Theory of Music

7/18/2019 Theory of Music

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7/401

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

WITH

INTRODUCTIONS

BY

W. L. HUBBARD

EMIL

LIEBLING

AND

W.

J.

HENDERSON

ARTHUR FOOTE

EDITOR

IRVING SQUIRE

Toledo

New

York

Chicago


8/401

Copyright

1908

by

IRVING

SQUIRE

Entered Stationers'

Hall

LONDON


9/401

CONTENTS

Introduction

1

Development

of

Pianoforte

Technique

7

History

of

Vocal

Music

15

Tonality

25

Harmony

.

53

Counterpoint

.

91

Fugue

133

Subject

152

Answer

155

Counter-subject

...

157

Episode

159

Exposition

.

160

Stretto

163

Coda

164

Form

171

Sonata

Pathetique

.

.

.

,

198

Sonata

quasi

una

Fantasie

202

Waldstein

Sonata

206

Sonata

Appasionata

214

Appreciation

.

.

.

229

The

Orchestra

267

Chamber

Music

277

The

Piano

,

,

280

The

Violin

, . -

89

The

Organ

.

.

.

A|5

The

Opera

298

'

Chorus and

Choral

Music

,

g

ji

,

.

,

.

.

r

.

308

Solo

Singing

319

Th

Practical

Value of

Music

...,.,

325

351


10/401


11/401

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

Court

Theatre

Weimar

Frontispiece.

Georges

Bizet

17

Johannes

Brahams

.......

49

Feliz

Bartholdy

Mendelssohn

.

.

.

.

.

.81

Wolfgang

Amadeus Mozart

. .

. . .

.

145

Giacoma

Puccini

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

*

209

JRichard

Strauss

........

241

Carl Marie

Von

Weber

.

373

Fanny

Bloomfield

Zeisler

......

305


12/401


13/401

INTRODUCTION

W.

L.

HUBBAtUX

A

lengthy prefacing

of

the

American

History

and

Encyclopedia

of Music

is

scarcely

necessary,

Good

wine

needs

no

bush/*

and

so

a

good

book

needs

no

extended

state-ent

of

the

reason

for

its

making.

It

is

believed

and

hoped

that

the

volumes here

presented

to

the

public

will

contain

within

themselves

ample

justification

for

their

being

and

their

issuance.

If

they

do

not,

then,

no

amount

of

prelimi-ary

explaining-

and

excusing

will win for them favor and

the

right

to

live*

They

must

stand

by

themselves

and

it is

felt

that

they

will

The first

idea

of

the

work

sprang

from

the

desire

of

a

gentleman

to

inform

himself

on

certain

musical

points.

He,

like

a

large

majority

of

the

men

and

women

of

this

country,

is

a

sincere

lover

of

music,

but has

been

able

to

devote

little

or

no

time

to

the

study

of

the science and

the

art

themselves.

Wishing,

however,

one

day

to

learn

concerning

certain

hap-enings

in

musical

history,

and

certain

facts

of musical

theory,

he

consulted such books

as were

at

hand,

and

while

he found that the historical

information

was

obtainable

although

in

several

instances

only

after search

through

varied

and

sometimes

very

rare

volumes

-the

theoretical

parts

when

discoverable

were

as

a

rule couched in

language


14/401

2

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

so

technical that

It

was

virtually

unintelligible

o

him.

In

his

perplexity

e

addressed

a

letter

to

the

music

department

of the

Chicago

Tribune,

stating

his

dilemma,

and

asking

my

advice

as

to

some

book

on

theory

that

was

in

English

such

as

a

non-musical

person

could

understand.

My

inability

o

refer

him

to

such

a

work,

gave

rise

to

the first

concept

of

the

American

History

and

Encyclopedia

of

Music.

The

need

was

realized

of

creating

a

work

which

would

serve

as

a

means

of

instant

and

satisfactory

reference,

in which

the

information

would

be

immediately

and

conveniently

t

hand

and

in which the

information

when

obtained

would

be

ex-ressed

in

language

that

was

intelligible

o

the

man

who

understands

English

but who

has

not

the

time

to

master

the

technical

phraseology

of

music.

Despite

the

incredulity,

x-ressed

or

implied,

of

certain

learned

authorities,

it

was

believed

that the

English

language

.is

ample

enough,

accurate

enough,

and

clear

enough

to

make

possible

the

stating

of

musical

facts

in

terms

not

technical,

and that

if

musicians

well

enough

informed

concerning

their

art

and

sufficiently

n

command

of

the

English

language

to

write

simply

and

clearly

of what

they

knew

could

be

found,

the

making

of

the

Encyclopedia

would

be

possible.

These,

the

endeavor

was

made

to

discover,

and

gradually

it

was

possible

o

assemble

from

some

half-dozen

cities

and

towns

a

corps

of

researchers

and

writers

such

as were

needed.

The

securing

of

men

to

whom the

directing

of

the

collecting

f

material

could

be

entrusted

then followed

and the

preparation

of

the

work

began.

This

was

more

than

two

years ago

and

since

that

time

from

six

to

twenty

persons

have

been

steadily

engaged

in

gathering

the

facts

and

preparing

the material for

the

Encyclopedia.

As

soon

as

the

plan

began

to

shape

itself,

he

decision

was

reached

to make

the

work

representatively

merican*

While

the

whole

range

of

national

music

and

history

as

to

be

covered

the

Encyclopedia

itself

was

to be

the

product

of

purely

American

labor,

The

introductory

ssays

that

were

to

preface

each

volume

were

to

be

written

by

men

who had


15/401

INTRODUCTION

3

accomplished

practical

esults

in

the

field

of American

music

and who

were

recognized

as

identified

with

the

progress

that

is

being

made

along

all musical lines in this

country.

With

this end

in

view,

arrangements

for

articles

were

made

with

Professor

Frederick Starr

of

the

University

of

Chicago,

whose

knowledge

of the

music

of

barbaric

and

semi-civilized

peoples

is wide

and

authoritative;

ith

George

W.

Chadwick

of

Boston,

who

stands

as

one

of

the

foremost

and

most

significant

f American

composers,

and

whose

familiarity

with the

development

of

creative

music

in

the

United

States

peculiarly

its

him

to

write

of

our

native

composers;

with

Frederick

A.

Stock,

whose

position

s

leader

of

the

Theo-ore

Thomas

Orchestra

of

Chicago

and

whose

compositions

qualify

him

to

speak

with

positiveness

f

the

formation

and

growth

of

the modern

orchestra;

with H. E.

Krehbiel,

music

editor for

many years

of

the

New York

Tribune,

and whose

criticisms,

nnotations,

prefatory

essays,

and

books,

while

covering

the

whole

range

of

music,

have

been

in

many

in-tance

devoted

solely

to

consideration of

opera

and music

drama

and

who

is

peculiarly

uited,

therefore,

to

write

of

opera

and its

development;

with

Dn

Frank

Damrosch

of

New

York,

whose

extended and

in

certain

respects

pioneer

work in connection with the

teaching

of music in the

public

schools

warrants

him

in

writing

authoritatively

n

that

sub-ect;

with

W.

J.

Henderson,

the

New

York

music

editor,

author,

and

pedagogue,

whose

long

research

into

the

history

of

vocal

art

qualifies

im

especially

o

discuss

that

line

of

musical

art

and its

history;

and

with

Emil

Liebling

f Chi-ago,

whose

position

s

teacher,

pianist,

ecturer

and

littera-*

teur

lends

weight

and

positiveness

o

his

statements

relative

to

the

evolution

of

piano technique

and

its

application.

To

these

were

added, as

supervising

ditors

of

certain

volumes,

Arthur

Foote

of

Boston,

whose

compositions

and

whose

book

on

harmony

make

htm

especially

aluable

as

editor

of the

volume which

has

been

prepared

on

musical

theory

and

harmony;

Professor

George

W.

Andrews

of

Oberlin

Conservatory,

who

wa$

chosen

because

of

his

thor-


16/401

4

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

ough

knowledge

of

instruments

to

superintend

the

prepara-ion

of

the

volume

upon

that

subject;

nd Professor

Edward

Dickinson

also of

Oberlin, Ohio,

whose

writings

on

the

history

and

development

of church

music

fithim

to

direct

the

collecting

of

material

for

the

volume

on

Oratorios

and

Masses.

In

the

gathering

of

material

the

aim

has been

not

so

much to

produce

that

which

is

original

s

to

bring

together

that

which

is

complete,

comprehensive

and

sufficiently

stab-ished

to

be

recognized

s

authoritative,

The

desire has

been

to

make

first

of

all

a

work

of

reference

with

every-hing

so

arranged

and

systematized

hat

any

and all facts

will

be

instantly

obtainable,

to

bring

into

one

set

of books

an

encyclopedic

overing

of

the

whole

range

of music

and

its

history,

and

to

present

all

this

in

language

so

clear,

so

free from

technicality

nd

so

exact

that

every

reader

who

has

a

fair

comprehension

of

English

will

be

able

to

secure

reliable,

efinite

and

reasonably

complete

information

on

any

point

he

may

desire.

That

exhaustive

treatment

of

any

one

branch

or

subject

has been

impossible,

s

of

course

under-tood

the

limits of

the

volumes

and the

scope

of

the

field

covered

render this

out

of the

question,

but

the aim

has

been

to

bring

into the

books all essential and

fundamental

facts

and

so

to

systematize,

rder

and

present

them

that

all

the

informative

matter

that

the

laytnan

or

the

average

student

of

music

may

require

will be

at

their

disposal.

The volume

on

Foreign

Music

will

be found

to

contain

sketches

of

the

development

and

history

of

music in

all

the

principal

countries,

civilized

and

semi-barbaric,

f

the

world,

many

of

the

sketches

having

been

prepared

by

natives

of

those

coun-ries,

and

presenting

facts

and

data

not

contained

in

any

other

works

on

the

subject

In

the

two

volumes

on

Opera

the

endeavor

has

been

to

outline

the

story,

note

the

most

striking

usical

numbers,

and

give

the

date

and

place

of first

production

of

all

the

operatic

works

now

included

in

the

present day

repertory.

A

greater

number

of

operas

are

thus

described

than

are

to

be

found

in

other

volumes

of

similar


17/401

INTRODUCTION

5

nature,

and

several

of

those

most

recently

produced

have

been

given place

in

the

list

The

volume

on

Oratorios

and

Masses is carried

out

on

the

same

lines

as are

those

on

Opera,

and

to

it is

added

a

consideration and

description

of

the

principal

masses

and

anthems

now

in

use

an

undertaking

not

before

attempted.

The

volume

on

Instruments

lists

and

describes

over

six

hundred

musical

instruments,

their

origin,

their

use

and

their

appearance.

In

the volumes

of

Biog-aphies,

the

live facts

have

been

retained,

the

aim

having

been

to

prepare

a

work

that

would

supply

information

con-erning

not

only

the

men

and

women

who

left

their

impress

upon

music

in

the

past

but

also

concerning

those

who

are

active

in the

work

today.

Over

one

thousand

letters of

inquiry

were

sent

to

musicians

and

much

of the

material

contained

in

the

volumes

will be found

to

be

autobiographical

in

character,

and

therefore

accurate

and

authoritative.

In

the volume

on

American Music

it

has

been

the

wish

to

supply

a

complete

outline

of

the

unfoldment

and

progress

of

music

in

the United States,

Much

of

the

material

has

been

obtained

only

after

long

and

difficult

research

through

news-apers,

magazines

and

scattered

volumes

on

the

subject.

It

is believed

that

so

comprehensive

nd

accurate

an

outlining

of

music

in

this

country

has

not

before been

accomplished.

In the

volumes

on

Musical

Terms

and

on

Theory

an

undertaking

whollyunique

has

been made.

To

translate

into

simple,

clear

English

the

many

technical

words

and

phrases

employed

in

music

and to

perform

a

similar

service

for the

various musical forms and

rules

that

go

to

make

up

musical

theory

and

composition

is

a

task

which

no

writer

or

group

of

writers

heretofore

has

had

the

courage

to

attempt.

It has

been undertaken

in

the

present

instance,

and

has

involved

the

solving

of

many

intricate

and

vexatious

problems.

It

has

been

pioneer

work in

the

field,

nd

while

there

are

recognized

shortcomings

in

the

resultant

volumes,

the

task

in

the

main

has

been

performed

even more

successfully

han

the

pro-oters

of

the

work

had

dated

to

hope*


18/401

6

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

That

the

American

History

and

Encyclopedia

of

Music

will

be

found

to

possess

certain

weak

spots

and

even

faults is

not

unexpected.

It

lies

in the

nature

of

the

work

itself,

but

the

assurance can

be

given

that

every

effort

has

been

made

to

produce

a

work

that

is

reliable,

intelligible

and

dignified

and if

it result in

a

wider

understanding

and

a

keener,

truer

appreciation

of

music

then

its

promoters

and

editors will

be

well

content.


19/401

DEVELOPMENT OF PIANOFORTE

TECHNIQUE

EHIL

LIBELING.

The

practical development

of

the

technique

of

piano

playing,

I

e.,

the successful

mastery

of

all

difficulties

which

the

execution

of

the

most

exacting compositions

for the

instrument

entails,

properly begins

with

the

era

of

Johann

Sebastian

Bach,

and in order

to fully

realize

the

gradual

growth

it

is

necessary

to

connect

the

solution

of

the

problem

with the

corresponding

evolution

in

the

art

of

piano

building,

for the

executants

of

successive

ages

necessarily

depended

upon

the

instrument

for

the

medium

through

which

the

in-reased

possibilities

of

digital

skill

could be

demonstrated*

In

1710

and

1729

Cristofori

and

SchrSter

produced

pianos

which

to

all

intents

and

purposes

represented

our

modern

instruments

in

form

and construction

and

at

the end of the

same

century

the

Silbermanns

of

Freiberg

and

Strassburg,

and

Stein

of

Augsburg

built

excellent

examples

of the

art.

At the

beginning

of

the

Nineteenth

Century

Broadwood of

London,

firard

at

Paris

and the

Viennese

builder,

Streicher,

made

improvements

which

permitted

a

more

musical

and

poetic

tone

quality

and

brought

the

mechanism

to

a

high

state

of

perfection.

Since then

piano

building

has

become

universal and has found its

highest

development

m

the

United

States.


20/401

8

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

Previous

to

Bach's

advent

the

performer

used

straight

fingers

and

played

at

the

very

edge

of

the

keyboard;

the

thumb was

too

short and

considered

useless;

it

was

either

omitted

or

utilized

very

rarely;

it

remained

for

Bach

to

realize the

enormous

importance

of

the

thumb

as a

pivotal

point

of

all

pianistic

ossibilities

nd

to

give

to

this

most

indispensable

f

fingers

adequate

employment;

by

passing

the

fingers

over

the

thumb

and

vice

versa

the

thumb under the

fingers,

ach thus

became

the

originator

f

pianoplaying

as

we

know

it,

and

gradually

ur

present

hand

position

which

involves

curved

fingers

nd

constant

use

of

the

thumb

was

introduced,

and

by

utilizing

ll

major

and minor

keys

in

the

Well-Tempered

Clavichord

Bach

created

a

new

epoch

in

the

history

of

piano

technique.-

f

his

contemporaries

the

Couperins,

Rameau

and

Marchand

of

France

did much

to

cultivate

a

graceful

and

rhythmical

style

of

perform-nce,

quite

in

contrast

to

the

severity

of

the

German

School.

Handel's

compositions

developed

velocity

in

many

of

his

suites,

and

Domenico Scarlatti

may

be

termed

the

first

virtuoso,

as

he

invented

difficulties

for the

pleasure

of

mastering

them,

instead of

using

them

as a

means

for

higher

purposes

of

artistic

achievement;

thus

we

find

in

Scarlatti's

works

distant

jumps, quickly

Repeating

notes,

swift

trills,

staccato

work and

double

thirds. Neither

Haydn

nor

Mozart

extended

the

scope

of

technique

erceptibly;

eethoven

only

in the

works

commencing

with

the

Sonata

Op.

53;

the

lyrical

style

of

the

preceding

asters

had

changed

to

one

of

dramatic

nteaning

and

the

different

requirements

were

met

by

greater

contrasts

of

dynamics

and

tone

production.

Muzio

Clementi

laid the

foundation for

our

brilliant

modern

style

of

piano

playing

in

his collection

of

studies,

the

Gradtts

ad

Parnassum,

in

which

every

species

of

technical

work

f$

fully

elucidated,

nd

his

great

pupils,

ramer,

Berger

fPtagd,

followed

in his

footettte,

John

Field

of

the

ieflool

cultivated

the

poetic

v$k

and

became

the

pre-

t

of

Chopin's

style.

Carl

Ms fe

Von Weber

wrote

a

series

b

noble

compositions

5ft

wW h the

resources

of

the


21/401

PIANOFORTE

TECHNIQUE

9

piano

and the

performer

find

much

expansion

in the

way

of

brilliant scale

and

arpeggio

work,

successive and

exacting

staccato

passages,

octave

glissandi

and

sonorous

melody

pro-uction.

Carl

Czerny,Thalberg

and

Kullak

also

developed

the

purely

mechanical

element

to

a

high

degree,

the

latter

especially

n his

school

of

octaves,

and

Alexander

Dreyschock

of

Bohemian

origin

amazed

musical

Europe by

the

remark-ble

virtuosity

f

his left

hand. In Frankfort

Aloys

Schmitt

published

five-finger

xercises which

have become

a

necessary

adjunct

of

piano

study,

and Moscheles

forms

a

connecting

link

between

the

purely

classical

style

and

the

modern

roman-ic

period*

By

originating

in the

Gracjus

a

five-finger

xercise

in

continuous

chromatic

modulation

Clementi

suggested

the

entire

series

of

modern

transposingfive-finger

tudes,

cul-inatin

in

the

Tausig

daily

exercises,

and

this feature of

pianistic

evolution

has

revolutionized the

entire

field

of

technique.

Mendelssohn's

art

did

much

for

piano playing.

He

requiresperfect

scale

and

arpeggio

technique, supple

wrist,

cantabile

touch

and

mastery

of

the

polyphonic

style;

some

new

effects

in

the

way

of

extended

chords

and

the

division

of

melody

parts

between the

two

thumbs

were

added

by

Henselt;

and his

master,

Hummel,

also

illustrated

purely

digital

ossibilities

ost

practically

n his

Concertos,

Sonatas

and the

Fantasie

Opus

18.

The

romantic

style,

demanding

more

individuality

n

technique

and

interpretation,

inds

leading

exponents

in

Chopin

and

Schumann. The

fetudes

of

the first

master

give

a

clew

to

his

work

and

abound

in

novel

combinations,

open-ng

up

undreamt-of

resources

of

the

instrument*

In

Schu-ann's

compositions

the

art

of

phrasing,

solid

passage

work

and

effective

chord

playing

are

cultivated.

Franz

Liszt

is

the

master

who

combined

the

excellencies

of

all schools

and

brought

them

to a

dazzling

culmination.

He

introduced

an

elevated

position

f

the

wrist

and

forearm,

made

bold

innovations

in

the

mode

of

fingering,

sed the


22/401

10

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

fifth

finger

fter

the

thumb

and

vice

versa

played

trills

with

three

or

fpur

fingers,

ivided

trills

in

double thirds

and

sixths between

the two

hands and used the

pedals

with

sur-rising

new

effects.

He

closed

the

chapter

which

Clementi

commenced.

The

great

virtuosos

which

followed

him

de-eloped

their

own

gifts

wonderfully,

but

even

Tausig,

Rubin-tein

and

Von

Biilow

added

but

littleto

the

actual

technical

material

of

pianism.

Efforts

to

improve

technique

by

purely

mechanical

means

have

proved

abortive.

Logier

introduced

a

contriv-nce

in

England

in

1814;

later

on

Bohrer

of

Montreal

in-ente

a

hand

guide,

and

Brotherhood's

Technicon

made

its

appearance.

In

our

own

time

the

Virgil

system

finds

fol-owers.

An

attempt

to

rearrange

the

present

arrangement

of

the

keyboard

was

made

by

Paul de

Janko,

but

met

with

indifferent

success.

The

technical

impossibilities

f

one

period

are

relegated

to

the

kindergarten

f the

next,

and

we

find

in

the

piano

scores

of

Brahms

combinations

of

rhythms

and

difficult

positions

which

even

Liszt

did

not

anticipate;

he

works

of

the

new

Russian

School,

of

Balakirew,

Liapounow,

etc,,

carry

the

requirements

f

execution

to

transcendent

heights

and

the

arrangements

of

Chopin's

fitudes

by Leopold

Godowsky

represent

the

ne

plus

ultra of

seeming

impossibilities*

he

present

state

of

technique

s

one

which

requires

the

swiftest

fingerdevelopment,

perfect

facility

n

double

thirds

and

sixths,

wrist

of

steel,

intuitive

mastery

of

abstruse

poly-honic

problems,

all

softened and

brought

into

one

harmoni-us

entity

by

artistic

taste,

sincerity

f

purpose

and

reverent

devotion

for

the

true

meaning

of

the

composer.

Having

traced the

gradual

development

of the

technique

of

piano

playing

it

will

be

interesting

nd instructive

to

dis-uss

the

pianists

nd artists

who

were

its

practical

xponents.

The

instruments

whtch

preceded

the

modern

pJano

p A ted

the

possibility

f

great

feats

of

execution

or

the

tongs

4e force of later ages,

hence,

the old

English

mas-

Tatlls,

Bird,

Dr.

Bull

Orlando

Gibbons

and


23/401

PIANOFORTE

TECHNIQUE

11

Henry

Purcell,

contented themselves

with

light

scales

and

a

few

chords

and

arpeggios;

the

same

limitations

apply

to

Couperin,

Marchand

and

Daquin

of France and

Pachelbel,

Mattheson

and

Buxtehude

of

Germany.

The

Handel

and

Bach school

cultivated

a

severe

and

solid

style

'of

perform-nce

and

foreshadowed

the characteristics

of

the

subsequent

German

period.

dementi

and

Mozart

delighted

their

audiences

by

their

brilliant

execution

and

rapid running

work,

and

Hummel,

Moscheles and Field

followed

in

their

vein,

combining

sound

musicianship

with

dazzling

effects.

My

old

master,

Heinrich

Dorn,

placed

Mendelssohn

at

the

head

of

the

pianists

of

his

day

and

preferred

him

even

to

Liszt

By

a

singular

irony

of

fate

some

of

the

greatest

performers

have

been

denied

the

ability

o

play

in

public,

mong

them

Kullak,

Henselt,

Chopin

and

Nicholas

Rubinstein.

Thalberg's

daring

virtuosity

seemed

so

fabulous

to

his

audiences

that

the

incredulous

Parisians

climbed

on

chairs

and

benches

in

order

to

convince

themselves

that

only

one

performer

was

playing

and

suspected

him

of

employing

a

confederate

to

assist behind the

stage*

Chopin's

performance,

though

wonderfully

smooth

and

poetic,

lacked the

virility

hich

is

imperatively

ssential

to

public

success*

Some

pianists

have

specialized

o

such

an

extent

that

we

identify

hem

instantly

with

certain

com-osers;

thus

we

look

upon

Carl

Reinecke

as

the

Mozart

player

par

excellence

and consider

De

Pachmann

the ideal

Chopin

interpreter*

Formerly

the

great

pianists

onfined

their

repertory

almost

entirely

o

their

own

compositions,

ut

with

the

advent

of

Liszt's

marvelous

art

the

possibilities

f

the

piano

concert

became

unlimited

and

the

modern

artist

is

supposed

to

produce

the entire

literature

from

Bach

to

Debussy

with

consummate

mastery.

He

must

.present

the

analytical

ach,

lyric

Mozart,

dramatic

Beethoven,

romantic

Schumann,

poetic

Field,

profound

Brahms,

sentimental

Chopin

and

brilliant

Liszt

with

equal

authority.


24/401

12

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

England

has

produced

but few

pianists

f

note.

Arabella

Goddard

enjoyed

renown,

and

only

of

late

years

some

of

the

younger

artists like

Katherine

Goodson,

Gertrude

Peppercorn

and

Frederick

Lamond have

come

to

the

fore,

the

last

named

especially

s

a

Beethoven

player.

Spain

has

remained

terra

incognita

pianistically

Portugal

boasts

of

de

la

Motta;

France has

always

excelled

in

the

niceties

and

finish

of

piano

playing;

that

most

versatile

of

musicians,

Saint-Saens,

plays

a

scale

of

such

rapidity

and

smoothness

that his

listeners

despair;

Raoul

Pugno

and Diemer

are

masters

of the

jeu

perle,

Edward

Risler

gives

authoritative

readings

of

the

Beethoven

Sonatas

in

their

entirety,

nd

Francis

Plante

and

Theodore

Ritter

presented

the

most

ravishingtechnique

imaginable.

Norway,

the

land

of

fjords

and

mountains,

was

reflected in

the

art

of

Madam

Backer-Grondahl

and

Erika

Lie

Nissen,

both

distinguished

oncert

pianists.Italy

is

ably

represented

by Sgambati

and

Martucci,

but

still

depends

upon

her

vocal

masters

for

musical

pre-eminence.

It

is

interesting

to

note

that

at

the

Imperial

Conservatory

at

Tokio the

works

of

European

masters

are

finding

ready

recognition

nd

figure

largely

in

the

curriculum.

Piano

playing

in America

received

a

powerful

impetus

by

Rubinstein's

visit

in

1872.

He

was

a

colossal

but

uneven

player,

the

victim

of

moods,

unapproachable

hen

at

his

best

His

musical

antithesis,

ans

Von

Biilow,

followed

him

to

our

shores and

his

deliberate and

analytical

per-ormance

proved

high

educational

His

subjectivity

oun-erbalanced

the

great

Russian's

objectiveness.

Joseffy's

impeccable

art

then

came as

a

great

revelation

to

us

and

restored

piano

playing

to true

and

sane

proportions.

Essipoff

was

a

charming

artist,

Carreno

has

dominated

the

concert

stage

for

many

decades,

Fanny

Bloomfield-Zeisler

occupies

a

unique

eminence

both

here

and

abroad,

and

Ad le

Aus

der

Ohe

is

an

artist

of

sterling

ualities,

Hungary

gave

us

Franz

Liszt,

whom

I

frequently

eard

whie

at

Weimar

in

1876,

As

he

originated

he entire

struc-ure

of

modem

technics

every

detail

was,

of

course,

at

his


25/401

PIANOFORTE

TECHNIQUE

13

fingers'

nds;

a

simple

Beethoven

Sonata,

a

Chopin

Prelude

was

given

the

same

finished

performance

as

the

huge

Don

Juan

Fantasie.

The fire

of

youth

never

became

quenched

in

his

veins

and

to

his

last

days

he remained

the

absolute

master.

Carl

Tausig,

born

in

Poland,

died

at

the

very

threshold

of his

art.

His technical

outfit

was

unlimited. His

pupil,

Max

Prinner

of

New

York,

also

promised

well,

but

was

taken

away

by

relentless

fate

at

an

early

age.

Paderewski,

another

great

Pole,

is

still

with

us;

a man

of

striking

er-onalit

strong

magnetism

and tremendous

technical

capabili-ies.

Rosenthal

is

the

giant

of

the

keyboard

and

has

long

since

reached

the

climax. At the

age

of

thirteen

Hanslick,

the

great

Viennese

critic,

aid

of

him,

that

he had

nothing

more

to

learn. This

early

precocity

s

the

happy

lot

of

many

great

pianists

nd

we

all

remember

the

furore

which

Joseph

Hofmann,

also

of

Polish

parentage,

created

at

the

age

of

eight.

He

has

nobly

kept

the

promise

of

his

youth.

The

superlative

n

pianistic

rt

has

been

attained

by

Russian

artists,

nd

one

is

tempted

to

consider the

achieve-

ments

of

Lhevinne

and

Godowsky

as

the

closing

hapter,

he

last word. The cool

bravura

of

the

former and

the

incredi-le

counterpuntal

combinations

of

the latter

approach

wizardry.

A

noble

art

is

that

of

Busoni's,

uissant

nd

convincing

magnificent

n

execution,

musicianship,

roportion

nd

per-pectiv

Among

the

notable

pianists

ho

deserve

mention

are

Rudolf

Ganz,

Hambourg*,

Gabrilowitsch

and

Bauer,

all

of them

gifted

nd

thoroughly

odern

in their

attainments.

Equally

great

as

musician

and

pianist

s

D'

Albert,

a

master

who

has

always

stood for

dignity

n

art,

and

whose

profound

interpretations

re

fullyupported

y

a

great

technique.

The

possibilities

nd

limitations

of

the

instrument

seem

to

have

been

fathomed;

it

has

yielded

its

most

intimate

secrets;

all

problems

have

been

solved

and

it

remains for

future

ages

to

create

new

boundaries

of

the

art.


26/401


27/401

HISTORY OF

VOCAL MUSIC

W.

J.

HENDERSON.

Artistic

singing originated

in

the search

after

the

best

method

of

delivering

the

chants

used

in the

early

Christian

church.

These

chants

developed

from

the

materials

used

in

the

worship

of

the

first

followers of

the

new

religion.

Of

the

psalms,

hymns

and

spiritual

songs

mentioned

by

St.

Paul,

the

first

were

taken from the

ancient

Hebrew

ritual,

the

second

were

texts

from

the

Bible

and

not

forming

part

of

the

psalter

(as

the

thanksgiving

of

Hannah)

and

since

called

canticles,

and

the

third

were

rhapsodizings

and

improvised

songs

made

among

the

Christians

themselves.

In

these

rhapsodizings,

described

by

the

apostle

as

the

**

gift

of

tongues,

the

early

Christians

almost

certainly

made

an

adaptation

of

the

Greek

custom

of

caroling

on

vowel

sounds

in

honor

of

the

gods.

These

carolings

consisted of

long,

Undulating*

cadences

on

single

vowel

tones,

such

as one

hears

sometimes

even

now

in

the

final

phrases

of

chtirch

chants.

Thus

entered

the

florid

element,

which

afterward

rose

to

such

artistic

height.

Out

of

these

elements

grew

up

a

chanted

liturgy.

No

general

system

was

possible,

however,

till

the

unification

of

the

Roman

Church

under

Constatitme

(306-337).

Then

carne

the

foundation

of

singing*

schools in

Rome

by

Pope

Sylvester,


28/401

16

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

the

entrusting

of

church

singing

entirely

to

the

choirs

by

the

Council of

Laodicea

in

367,

and

other

important steps.

The

building

up of the

vast

and

splendid

treasury

of

Roman

church

music

occupied

centuries,

and

its

history

must

be

sought

elsewhere.

But

through

the

labors

of

the

Benedic-ine

fathers

of

Solesrnes

we

are

able

to

arrive

at

a

knowledge

of

the

amount

of

vocal

culture

which

the

early

church

singers

possessed.

As

the

chant

gained

in

breadth,

dignity

and

fluency

and

as

it

added

to

its

sustained

cantilena

a

richly

florid element the

singers

acquired

a

solid

body

of

funda-ental

technique.

We

find,

then,

that

before

the

middle

of

the

Sixteenth

Century

all the

basic

essentials

of

vocal

art

had

been

ascer-ained

and

were

systematically

aught.

The

ability

o

sing

smooth,

flowing

music

in

long,

beautiful

tones

(legato),

the

importance

of breath

control in

sustaining

one,

and

joining

notes

in

symmetricalphrases,

the value of

pure

vowel

sounds,

the

necessity

of

distinct

enunciation

of

consonants

and the

skill

to

deliver

the

florid

passages

with

elegance

and

agility

were

assiduously

studied,

and

many

singers

excelled

in

these

matters.

Several

treatises

on

voice

and

singing

ap-eared

about the

beginning

of

the

Seventeenth

Century

and

these contained

many

of

the

principles

fterward

incorporated

in

the

modern

Italian

method

These

treatises

dealt

with

the

different

kinds

of

voice,

registers(head

and chest

were

recognized),

mission

of

tone, hygiene

and

deportment.

They

contained

vocalizes

for

each

voice

on

all

the intervals.

When

the

Italian

opera

was

invented

at

the

end

of

the

Sixteenth

Century

its music

differed

in

no

essential

of

tech-ical

requirement

from

that of

the

church,

and

hence

singers

were

prepared

to

deliver

it.

The first

recitatives

were

musi-ally

nothing

other

than

secular

chants.

With

the

advent

of

Claudio

Monteverde

(1567-1643)

the

element

of

dramatic

expression

forged

to

the

front

and

the

chant

began

to

;apprdach

true

recitative.

Rhythm

and

accentuation,

pre-iously

of

small

moment,

now

beg a

to

be

significant,

hile

e.

melodic

phrase

appeared

and

became

th

bridge

between

recitative

and

air.


29/401


30/401


31/401

GEORGKS

(ALEXANDER

CESAR

LEOPOLD)

BIZKT,

1838-1875

Born

In

Paris.

Ills chief

title

to

fame

as a

com-oser

is

his

opera

Carmen, which,

did

not

meet

with

success

until

after

his- death; in

fact,

overwork

and

dis-ppointment

at

the

reception

met

with

by

*e

Carmen

was

the

cause

of

his

death.

A

short

time

afterward

**

Carmen

was

prodrtced

in

London,

meeting*

with

tmqualiHed

success,

and has

since

been

produced

all

over

the

'world

and

is

considered

the

most

popular

and

dramatic

of all

the

operas

in

the

modern Jprenc'h

rep-rtory.


32/401


33/401

HISTORY

OF

VOCAL

MUSIC

17

The

true

aria,

however,

arrived

a

little later

in the

works

of

Cavalli

(1599-1676)

and

in it

the

melodic

basis

of

music

finally

nd

fully

superseded

the

literary

asis

on

which

the

chant

form

had

rested.

The

dramatic

character

of

sing-ng

now

became

defined

and

its

technic

entered

upon

a

period

of

development

embracing

not

only

all

the

essentials de-anded

by

the

old

church

compositions

but

the

added

excel-ences

of

great

flexibility

f

tone,

skill

in

nuance,

taste

in

phrasing

and

a

larger

agility

than

had

previously

been

known.

Monteverde had utilized florid cadences similar

to

those

of the

ornate

chant,

and

his

successors

were

not slow

to

perceive

the

pleasing

possibilities

f

such

writing,

which

they

assiduously

cultivated.

In

1637

the

first

public

opera

house,

the

Teatro

San

Cassiano

in

Venice,

was

opened

and

opera

was

transferred

from

the

exclusive

consideration of

a

cultured

nobility

to

that

of the

general

audience. It

was

now

required

to

appeal

to

popular

taste.

The

result

was

that

in

a

short time

it

became

a

field

for the

display

of

vocal skill.

This

reduction

of

opera

to

a

low

artistic

level

deprived

singing

of

its

dra-atic

sincerity

ut

equipped

it

with

a

remarkable

technique.

The

operas

of

the

closing

years

of

the

Seventeenth

Century,

especially

hose

of

Alessandro Scarlatti

(1659-1725)

showed

a

perfect

demarcation

of the various forms of

recitative,

clearly

defined

aria

forms

and all

possible

vocal

requirements

from

broad

and

sustained

cantilena

to

the

most

brilliant

colorature.

High

voices

were

almost

exclusively

sed,

basses

being

the

only

low

ones.

Tenors

were

employed

sparingly.

Sopranos,

male

as

well

as

female,

reigned,

while

contraltos

were

their

consorts.

In

1700

we

find

fully

equipped

singing

schools

teaching

the

now

completely

codified

Italian

method.

These

were

the

schools

of

Fedi

at

Rome,

Antonio

Pistocchi

at

Bologna,

Joseph

Brevio

at

Modena,

Francesco

Redi

at

Florence,

Joseph

Amadori

at

Rome

and

those of

Porpora,

Leo

and

Egizzio

at

Naples.

Some

of

the

pupils

taught

by

these

mas-ers

were

the

famous

Caffarelli,

arinelli,

Tesi,

Cuzzoni

and

BordonL

These

singers

and

their

contemporaries

ere

heard


34/401

18

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

frequently

in the

works

of

Handel,

the

greatest

master of

the

period,

whose

recitatives

and

arias

provide

us

with

the

best

understanding

of

the

character of the music of

the

time. The

breadth

and

dramatic

dignity

of his

recitatives

have

never

been

surpassed,

hile

his

arias demand

of

the

singer

perfectquality

of

tone,

flawless

intonation,

great

breath

support,

command

of

brilliant

floridity,

nd

great

beauty

of

style

in

sustained

cantilena.

They

summarize

the

best

traits

of

the

music

of

the

preceding

century

without

preserving

its

extravagances,

and

for

this

reason are

the

most

admirable

schooling

for

singers.

The

domination

of

great

singers,

however,

led

to

a

rapid

decline

of the

Italian

opera

and

in the

periodimmediately

succeeding

that of

Handel

it became

a mere

parade

ground

for vocal show.

Feats of

agility

nd

breath

sustaining

ere

accepted

in lieu of

beautiful

style

and

expression.

However,

the

time

was

now

at

hand

when

the element

of

nationalism

was

to

make

itself

felt

in

opera,

the

great

field

of

artistic

singing.

Italian

opera

had

ruled

for

a

time

in

France

and

Germany,

but these

countries

were

developing

schools

of

their

own.

In

France

the

labors

of

Lully

(1633-1687)

and

Rameau

(1683-1764)

had

established

a

national

school

in

which

broad,

elegant,

inished

recitative

and

a

classically

suave

and

dignified

delivery,

nown

,as

the

grand

style/'

were

the

imperative

demands.

This

style

was

preserved

in

the

operas

of Gluck

(1714-1787).

The

florid

element

found

littlefavor

with

the French

masters

and

by

centering

tten-ion

upon

the

grandiose

character of their

music

and

the

pompous

style

of its

delivery

they

preserved

French

opera

from

becoming

merely

a

field

for

the

exploitation

f

vocal

agility.

The

problems

thrust

into

vocal

technique

by

the

nature

of the

French

language

early

attracted

the

attention

of

Parisian

singing

teachers

and

as

far back

as

1668

we

find

Bernard

Bacilly

(Remarques

sur

r

Art

de

Bien

Chanter)

ex-laining1

how

the

final

E

in

feminine

rhymes

should

be

pro-ounced

$

giving

directions

for

other

peculiarities

f

skg*

wg

iti

U

native

tongue.

The

au^ve

and

elegant

haractt^ d?


35/401

HISTORY

OF

VOCAL

MUSIC

19

the

older

French

vocal

music

survives

in

the

graceful

meas-res

of

such

works

as

Gounod's

Faust/'

while

the

most

accomplished

Gallic

singers

of

the

present

possess

a

polish

in

their

melodic

phrasing

and

their

pronunciation

of

the

words

which

is

the

result

of

precepts

laid

down

by

Lully

and

Ranieau.

In

Germany,

as

in

France,

Italian

conceptions

f

singing

at

first

prevailed,

ut

in

the

course

of

time

the

temperament

of

the

people

and

the

exigencies

of

the

national

language

combined

to

produce

a

styleessentially

eutonic. The

taste

of

the

Germans

for musical

plays

was

largely

developed

and

formed

by

the

singspiel,

n

which

song

alternated

with

spoken

dialogue,

as

in

modern

comic

operas

and

in

Beet-oven's

Fidelio,

From

long familiarity

ith the

sing-

spiel

the

German

gained

a

conception

of

the musical

play

which

demanded

a

perfect

understanding

f

what

was

going

forward

on

the

stage.

The result

was

that

when

recitative

began

to

take the

place

of

spoken

dialogue

he

still

expected

to

hear

every

word

of the

text

in order

that

he

might

follow

the

development

of

the

story.

This

public

demand

led

to

a

culti-ation

of

clear enunciation.

But the

character

of

the

German

tongue

easily

betrayed

singers

into

a

sacrifice of

beautiful

vowel sounds and the concomitant

beauty

of vocal

tone

to

forcible

delivery

of

the

consonant.

This

trait

of

German

singing

was

emphasized

by

the

popular

seriousness

toward all

forms

of

drama,

which

forbade

all

sacrifice

of

ihterpretatio

for

the

sake

of

merely

external

polish,

and indeed

on

the

other

hand

rather

called

for

the sacrifice

of

beauty

to

truth

whenever

the

two

seemed

to

be

opposed.

The

exaggerated

treatment

of the consonants

worked

its

way

from

recitative

into

the

cantilena

and

thus

all

lightness

f

style

and

elegance,

such

as

was

prevalent

n the florid

school of

song,

disappeared

from

the

German

manner

of

singing.

The

various

conflicting

lements

of

vocal

art

were more

nearly

harmonized

in

the

works

of Mozart

than

in

those

of

any

other

composer*

In his

operas

we

find

all

kinds

of

reci-ative,

from

the

lightest

nd

airiest

conversational

type

to

the


36/401

20

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

broadest

and

stateliest

dramatic

utterance.

His

singers

were

thus

required

to

have

great

elasticity

f

delivery,

hile

in

the

flowing

passages

of his arias Mozart

exacted

from them the

broadest,

smoothest

and

most

musical

manner

of

singing.

He

preserved

in

certain

parts

the

florid

style

of

the

earlier

Italian

operas

(as

in

the

music of

the

Queen

of

the

Night

in

The

Magic

Flute

)

and

he

utilized

also

the

more

dra-atic

style

of

florid

song,

as

in

the

great

airs

of

Donna

Anna

and

Donna

Elvira

in

' Don

Giovanni/'

But in

using

the

latter he

broadened

and

deepened

its dramatic

significance

o

as

to

impose

new

requirements

pon

the

singers

of

his

works.

When,

therefore,

Beethoven

and

Weber,

the first

masters

of

the modern

German

School,

came

to

write

their

operas,

they

built

chiefly

pon

the

foundations

which

they

had

in

the

works

of Mozart.

In

such

episodes

of

their

operas

as

the

Abscheulicher

in

Fidelio

and

Ocean,

thou

mighty

monster in

Oberon,

they

refashioned all

the

elements

prepared

for

them

in such

numbers

as

the

Don

Ottavio,

son

morta

of

Don

Giovanni.

They

employed

the

broad

and

powerfully

accented

recitative,

he

style

half

way

between

recitative and

aria

(called

arioso),

the

sustained

melodic

phraseology

and

the

big,

dramatic kind

of

florid

passage

work,

best described

as

dramatic bravura* This kind of song

abounds in

runs

and

other

difficulties,

ut these

are

treated

with

a

view

to

their

expressive

haracter

and

with

no

regard

for

their

availability

s mere

mediums

for

the

display

of

vocal

skill.

Just

as

Weber

used the

most

brilliant

flashing

of

violins

through

the

range

of the

scale

in his

overtures

so

he

used

the

voice

in

some

of

his

dramatic

scenes,

But this

practise

f the

German

composers,

developed

in

order,

to

meet

the

public

demand for

sincerity

f

expression,

did

not

affect

vocal

style

in

Italy.

Although

the

operas

of

the

Rossinian

period

showed

an

advance

over

.their

prede-essors,

in

some

details

of

dramatic

expression,

hey

preserved

most

of

the characteristics

of

the

older

school,

and

singing

continued

to

be

a

display

f

technical

skill

in

the

delivery

f

.tones

witibqmt

uch

regard

for

the

pronunciation

f

the

text


37/401

HISTORY

OF

VOCAL

MUSIC

21

or

the

significance

f

the

scene.

At this

time,

however,

the

introduction

of

the

custom

of

writing

operas

with

the

reci-atives

accompanied throughoutby

the

orchestra,

whereas the

harpsichord

had been

previously

used

for

much

of

this

work,

led

to

the

recognition

f

the

need

for

bigger

tone and

greater

volume

in

the

cantilena,

in

order

that

the

recitatives

should

not

become

apparently

the

more

important

parts

of

the

works.

It

was,

therefore,

in

the

first

thirty

or

forty

years

of

the

Nineteenth

Century

that

the school of

combined

florid

and

dramatic

singing

reigned,

of which

Malibran,

Pasta

and

Grisi

were

representative

women,

and

Rubini,

Lablanche

and

Mario

representative

en.

The

singers

of this

school

pre-erved

much

of

the

vocal

technique

of

the Handelian

period,

but

superimposed

upon

it

an

energy,

a

vigor

of

accentuation

and

a

largeness

of

tone

which

naturally

bliterated

some

of

the

elegant

finish

of its

details.

At

the

time

when

the

revolutionary

heories

of

Richard

Wagner

worked

such radical

changes

in

the

character

of the

lyric

drama,

singing

was

hovering

between

the

German

style,

which

placed

force and enunciation before

beauty

of

tone,

and

the

Italian

manner,

which

strove

to

conserve

purely

super-icial

beauty

and

yet

introduce

dramatic

appearance.

Each

school continued

to

use

those

set

forms

of aria which

invited

both

composer

and

singer

to

offer

an

exhibition

of

either

technique

r

expression

o

the

audience,

Wagner,

by

abandon-ng

the

set

forms

and

endeavoring

to

fashion

his

operas

as

plays

in

continuous

dialogue,

threw

out

of

his

entire scheme

the

necessity

for

set

exhibitions

of

singing,

ither

florid

or

dramatic.

His

works

became

long

sequences

of

recitatives,

heavily

orchestrated,

and

here

and

there

broken

by purely

lyric

passages,

conceived

rather

in the arioso

than

the

aria

character.

At

this

same

period

Meyerbeer,

the

most

potent

influence in

the

operatic

orld

up

to

the

time of

Wagner's

final

triumph,

was composing

operas

with

powerful

and

bril-iant

orchestration

and

many

arioso

passages

throughout

Meyerbeer,

however,

strove to

retain

the

more

popular

ele-ents

of

floridity

nd

the

set

vocal

piece.


38/401

22

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

The result

was

that

singing

and

the

composition

of

music

for

vocal

plays

moved

steadily

oward

the

conditions

existing

at

the

present

day.

In

Germany

the

study

of

beautiful

tone

and

facile

execution

has

been

superseded

by

a

search

after

volume

of

tone

and

forcible

declamation

of

text.

Florid

music

is

neglected

and the

prolonged

study

of

vocalizes,

such

as was

essential

to

a

command

of

the

music

of

the

Handelian

era,

has

been

abandoned.

At

Bayrcuth,

the

home

of

the

Wagner

family,

it is

taught

that

the

proper way

to

sing

the

music

of

Wagner

is

to

lean

heavily

on

all

consonants

and

to

study

vowel

sounds

not

as

producers

of beautiful

vocal

tone

but

with

regard

only

for

their

conversational character.

In

short,

the

contemporaneous

German

School

of

singing

is

the

last

and

extremest

development

of

the

literary

idea

in

vocal

music,

the

idea

which

lay

at

the

basis

of

the

early

chant,

but

which

was

speedily

superseded

by

the

musical

conception

of

the

art.

In

Italy

the

elegant

and

fluent

style

of

the

school of

Rossini

has

yielded

to

German

influence and

in

the

search

after

truthful

dramatic

expression

he

young

Italian

school

of

composers

has

produced

large quantities

f

music

which

demands of

the

singer

no

skill

in

execution,

but

merely

abundance of rich and

powerful

tone,

ability

o

sustain

long

and

heavy

phrases,

and

vigor

in

declamatory

emphasis.

The

radical difference between

the

contemporaneous

Italian

style

and

that

of

Germany

is

that

the

former

is

founded

upon

a

purely

musical

conception.

The

Italian seeks

rather

for

splendor

and

mass

of

tone

than

for

finish

in

treatment

of

the

text.

The

French

School,

following

he trend

given

to

it

by

Lully

and

Rameau,

continues

to

cultivate

elegance

and refine-ent

of

diction

together

with

suave

and

fluent

delivery

of

tone,

A

modern

development

of

singing

is

found

in

the field

of the

song,

which

form

of

composition

assumed

importance

through

the

genius

of

Franz

Schubert

(1797-1828),

His

works combined

melodic

grace

and

fluency

ith

poetic

em-odiment

of the

moods

of his

texts, The

vocal

technie and


39/401

HISTORY

OF

VOCAL

MUSIC

23

style

of the Weber

period

more

than

sufficed

for

the

interpretation

of

these

songs.

But

in

later

years

song

became

affected

by

the

literary

idea

to

such

an

extent

that

verbal

emphasis

overbalanced

beauty

of

tone,

and

the

most

recent

songs

show

a

decided

attempt

to

follow

the lines

of dramatic

recitative

as

fashioned

in

German

operas.

Song

singers,

however,

are

able

to

devote

more

attention

to

pure

beauty

of

tone

than

opera

singers

are,

for

the

reason

that

the

latter

are

obliged

to

sacrifice

so

much for the sake of

mere

volume.

It

is almost

wholly

in features of

style

that

singing

has

changed

in the

past

hundred years. The

theory

of

tone

formation,

and the

conception

of the voice

remain

the

same

now

as

they

were

in

the

days

of

Pasta

and

Malibran

and

they

were

the

same

then

as

in the

time

of

Porpora

and his cele-rated

pupils,

Caffarelli and Farinelli. The

physiology

of

the

vocal

organs

is better

known,

but this

knowledge

has

not

disproved

the

correctness

of

the

practise

of the

great

teachers

of

1700.

The

test

teachers

of

the

present

time

are

those

who

strive

to

impart

the

principles

taught

by

the schools

of

Bernacchi

and

Pistocchi,

but

the

cultivation

of

the

higher

refinements

of

those schools

has

been

discouraged

by

the

popularity

of

loud

and

violent

singing,

the

heavily

accentu-ted

declamation

of the

contemporaneous

schools.


40/401


41/401

TONALITY

All

sound

is

the

result

of

vibrations

in

the

air

occasioned

by

the vibrations

of

some

substance

as

the

vocal

cords,

strings

of

instruments,

columns of

air,

membranes,

or

sonorous

bodies.

The normal

ear

can

perceive

clearly

sound

vibrations

occurring at

a

rate

of

from 16

to

36,500

per

second.

No

possible

statement

can

be

made

of the number

of sounds

produced

between these

two extremes.

The

more

educated

and trained

the

ear

the

more

capable

it

will

be

of

distinguishing

differences

in

pitch.

As

a

result

this

ability

varies

greatly

in

individuals

just

as

some

have

by

inheritance,

environment and education

a

very

finely

developed

sense

of

taste

or

smell.

Sounds

are

contained

in

all

noises of

nature,

such

as

the

wind

blowing

through

the

trees

or

in the

roaring

of

the

waterfall

or

of

waves,

but

although

the

sound

rises

and

falls

in

pitch,

it

is

not music,

for

each

tone

has

no

definite

pitch,

neither does it bear

a

previously

determined

relation

to

the

tones

preceding

or

succeeding

it.

The

tones

which

are

gathered

together

to

constitute

any

musical form

are

selected

from

a

definite

series

whose

individual

tones

progress

in

pitch

by

well defined

degrees.

This series is called

a

scale.

The

name

is

derived

from the

Latin

word

scala,

a

staircase,

in

recognition

of

the

analogy

existing

between

the

progress-ng

series of

tq es and

the

ascending

steps

of stairs.

The


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26

THE

THEORY

OF

MUSIC

Germans

further

express

the

comparison

by

using

the

name

Tonleiter,

a

ladder

of

musical

sounds,

and the

French

employ

the

one

word, echelle,

o

designate

both scale and

ladder.

This

arranging

of

musical

tones

into

a

definite

series

has

always

been

done

by

all

races

possessing

music. Helm-

holz

attributes it

to

a

psychological

eason

similar

to

the

natural

feeling

which has

led

to

the

rhythmical

division

in

poetry.

In

other

words,

it

is

due

to

that inherent

quality

of

rhythm

whose

reason

lies

beyond

man's

explanation

but

which is

present

in

everything.

It

is within the

realm of

aesthetics.

A constant factor

in

the

problem

of this

science

of the

beautiful

is

to

discover

what

it

is

in

things

that

makes

them

beautiful

or

ugly,

sublime

or

ludicrous.

The

explana-ion

is

ever

receding

nd

incomplete,

niversal

laws

of

aesthetics

cannot

be

established,

or

beyond

a

certain

point training

loses

its

power

and

each

man

becomes

an

authority

unto

himself,

ndividuals

having

vastly

ifferent

tastes.

The

degrees

of

progression

n

the

scale

are

not

the

same

among

the

various

races,

but

have

differed with

the

epoch,

the

civilization,

he

tastes

Theory of Music

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