Theory of Altruism

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Received 02/23/10Revised 08/20/10

Accepted 12/05/10

A n E m e r g e n t T h e o r y o f A l t r u i s ma n d S e l f I n t e r e s t

Stephen V Flyim and Linda L. Black

leliefs about alfruism and self-inferesf of 25 parficipanfs were examined fhrough a grounded fheory mefhodology.

Alfruism was defined as fhe promofion of needs of ofhers and self-inferesf as fhe promofion of needs of self Dafa

sources included inferviews, focus group, journal analysis, arfifacfs, and a m easure of alfruism. The relafionship be-

tween alfruism and self-inferesf emerged and was com posed of 12 fheme s. Them es described a dynam ic fheory thaf

was sysfem ic, values orienfed, and inferacfional.

The person of fhe counselor is af fhe center of counseling

identity. Ethically, cou nselors are no t to allow their needs or

self-interests to im pede the client's grow th (Corey, Corey,

Callanan, 20 07). If counselors allowed their self-interests to

emerge unchecked, if could creafe situations in which the

counselors' needs took precedence over their client's, fhus

creafing a potentially harmflil situation for fhe clienf. Clienf

profecfion and welfare are crifical fo successful fherapeufic

oufcom es; however, fhe mann er in which fhe efhical sfandards

for counselors are proffered may lead some counselors to

conc lude fhaf fhey are required or expecfed fo deny, diminish ,

or acknowledge any professional or personal gains (Ameri-

can Counseling Association [ACA], 2005). The counseling

profession, through its ethical standards, may be sending a

contradictory message (i.e., counselor W ellness is important,

yet clients' needs are superior to counselors' needs). These

ethical codes and values may inadvertently comm unicate that

the work of counselors is primarily steeped in self-sacrifice,

which may lead to counselor bum out.

Ignoring app ropriate self-interest holds a variety of negative

consequences for cou nselors, particularly those who work in

community mental health seffings (Bemard, 2006; Hill, 2004;

Lamb ie, 2007; Myers, 2003; Myers , Sweeney, Whife, 2002).

Examples of these consequences include overriding unselfish

conc em , ignoring on e's stress level, frustration, job dissatisfac-

tion, stress-related health prob lems, lowered work p roductivity,

inability f o cope with occupational stress, interpersonal conftict,

apathy, bumo ut, poor b oundaries, feeling pulled in too many

directions, vicarious trauma, a n d rol ambiguity Bemard, 2006;

Hill, 2004; Lambie, 2007; Myers, 2003; Myers et al., 2002;

Nelson Southem, 2008; Trippany, W hite Kress, Wilcoxon,

2004; Wilkerson Bellini, 2006) and seem t o pervade the field

of counseling. The counseling p rofession h as literature, leader-

ship mandates, and efhiciil codes focused o n fhe alfmisfic values

of pracfifioners (e.g., Chi Sigma Iofa Academ y of Leaders for

Excellence, 1999; Lawson Venarf, 2005 ; Meara, Schmidf,

Day, 1996; Sfevens, 2000), and, wifh fhe excepfion of fhe

construct of Wellness, little emphasis has bee n focused on wha t

constitutes appropriate self-interest.

• A l t r u i s m a n d S e l f in t e r e s t

For centuries, scholars have atfempfed to describe fhe inher-

ent and dynamic fension befween fhe promofion of needs

and wa nts of self (self-inferesf) relafive fo fhe p rom ofion

of needs and wanfs of ofhers (alfruism). Individuals who

seem focused on meefing fhe needs of self have often been

described in negafive and derisive ferms (e.g., egocentric,

hedonistic, selfish), whereas individuals who seem focused

on fhe ne eds of ofhers have often been described in posifive

ferms (e.g., giving, alfruisfic, selñess). The E nglish language

reveals a value-based dichotomy that has im plications for the

counseling profession.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed that human

beings had a tendency toward positive growth that encouraged

hum ans to reach for fuller developm ent. Instead of clarifying

fhe relafionship befween alfruism and self-interest, Rogers's

theories served only fo fiarther fhe debate. Rogers rejected

Freud 's notion of the innate selfish nature o f the individual and

promoted the belief that humans had the capacity for innate

positive growth and self-actualization that involved a sense

of self-preoccupation (Rogers, 1951). According to M ayeroff

(1990), Rogers be lieved fhaf fhe abilify fo he lp ofhers was in -

nafely fied to one's own d evelopment; so to be tmly a ltmistic,

an individual must be somew hat self-focused.

Maslow (1950) researched the behaviors of members of

society who displayed self-actualizing tendencies. He also

focused his study on fhe altmistic traits of the self-actualizing

individuals. Inifially, Maslow recognized his sfudy parfici-

pa nts' human e behavior as self-serving because of their overt

enjoyment following these altmistic deeds. Later, he estab-

lished that the self-actualizing individuals were both altmisfic

and self-interested (Maslow, 197 0). Of importance is fhat this

is one of the firsf insfances in wh ich the related natu re of these

fwo constructs was recognized.

Altmistic values and behavior have been highly prized in

the counseling profession. Corey et al. (2007) posited that a

practitioner's best strategy for maintaining an ethical position is

to put his or her clients' interests before all others. In addition.

Stephen V Flynn Department of Counselor Education and Supervision, University of South Dakota; Linda L. Black Department ofCounselor Education and Supervision, University of Northern Colorado. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressedto Stephen V Fiynn, Department of Counselor Education and Supervision, University of South D akota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermil-

lion, SD 57069 (e-mail: [email protected]).

© 2 0 1 1 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.



Flynn Blac

the counseling profession promo tes both mandatory and aspi-

rational ethics in which cotinselors are encouraged to surpass

mandatory standards of care (ACA, 2005 ). Stevens (2000 )

described this aspiration poignan tly: As a profession, we hold

a so cial responsibility to model and mentor the highest possible

level of ethical/moral behavior. We are society (p. 178).

The construct of self-interest, as it relates to the co unseling

process, can be com plicated; confounding; and, at times, con-

tradictory. Elemen ts described as usefijl in increasing counselor

effectiveness and helpful in avoiding burnout include effec-

tive boundaries; optimal Wellness; self-advocacy; reciprocity;

positive belief about self, others, and the w orld; self-care; and

the development of self-regulatory systems (Hendricks, 2008;

Hermon Hazier, 1999; Myers Sweeney, 2008; M yers et

al., 2002 ; Osbom , 2004; Trippany et al., 2004). The importance

of counse lor self-interest has b een dem onstrated in the findings

of the aforementioned studies. These findings are at odds w ith

what current researchers depict as negative effects of working

in the mental health field. Lawson and Venart (2005) described

how counselors working in the field are often told indirectly

and directly that they ought to see more clients, work longer

hours, and produ ce effective therap eutic results in a small time

period. This is often an institutionally based request designed

to increase counselor productivity. Skovholt, Grier, and Han-

son (2001) shed m ore light on this systematic comm unication

breakdown by describing high touch (e.g., personal exposure

to client pain and counselor inability to deny client requests)

hazards, which often led to counselor burnout.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how counselors

and counselor educators personally and professionally experiencedaltruism and self-interest and to propose an emetgent theory of

the promotion, initiation, and maintenance of altruism and self-

interest within the counseling profession. Following the tenants of

grounded theory, we collected data from the following sources: the

Self-Report Altruism Scale (SRA; Rushton, Chrisjohn, Fekken,

1981 ); a focus group; sem istnictured individual interviews; a topic

analysis of the 10 previous years of ournal articles in counseling,

counselor education, and marriage and family counseling; partici-

pant artifacts; and participant member checks.

• e tho

According to Strauss and Corbin (1990), a grounded theory

is an analytically o riented schem a of a pro cess. The rationale

for a grounded theory method was twofold. First, we desired

to deeply and broadly examine the potential influences of

the phenomena of altruism and self-interest in the lived

experiences of counselors and counselor educators. Second,

we sought to systematically describe the relationship, if any,

between these constructs.

Researcher as Instrument

The nature of qualitative research req uires that investigators

provide transparency as to their assumptions and biases. This

includes a brief description of each of us, the researche

as instruments, which is intended to provide a contextu

understanding of our perspectives. The first author is in

2nd year as an assistant professor of counselor ed ucation an

supervision at a state university. In addition to his facul

duties, he serves as the director of the co unseling and scho

psychological training center. He has 8 years of experience

a counselor in a variety of settings. Throughout his doctor

training, he encountered mixed messages regarding the ro

of altruism and the importance of service and stewardship

the counseling profession. Some of these messages focuse

on altruistically oriented issues (e.g., pro bono service, v

unteering, and stewardship) as well as cautionary issues (e.g

counselor burnout, vicarious trauma, and low wages). It w

curious to him that his training program provided few co

versations abou t self-interest-oriented topics (e.g., Wellnes

fee structure, and internal/external benefits of coun seling

thus, he concluded that his natural empathie and compasion orientation along with the altruistically oriented natu

of his education could set him up for counselor burnout a

an expectation not to be comp ensated (financially and inte

personally) at a level commensurate with his training. T

second author is a counselor educator and supervisor wi

12 years of experience in higher education. Her profession

background includes 22 years as a counselor in a variety

mental health settings and 10 years experience in the busine

sector. The first and second autho rs often discussed the nee

for balance between an ethic of caring, service, stewardsh

and the manner in which one sought balance with persona

spiritual, and financial well-being.

Criteria for Participation

Crotty (2003) defined criterion sampling as all people e

periencing the construct being studied; therefore, we we

intentional about identifying, recrui t ing, and select in

participants from a variety of counseling settings throug

criterion-based and snowball sampling procedures. Partic

pants were included in the study if they met the followin

criteria: actively providing counseling services or counsel

education and supervision training or scholarship and we

licensed (i.e., licensed professional counselors, licensed mar

riage and family counselors, cou nselor education faculty) were current graduate students (e.g., master's or doctoral)

a counselor education program.

Participants in this study w ere recruited by the first autho

through three processes: (a) an e-mail notice sent to a region

counselor education electronic mailing list to solicit partic

pants for a focus gro up, (b) an in-person gro up invitation, a

(c) an in-person or telephone contact based on the recomm en

dation of another professional (e.g., snowball recruitment)

Participants

Twenty-five p articipants w ere involved in this study, seven wh

were drawn ft-om he focus group and 19 individual interview



An Emergent Theory of Altruism and Self interest

One member participated in both a focus group and an indi-

vidual interview. The sample was composed of 1 women and

15 men who ranged in age from 25 to 79 years (M = 49.76).

The self-reported ethnicities of participants were Cau casian,

Hispanic, Asian, Native American, Arabian, and Jewish.

With respect to professional identity, seven participants

were professional counselors, 14 were counselor educators,three were marriage and family counselors, and one was a

psychologist who w as licensed as a professional counselor. In

terms o f program affiliation, 16 participants worked at or were

being educated at, a program accred ited by the Council for Ac -

creditation ofCou nseling and Related Educational Programs,

and two participants were affiliated with the Com mission on

Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education

program. One counselor educator worked at a nonaccredited

program, and six participants described their occupational

status as not involving academ ia.

ProcedurePotential participants were given informed consent forms

regarding the study's intent and purpose. Additionally, par-

ticipants were asked to complete a self-report measure of

altruism (i.e., the SRA), engage in an individual interview

or a focus group, and provide artifacts (digital photographs)

that represented their professionally based self-interest and

altruism. The SRA served as an advanced organizer that would

allow p articipants to con ceptualize and reflect on their altruism

prior to the interview or focus group and served as a point

of triangulation. As a way to protect participant identity and

maintain anon ymity, participants were identified by a single

letter unrelated to the participant's nam e.

The focus gro up and all individual interview sessions were

franscribed by the first author and subsequently subjected to

member checking. Simultaneous to the interviews, the first

author cond ucted a review of the previous 1 years of oum al

articles to examine the presence and relevance of these two

constructs in the field of counseling. The individual inter-

views and the focus group were used to explore participants'

perceptions of altmism and self-interest. The artifacts (digital

photos) provided a bridge between the philosophical nature

of altruism-self-interest and a real-life example of the rela-

tionship. The jou ma l analysis was used to determine w hether

the counseling profession addressed issues of altruism andself-interest (e.g., Wellness, bumout, vicarious trauma, ethical

violations) in the previous d ecade. Finally, the mem ber check

was conducted as part of a rigorous trustworthiness process.

The second author served as the auditor for the researcher

epoché, three levels of coding , the thematic analysis, and the

emergent theory.

Trustworthiness Procedures

The following procedures were undertaken to ensure trust-

worthiness: researcher epoché, prolonged engagement with

the data, reflexivity, res earch er jou rna l or field notes, depend-

ability and confirmability audits (audit trail), triangulation,

member checks, thick and rich descript ions, nominated

sample, and negative case analysis (Crotty, 2003; Merriam,

1998; Schwandt, 2001). In the researcher epoché, the first

author bracketed and rebracketed his beliefs, opinions, and

assumptions prior to the start of the study. These data, along

with the researcher jour nal, were exam ined at three points inthe data analysis process by the second author to further en sure

credibility and prevent an overly biased analysis or writing

from an opinionated standpoint. Confirmability and trustwor-

thiness were further en sured through triangulation of the data

and by examining information from multiple perspectives

and data p oints. To ensure transferability of the data, the first

author asked participants open-ended questions that evoked

a detailed narrative. This process prov ided the m aterial for a

thick description of distinct yet related, categories that were

then distilled into emergent themes. All themes were delib-

erately written to include nuances o f the them es; subthem es;

and, where warranted, pictorial d escriptions.

To improve the dependability and confirmability of the

findings, the second author conducted an audit to determine

whether the thoughts, procedu res, and sfrategies on particular

themes w ere both verifiable and dependable. As a way to refine

and contextualize the analysis, a negative case analysis was

used. This involved searching for and discussing elem ents of

the data that did not support, or seemed to contradict, pat-

tems or explanations that emerged from data analysis. This

additional analysis allowed for revising, broadening, and

confirming the pattems emerging from data analysis.

Data AnalysisData (i.e., quantitative m easure, focus g roup transcript, indi-

vidual interview franscripts artifact pictures/descriptions, and

jou ma l analysis) were combined and analyzed for all signifi-

cant themes or p attem s. First, data were analyzed h olistically

through open coding (Merriam, 1998). Memos were written

that identified the directions, impressions, and thoug hts of the

first author. Next, the memos were analyzed in conjunction

with the interviews and field notes. The causal conditions,

strategies, intervening conditions, and consequences were

examined and con textualized in order to form an axial coding

paradigm (Strauss Corbin, 1997).

Axial coding was used to uncover the core phenomena

of the investigation. The first author ascertained the causal

conditions and linked them conceptually to the overarching

sfrategies. These overarching strategies were the main p atterns

that emerged as a result of the open coding procedure. The

intervening conditions were isolated to determine which on es

were mo st likely to influence th e strategies. The consequences

of the strategies were distinguished in the final aspect of this

process. Finally, a selective coding method was used as the

third step in the analysis. Propositions about data w ere written

in narrative form in order to describe the interrelationships of

the emergent categories and, thus, the foundation of groun ded



Flynn Black

theory. Data was examined using foundational rules for inclu-

sion or exclusion. The second author contrasted the codes with

the first author's field notes, jour nal en tries, and feedback from

the member checking proc ess. Data (i.e., proposed theo ry), in

their final form, were represented in a series of propositions

(Creswell, 200 7; Strauss Corbin, 1990) and submitted for

a final audit.

• esu l t s

Self-Report Measure of Altruism

All 25 participants completed the SRA, a brief measure

of personal altruism. Although the SRA is a quantitative

measure, the scores from this measure were not used in any

formal statistical analysis but were used to generally describe

the sample. The overall SRA scores for all participants in

the study were between 29 and 6 6, with a mean of 48.88 and

a standard deviation of 11.61. In comparison with Rushton

et al.'s (1981) original study on the SRA, the scores in the

present sample were similar in terms of means and standard

deviations. Thus, the measure was deemed to be a credible

introduction to the evaluation of personal altruism for par-

ticipants in this study.

Focus Group and Individual Interviews

A focus group was conducted at an Association of Counselor

Education and Supervision regional conference in 2008 . The

only criterion for the focus group was that all participants

must self-identify as a professional counselor. The focus

group process allowed for exchanges, uncovering, and pro-

duction of thoughts on the relationship between altruism and

self-interest within the counseling and counselor education

professions. The focus group (n = 7), which lasted ap proxi-

mately 65 minutes, was composed of three women and four

men. Nineteen individual interviews were conducted, and the

group of interviewees was composed of eight women and 11

men, ranging in age from 25 to 79 years.

Journal Analysis and Participants'Artifacts

A topic analysis was conducted on articles published in the

Journal of Counseling Development (JCD), Counselor

Education and Supervision (CES), and The Family Journal(FJ) for the 10-year period of 1998 to 2008. Both JCD and

CES were selected as relevant journals because of their sa-

lience in the counseling profession. FJ was chosen because

of the systemic nature in which many participants described

the altruism-self-interest phenomenon. The goal of analysis

was to identify the nature and ex tent of profession al literature

dedicated to counselor altruism or self-interest. The keywords

used in the search process included altruism, self-interest,

counselor role, burno ut, Wellness, and counselor iden tity. Th e

journal analysis identified 19 journal articles during the es-

tablished time frame that described or discussed the concepts

of counselor altruism and/or self-interest. The content of the

articles was openly coded and produ ced a total of 238 codes,

which were synthesized into 12 main themes.

Eighteen of the 19 participants sent photographs of arti-

facts that represented their altruistic and self-interest sides

The artifacts were discussed with the participants and their

derived meanings incorporated into the 12 emerging themes.

The self-interest-oriented artifacts ranged fiom p hotog raphs ofhigh perfonna nce vehicles to exercise clothing. The altruistic

artifacts ranged fi om photograp hs of meaningful letters from

past clientele to pictures of Cod and Buddha.

Synthesis of Data

After gathering all the data from the six data collection poin ts,

we combined all transcribed data and conducted a combined

analysis of the findings. The focus group and individual in-

terview transcripts were coded and analyzed directly. Next,

all participants described their felt experience w ith com plet-

ing the SRA and their rationale for choice in artifact. These

experiences were transcribed and coded for the focus group

and individual interviews. Last, the SR A sco res, physical pic-

tures of the artifacts, coded quo tes within the journa l an alysis

and information gleaned through the member check were all

included in the combined final analysis.

The emergent them es from this study are reported in a for-

mat consistent with Strauss and Corbin's (1990) model. This

model identifies the following structure: causal conditions,

intervening conditions, contextual conditions, action/inter-

actions/routines, and consequences. The conditions, actions,

and consequences derived from this study were independent

of one another and interrelated on a number of levels (see

Figure 1). The causal con ditions were events that led to the

identification of a dynamic relationship between altruism and

self-interest. Contextual and intervening conditions referred

to the particular sets of conditions that intervened with the

causal condition—a broader set of conditions. Action/interac-

tion/routine strategies referred to the actions and responses

that occurred as the result of the phenomenon, context, and

intervening cond itions. Finally, the outcomes, both intended

and unintended, of these actions and responses were labeled

consequences.

• a u s a l ConditionsC onflicting Beliefs and Perceptions

Participants repeatedly expressed confiicting beliefs and

perceptions regarding the altruism-self-interest ph enom enon.

Participan ts' beliefs w ere defined as aspects of life that they

learned about through values, morals, and culture, whereas

perceptions w ere defined as actions the pariicipants eng aged

in related to their beliefs. Participants as well as their beliefs

and perceptions w ere, at times, in confiict.

The greatest sense of discord between and among par-

ticipants' actions, perceptions, and speech w as the manner in

which they perceived that the coun seling profession promoted



An Emergent Theory of Altruism and Self-interest

CausaiConditions

1 . Conflictingbeliefs andperceptions

2. Covertvalues andattitudes

3. A richer viewof self-interest

Causal Conditions

r

ContextuaiConditions

1 . Gender2. Professionai

tenure3. Cultural

expectations4. Economy

5. Overt/covertmessages

6. Counselingsubprofessions

interveningConditions

1 . Mixedmessages

2. Career choice3. Status and

competition

\ ^̂̂Intervening ConditionsAction/interactions/RoutinesConsequences

Pictorial i

Consequences

1 . Benefits ofcaring

2. Negativeconsequencesof caring

3. Professionalmistrust

4. Varyingdescriptions

of counseling

Actionsinteractions

Routines

1 . Competing

definitions ofaltruism andseif-interest

2. The processand action ofaltruism andself-interest

FIGURE 1

Representation of Grounded Theory

ote Theory of the promotion initiation and maintenance of the

relationship between altruism and self-interest within the counsel-

ing profession.

al t ruism as a require d frai t or act ion amo ng cou nselors . E ight

part ic ipants s ta ted that the counsel ing profess ion was very

al t ruis t ic , whereas four others bel ieved that the profess ion

was not a l t ruis t ic enough. This percept ion is i l lus t ra ted by

Part ic ipant S in her descript ion of her dismay with the p rofes-

s ion's lack of an a l tmis t ic tendency. She remarked.

W e l l . . . longpaiisé I don't hear therapists .. . contributing

at a comm unity level. I . . . I think that's very limited. . . .

Secondly, I don't hear many therapists having a very mind-

ful practice around pro bono clients. Thirdly, I hear a lot of

people in my profession . . . which pains m e actually to be

very oriented around private pay, because they don't want to

... do billing for insurance.

In contras t . Part ic ipant F bel ieved that the counse l ing p rofes-

s ion was more a l t ruis t ic . Speaking of counselor educators ,

she said.

Most of my colleagues are very professionally and perso nally

altruistic. For example, one of my colleagues does trem endous

research and service related to suicide and suicide prevention

and has grants, does presentations all over the state, all over

this region of the country in suicide gatekeeper training, col-

lects money in terms of organizing w alks, teams for walking

to raise money for suicide prevention and awareness. . . . Imean, she is altruism from start to finish.

Covert Values and A ttitudes

Part ic ipants repeatedly expressed covert values and at t i tudes

within the counsel ing profess ion. Covert values were those

uniqu e rules that me mb ers of the coun sel ing profess ion (edu-

cators , supervisors , peers) presented and promoted yet were

not prom inent ly co mm tinicated in the profess ional l i tera ttu-e.

A covert atti tude may represent a meaningfiil or superficial be-

l ief or behavior that was not widely doct imented o r researched .

Five part ic ipants noted covert values and at t i tudes re la tedto counse lors ' a l tmism b ecause they be l ieved tha t counse lors

ma ke a quiet di fference in the l ives of c l ients and should not

be grand iose abou t thei r successes . Part ic ipant S spoke to this

covert expectat ion:

u know, I think that people in our profession d o . . . not have

much grandiosity. You know, we're silent in our successes

. . . because of confidentiality, which, of course, is by nature

part of the work, we don't get to . . . celebrate in a big way

about the work. You know, like, we did this, or this, or t h is .. .

maybe with a family or individual. But it's qu ie t. .. it 's quiet.

A R icher View of S elf-interest

Part ic ipants frequent ly exp ressed a r icher view of sel f- interes t

(i .e., helping myself a l lows me to help others) as opposed

to narrow vis ion of sel f- interes t ( i .e . , helping myself i s a

purely sel f ish endeavor) . Part ic ipants who proudly accepted

their se l f- interes t voiced that they did not appreciate many

of the i r p rofes s iona l co l l eagues ' mi sunders t anding of wha t

appro pria te sel f- interest me ant . A r icher view of sel f- interes t

mean t expanding the concept beyond wha t some m ay de f ine

as meet ing one 's own needs (e .g. , a focus on Wellness) .

Fif teen part ic ipants described how an adherence to thei r

heal th and Wellness was an appropria te use of thei r self

interes t . Part ic ipant Z reported on the pass ion she puts into

teaching appropria te boundaries and Wellness . She described,

I think I work hard and train students in ethics and related

course work on good self -c are ... and taking time to instill in

them the idea that self-interest in modest amounts is healthy

and that they wouldn't want their clients or their loved ones

taking up 24/7 and so, learning to say no, learning to set

boundaries, and learning to tune in to some of the other

definitions of self-interest besides just feeling really good

about oneself



Flynn Black

• i n t e r v e n i n g C o n d i t i o n s

Mixed Messages

Participants consistently expressed experiencing mixed

messages within the counseling profession as related to

the articulation of altruism-self-interest. Furthermore, the

theme of mixed messages refers to confiicting or different

overi messages received by pariicipants. These messages dif-

fered from the confiicting beliefs and perceptions discussed

earlier in that they were viewed as less personal and seem ed

to emanate from a source external to the participa nts. There

i s however, some overlap insofar as pariicipants' expecta-

tions were violated.

Fifteen of the 19 individuals interviewed demonstrated

conflicting perspectives as to whether counselors ought to

engage in enterprising behaviors. Several participants w ho

identified enterprising in counseling as appropriate would

later reject certain aspects of the very same behavior(s).

For example. Participant S highlighted the nature of the

mixed message of helping (al truism) and self-interest

(enterprising) when discussing whether counseling was

or was not a business:

Counseling as a business sits funny. See now, I recognize if

I were in private practice, I would agree w ith that statement.

But I've never been in private practice. I've always been em-

ployed by universities and school districts. And .. . because

back as a young professional in the early '80s , I worked for

a small business college . . . a privately owned business col-

lege. And the profit motive ofthat organization I found to bevery distasteful and very contrary to my own value system.

This quotation represents a mixed message. The individual

who made this comm ent described the confusion that many

other pariicipants reflected in their statements. Specifically,

this pariicipant found some of the institutions (e.g., schools

and universities) eschew a business orientation, whereas other

organizations (e.g., private practice and private college) are

centrally organized around a business mo del.

Career Choice

Participants reported that counseling, as a career choice, wasrelated to personal values and an expected set of behaviors

developed b y counselors who occupy t h e profession. Although

the choice in becoming a counselor was affected by a num-

ber of circumstances, on the macrolevel, participants noted

that counselors seem to exhibit an internal decision-making

component about becom ing or being a counselor and an ex-

ternal presentation regarding what a coimselor should look

like (e.g., expected behaviors and ways of being). Seventeen

participants believed that the choice of counseling as a career

was a deep and meaningful exp erience. Participant F described

that her choice to become a counselor was dependent on a

calling and love for the work:

Y ou know, people g o into this work [counseling an d counselor

education] because they love the work and they feel a calling

to it, not because they'll ever b e . . . I mean, hopefully people

will be able to make ends meet. But, I . . . I know certainly

as a counselor educator [the financial compensation] is not

commensurate with contribution in the world, it just isn't, so

you do it because it's the right thing to do.

Status and Competition

Pariicipants frequently expressed a sense of com petition and

status within the counseling profession and among allied

helping professions. Status was interpreted as how counsel-

ors view themselves, how other mental health professions

viewed counselors, and how counselor status compared w ith

all professions.

Five pariicipants reporied that counselors have lost status

because counselor education programs are overproducing

counselors. Pariicipant W described this dim ension;

Our field has lost status, horribly I think, and i t . . . but it's

become a different world. We've created this group of, and

I hate to say it when it's been used in other literature, we've

sometimes been called drones. A n d I'm talking master's-level

people.

Eight pariicipants saw the counseling profession as having

lower status when compared with other mental health profes-

sions, pariicularly psychologists. Pariicipant S described her

awareness of counselor identity and the mental health hier-

archy; I think counseling, as far as couns elor identity, we'redefinitely struggling with that. It seems like, we absolutely

aren't looked at as highly as a psychologist or a psychiatrist

or another profession.

• A c t io n s In t e r a c t io n s R o u t i n e s

Competing Definitions of Altruism and Self-interest

Pariicipants seemed to struggle when defining altruism and

self-interest. Sixteen participants described the terms in rela-

tion to each other and noted the discordant nature of their nar-

rative. For exam ple, in attemp ting to define altruism and self

interest as a process, Pariicipant K suggested the following:

oing things that ar e of m y heart a n d a r e generous for n o other

reason... simply because I want an authentic connection with

another human being T o m e it's funny. I mean, that would

b e m y definition of it, whereas others may see it as a selfless-

ness. I don't experience it as a selflessness. I experience it as

a give/give [as opposed to give/take].

Most participants' descriptions involved the significance of

giving t o others and a n inconsequentiality of receiving personal

or monetary benefits. Personal dissonance em erged within and

among na rratives when altruism was linked to self-sacrifice.



An Emergent Theory of Altruism and Self Interest

The Process and Action of Altruism

and Self interest

Participants expressed a process and action within the al-

truism-self-interest phenomenon. This theme centered on

particip ants' conceptualization of alfruism-self-interest as a

psychologically based process.

Ten participants described altruism and self-interest as

an interrelated and dynamic phenomenon. This was often

related to a variety of counseling behaviors and tasks that

had at their core m utual interest for all involved. Participant

J described the phenom enon's n onstatic, interrelated, holistic

nature. He reported.

Because when I give freely a n d I c a n b e of service to somebody

... which... y ou know, a n a c t of service ca n boost m y immune

system. A n a c t of service creates some really cool endorphins

in the brain, that I think as a social human being, I'm wired

to be a ltruistic at least part of the time and if I can see that asa part of m y self-interest and I can then look at self-interest

and say, If I'm the best therapist that I can be and the most

ethical therapist I can b e , that's in m y self-interest t o d o that

. . . then, I will also probably be more helpful to my clients.

So I see them as . . . two sides of the same coin.

• o n t e x t u a l o n d it io n s

Following are the contextual conditions that served as an-

tecedents for the emergence of the altruism-self-interest

pheno men on: cotm selors' gender, professional tenure and ex-

perience, culttiral expectations, the economy, overt and covert

messages within the counseling profession related to altruism

and self-interest, and allegiance to counseling subprofessions

(e.g., couples and family counselors, group co unselors, career

counselors, and counselor educators).

In general, the contextual factors of gender, cultural

expectations, overt and covert messages related to altru-

ism and self-interest, and the economy were factors over

which participants exp ressed that they had no control; how-

ever, participants believed that these factors did affect the

counseling profession. All participants were significantly

affected by the cultural expectation that caring or h elping

was to be done for the greater good and not for any form

of remunerat ion.

The contextual variables that were viewed as somewhat

within the participa nts' confrol were professional tenure and

experience and allegiance to counseling subp rofessions. Pro-

fessional tenure and exp erience were usually related to issues

of bumout, working with professionals who are impaired,

adherence to the expectation of a substandard wage or vow

of poverty, being stretched thin, feeling used by counseling

organizations or professors, and establishing professional

boundaries. These experiences encouraged participants to

move toward altruistic intentions or self-interest. For exam ple,

many participants mentioned an experience of being on the

verge of, or actually experiencing, bumout and reacted with

an increase adherence to self-interest (e.g., Wellness).

• o n s e q u e n c e s

Benefits of Caring

Participants repeatedly acknowledged the benefits of caringwithin the counseling profession. Participants mentioned a

variety of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards from being in the

counseling profession.

Six participants mentioned an intrinsic deep satisfaction

in seeing clients grow and b egin to take control o f their life.

Participant Z described this deep satisfaction as lucky:

Because our work is so directly with people that we know,

well I hope, w e know we're making a difference and, getting

to be part of someone s change and growth. So I think that's

th e experience I have a t conferences o r hanging o u t with other

counselor educators.

Negative Consequences of Caring

Participants consistently articulated the consequen ces of car-

iiig within the cotmseling profession. Participants experienced

these co nsequences intrinsically as well as extrinsically. The

term onsequen e in this context refers to a negative happen -

ing, which was a direct result from being a member of the

counseling profession. P articipant W described the reality of

the professional expectations for a vow of poverty and the

tolerance or expectation of bumo ut within the counseling pro -

fession. Thirteen participants described the tolerance within

the context of private practice, agency work, and training

settings, as well as in casual conversations w ith other pro fes-

sionals. Participant W stated.

W e d o another disservice in saying, You need t o have social

justice and advocacy. I told my class the other night, I said,

That's a really absurd thought, thinking you're all going to

go work for an agency and make, you know, $15 to $20 an

hour, like you're gonna have a bunch of extra time to go out

and d o that [social justice work] o n t o p of it , when you're be-

ing pumped to w o rk ... in the agencies .. . long hours, back

to back, it's exhausting work with difficult clients. And then

you wanna go advocate for them? Back to altruism versus

self-interest... You re gonna advocate for yourself i n t h e end.

Eight participants described their struggle in dealing with

insurance companies. Participant L stated.

W e work i n organizations o r systems that a r e , u m , exhausting

and, uh, sometimes can take away from why we all got into

this profession in the irst place. And, um, you know, o r just

dealing with insurance agencies, and, you know, insurance if

you're a private practice. There's just a lot of things out there

that, structurally, are, um, consume a lot of energy.



Flynn Black

Professional Mistrust

Participants continually expressed a sense of professional

mistrust. The theme professional mistrust referred to the

lack of safety felt by participants while talking about

one's self-interest or altruistic sides with other counsel-

ing professionals. Professional mistrust was expressed

as a concern for 11 participants who noted that they did

not typically talk about their personal needs, wants, and

desires to other professionals because of a lack of trust.

Participant K noted.

Just to be totally.honest there's been a couple of times that

I felt I may have opened up a little side of myself and the

person didn 't keep it confidential and in fact kind of used it,

I thought, against m e a little b i t . Y o u know, y o u think I don't

know if I can really trust a lot of people [other counselors to

talk about m y personal needs .''

It seemed that describing self-interested behaviors ex-

posed som e part icipants to the judgm ent or cri ticism of

their peers.

Varying Descriptions of Counseling

Pariicipants repeatedly offered varying descriptions of what

counseling is. Five pariicipants described the main purpose

of counseling as an act of charity or as a way to give back to

the comm unity. Pariicipant Y described counseling as helping

others and the comm,unity:

There's a l o t , just hearing, just being able to see progress in

people, see people grow. I think that's rewarding. I think it's

. . . there is reward in making a difference in t h e community

. . . the impact you can have on people, as a supervisor . . .

and as a co un selo r... an educator.

Counseling was alternatively viewed as a business and

an interpersonal transaction. Eight participants expressed

pride in how counseling is a business and not a service to

be given away freely. Participant J commented,

Yeal}, I'm not here as a nonprofit thing to help the [hisconimunity] or [nearby community] community. . . . I'm

here to do work that I love, to give freely as I do that work.

. . . I give 100%, I try to be as present as possible with

my clients during sessions. . . . I try to do the best work

, that I can for them. But, yeah, if your check bounces, we

' have a problem.

A dynamic tension between and among participants seemed

to exist and center on whether counseling was service to a

group (a verb) or service provided to a group (a noun).

This same tension w as reflected in the descriptions of altru-

ism and self-interest.

• T h e E m e r g e n t T h e o r y o f A l tr u i s m a n dS e i f i n t e r e s t in C o u n s e l in g

The theory of th e promo tion, initiation, and maintenance o

the relationship between altruism and self-interest within the

counseling profession has been depicted in a pictorial repre

sentation (see Figure 1). The double-ended arrow between

causal conditions and intervening conditions represent the

interaction of th e themes depicted within each category and

fiinctions as a theoretical starting place. The double-ended ar

row connecting intervening conditions and consequences por-

trays the connection and interaction between the antecedents

of the theory and its consequences. The double-ended arrows

cormecting contextual conditions and actions/interactions

routines to both intervening conditions and consequences

represent factors that interacted and were interdependent with

all levels of t h e grounded theory.

This grounded theory represents a multidimensional andrecursive phenomenon that is affected by perceptions of self

others, and the profession. The altruism-self-interest phe-

nomenon was initiated by causal, intervening, and contextual

conditions. Causal and intervening con ditions set the stage for

the theory of altruism and self-interest. For example, the cov er

profession-directed value of solely rewarding altruism was a

causal subtheme, which interacted w ith t h e theme career choice

because participants believed that the counseling profession

typically drew individuals who were inclined to be altruistic

The contextual conditions were assessed a s antecedents to othe

conditions because they were irmate to the individual (e.g.,

gender), environmental (e.g., economy and cultural expecta-tions), a n d the profession (overt/covert messages and counseling

subprofessions), and thus did not follow a particular condition

These contextual conditions were also salient in maintaining the

altruism-self-interest phenomenon. For example, the economy

maintains a certain level of reimburseme nt for counseling ser-

vices and, as such, remains a factor in how counselors identify

their own altruism and self-interest.

Current and historical factors contributed to a prom otion

of the altruism-self-interest phenomenon; however, none

punctuated the rift between altruism and self-interest more

than the historical dichotomy between academia and business.

Pariicipants' expressed conflict related to the degree counsel-ing ought to be considered a business, there was ambiguity

associated between the professional roles of a counselor and

the business world, participants' frequently disagreed on

the importance and appropriateness of blending the roles of

counselor and entrepreneur, and there was conflict over the

purity of academic pursuits. For example, Pariicipant I's (a

coimselor educator) statement reflects this internal conflict:

It s true [counseling i s a business i n t h e sense that a n y profes-

sion has a business aspect. It's untrue in tbe sense that a lot

of the people who get into counseling truly are dedicated to

helping others. And they would do it for free.




This information seem s to indicate that cotmselors experience

altruism and self-interest as a single tmifying phenomenon.

Thus, we have nam ed this interrelated set of intervening and

contextual conditions the altmism-self-interest phenomenon.

The dash between altm ism and self-interest demonsfrates the

interrelatedness of the traditionally dichotomous happenings.

• i s u s s i o n

Counselor Educators

The present investigation into the altruism-self-interest rela-

tionship within the cotmseling profession revealed three points

of discussion for cotmselor educators. First, what constitutes

appropriate professional altruism-self-interest among counsel-

ors and counselor educators? Although participants described

positive reactions (i.e., support or em otional recogtiition from

altruistically oriented colleagues), they simultaneously de-

scribed covert mandates they believed encouraged counselors

to remain htimble and silent about their successes. Counseloreducators and the professional literattire seemed to focus on

cotmselor ellness a s the primary professional practice related

to appropriate self-interest. Participants' cotnments reflected

this as well because they stated that this type of self-interest

involved creating effective boundaries, achieving optimal well-

ness, a n d maintaining a positive belief system (Hendricks, 20 08;

Hermon & H azier, 1999; Myers & Sweeney, 2008 ; Myers et

a l . 2002; Osbom , 200 4; Trippany et al., 2004).

A second point of discussion centers on the importance of

tmst and acceptance between and among cotmselor educators.

Participants either admitted to having their tms t breached or

encotmtered derogatory comments related to other profes-

sionals'perc eptions of colleagues' inappropriate self-interest.

Antecedents to this breach of tmst centered on befrayals of

tmst, privacy, and apparent professional jealousy. F o r example,

participants often disparaged certain enterprising practices

(e.g., frequent and repeated updating of textbook editions)

of those with whom they were not acquainted or whom they

deemed to be overly self-interested. Moreover, these same

participants spoke as if they knew the enterprising profes-

sional personally (when they did not) and continued to assail

the enfrepreneur's character, intent, or behavior. Faculty can

model acceptance, authenticity, appreciation, and appropriate

criticism of enterprising individuals in the same way they ac-

cept the impoverished clients for whom they often advocate.

The final discussion point centers on curriculum, intem-

ship, and course work that could enrich and strengthen

students' tmderstanding of basic professional business skills

(e.g., fee sfructtire, consulting, and marketing). Counseling

is an art and a scienc e and, at its core, is a service provided to

clients. The om ission of business course work in professional

fraining is curious by its absence. Cotmselor educators may

unwittingly be consigning future generations of coimselors to

life in the mill (mental health clinics) without recognition

that counselors are also being fr ined for independent practice.

Most of th e student participants admitted that they received

very little information within their fraining that would help

them tinderstand a basic business stmcture, counseling's place

in the economy, or how to market/advertise a service. In ad-

dition, ntmierous participants noted that counselor educators

seemed quick to state that people don 't get into cotmseling

for the money, counselors are sfretched thin, or you musthear a calling in this profession . However, particip ants were

concem ed that their faculty held no conversations related to

addressing these concems via social advocacy or the cur-

riculum. Counselor education curricula should reflect the

mu ltiple roles that profession als w ill enter, including those of

educators, scholars, supervisors, advanced c linicians, program

managers, consultants, and leaders (Bemard, 2006).

Clinicians

At the core of the altruism-self-interest relationship is a

deeper, more accurate understanding of practice-based is-

sues in regard to the conflicted relationship between optimal

Wellness and burnout. Participants who were counseling

practitioners stated that they felt called to give themselves in

a primarily altmistic m anner to clients and comm unities. This,

in their words, often led to bumout. The Wellness mandate

embedded within the notion of self-interest instmcts clini-

cians to attend to their physical, mental, and spiritual health

on a regular basis. This Wellness mandate seems somewhat

hollow when confrasted with the many conflicting messages

in the counseling literature (e.g., expectation of low pay [i.e.,

vow of poverty] and excessive workloads) and a counselor's

natural sense of compassion and empathy (Baker & Baker,

1 9 9 9 ; Ben-Dror, 1994; Hill, 200 4; Osbo m, 2004; Rohland,2000; Trippany et a l, 2004).

Counselors need to be aware of how their assumptions

and beliefs related to status, power, access, and worth may

create a reality that is not conducive to the promotion of

counseling as a profession. Numerous participants com-

mented on how counseling was perceived as a profession

of low status, including voicing concems that clinicians did

not achieve a financial compensation commensurate with

their education and training. To participa nts, this seemed to

be a self-fulfilling prophecy. This finding is consistent with

the professional literature that describes a lack of clinical

marketplace, not being compensated in a manner comm en-

surate with training, reluctance of J D editors to publish

counseling research, lack of uniform licensing standards,

lack of parity in insurance reimbursement, and overlapping

mental health services (Bernard, 2006; Hendricks, 2008;

Hill, 2004; Lambie, 2007; Myers et al., 2002; Nelson &

Jackson, 2003; Osbom, 2004; Weinrach, Thomas, & Chan,

2 0 0 1 ; Wilkerson & Bellini, 2006). Counselors need to be

intentional about advocating for themselves and the pro-

fession and demonstrating a positive outlook on counselor

status and influence, or practitioners may follow a negative

trajectory into professional irrelevance.



Flynn Blac

Finally, participants who were clinicians continually de-

scribed the negative consequences of working w ith insurance

companies. The tedious and bureaucratic nature of working

with third-party comp ensation caused several participants to

start all-cash practices. Clinicians would benefit from models

of self-advocacy related to the financial compensation aspects

of their practice. Clinicians will be better compensated andhave a more effective relationship with insurance compan ies

if clinicians become actively involved in legislative efforts

at the national and state levels for mental health pay parity.

• L i m i t a t i o n s o f th e S t u d y

Three potential l imitat ions should be considered when

examining the findings of this research. First, altruism

and self-interest are rich and expansive concepts that have

been reviewed and analyzed by ancient and contemporary

philosophers alike. Although the present research has shed

some contemporary light on the current social and personal xp ri n s of hese particular philosophical stances, t h e altruism-

self-interest phenomen on warrants much m ore attention. The

emergent theory presented here is only a beginning.

A second limitation of this research was the taboo nature o f

self-interest talk in the coun seling profession, w hich may have

caused participan ts to be reluctant to express their experiences

or to downplay their thoughts and feelings about self-interest,

or may have caused them to present in an ideal mann er in order

to reduce the likelihood of negative self-evaluation. Because

authenticity is a salient feature of qualitative research and for

this research in particular, it was essential to set a comfortable

and accepting atmosphere during individual interviews andthe focus group. This atmosphere demonstrated a profound

openness and acceptance of all points of view. Although this

atmosphere encouraged openness, along with maintaining the

participants' anonymity, there w as no guarantee p articipants felt

the necessary conditions t o fii y disclose their o w n self-interest.

A third potential limitation to the present investigation wa s

the relative homogeneity of the sample. We recognize that

qualitative research paradigm s primarily focus on the transfer-

ability rather than generalizability of results and acknowledge

that this sample of participants was unba lanced with respect to

participa nts' ethnicity and gender. Despite the representation

from six self-identified ethnicities, it is plausible tbat a morebalanced sample may have yielded different results given

that the constructs of altruism and self-interest seem to have

a cultural component.

• r e a s fo r F u r th e r R e s e a rc h

This investigation into the promo tion, initiation, and m ainte-

nance of the relationship between altruism and self-interest

within the counseling profession begins to provide some un -

derstanding for a relatively new q uery into the foundation of

the counseling field's philosophy and meaning. Through this

inquiry, a number of areas for further research have em erged.

Up to this point, much of what has been discussed and in

vestigated in the areas of altruism and self-interest h as sough

to isolate the two factors w hile at the same time suggesting a

inherent overlap. Indeed, this investigation is unique in tha

participants fotrnd botb altm ism an d self-interest to be a singl

interactive phenomenon. Conducting research to empiricall

support this finding could help counselors and counselo

educators alike begin to understand so me of the amb ivalenc

they may be experiencing in terms of appropriate bou ndaries

Wellness, and otber effective forms of self-interest.

The next areas warranting ftirther empirical support ar

the impact of a counselor's multicultural background (e.g

race, gender, socioeconomic status, sexuality, country of o r

gin) on the altmism-self-interest phenomenon, the need fo

more business-oriented training and internship in counselo

education, and the need for an empirical measure related t

the altmism-self-interest phenomenon. This research coul

add understanding to multicultural issues related to the client

counselors serve, demystify the false dichotomy betwee

business and academia, and create a potential instrument t

protect cotmselors from burnout and compassion fatigue.

• C o n c l u s i o n

This research represents a first attempt to develop an emergen

theory that explains the prom otion, initiation, and m aintenanc

of the phenomenon of altmism and self-interest within th

counseling profession. The results of all six data collection

points revealed a false dichotom ization of the words altruism

and self-interest. Specifically, botb altruism and self-intere

were found to be two parts of the same whole. This wholfionctions as a single, self-sustaining p henomen on. The prese

research represents an initial step in the reduction of th e u

spoken double bind that seems foundational to such ailment

as counselor bumout, impairment, and compassion fatigue

Our hop e is that this theory w ill inspire counselors to achiev

Wellness so that they can effectively help others.

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