. Overall scenario says lack of education means lack of life satisfaction. less the exposure to media, more the denial of education and denial of freedom. Also, access to contraception is significantly very low. Higher exposure helps in personal development and proper socialization of a girl. Exposure to mass media and life satisfaction is highly interrelated. SES level of a respondent is highly significant with denial of education and freedom. Personal development and socialization is highly is affected with a very low life satisfaction. Socio- economic status level is significant with access to contraception and violence abandonment.
•
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THANKS
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