Theory & Methods in Social Sciencea brief introduction to

Social Science Research

• Research: the systematic process of collecting and analysing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested

Social Science Research

• Basic or Pure Research: aim is to develop a body of general knowledge for the understanding of human social behaviour

• Applied Research: aim is to provide knowledge and information that can be used to influence social policy or evaluate a current social program

Theory & Methods

• Theory: A systematic explanation for observations that relate to a particular aspect of life

• Method: a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching something

REMEMBERMETHODS are the ways we collect evidence/data

THEORIES are how we interpret evidence/data

“Theory without data is empty, but data without theory is blind.”

- C. Wright Mills, American sociologist, 1916 –1962

Theoretical Approaches

• Theoretical orientation: general attitude about how cultural phenomena are to be explained

• Paradigm: model or framework for understanding (that is, theoretical orientation) that shapes both what we see and how we understand it

Theoretical Approaches

Theoretical orientation = Paradigm

Theoretical Approaches:Social Exchange Theory

• Views society as a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments

• Human beings make social decisions based on perceived costs and benefits

Theoretical Approaches:Conflict Theory

• Views social behavior as a process of conflict, the attempt of groups o dominate others and avoid being dominated

• Often focuses on class, gender, and ethnic struggles but can be applied to any groups with competing interests

• Example: Michael Chossudovsky’s 1997 analysis of International Monetary Fun and World Bank

Theoretical Approaches:Symbolic Interaction

• Emphasizes how people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true

• Addresses subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors

• Meanings are negotiated through use of language

• Example: Teenage smoking

Theoretical Approaches:Structural Functionalism

• Also known as Social Systems Theory

• A social entity (i.e. an organization or a whole society) is like an organism, made up of different parts all contributing to function of whole

• Emphasizes interconnectedness of social life –looks for “functions” served by different components of society

• Example: Émile Durkheim’s analysis of deviant behavior’s function in society

Methods:Survey Methods

• Survey research collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about thoughts/feelings/behaviors

• Includes questionnaires and interviews

• Strengths: Large sample sizes possible

• Weaknesses: difficult to get responses, can tell us what people think/believe but not what they actually do

Methods:Field Research

• Refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey

• Purpose is to observe specific behaviors in subject’s natural setting

• Includes participant observation, ethnography, and the case study

• Strengths: Yields detailed, accurate, real-to-life information

• Weaknesses: Time consuming, difficult to objectively organize data, answers questions about what people do but not why

Methods:Experimental Methods

• Classic experiment: Pre-testing and post-testing of experimental group and control group

• Strength: Allows us to test for cause-and-effect relationships

• Weaknesses: “Hawthorne Effect,” ethical concerns

Methods:Unobtrusive Methods

• Relies on secondary data sources such as reports, government records, newspapers, memoirs, letters, journals

• Strengths: makes good use of already existing data

• Weaknesses: can be difficult to find data sources

Qualitative & Quantitative Data• Quantitative: – data that can be expressed in numbers – because the data is in a numeric form, we can apply

statistical tests including descriptive statistics like the mean, median, and standard deviation, and inferential statistics like t-tests, ANOVAs, or multiple regression correlations

• Qualitative:– describes the qualities or characteristics of something;

cannot easily reduce these descriptions to numbers (sometimes can achieve with encoding)

– Instead of statistical analysis, researchers look for trends in the data

Which is more trustworthy for a study? Why?

Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

“There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.”

-Mark Twain, American writer, 1835 - 1910

"Women are paid 77 cents on the dollar for doing the same

work as men."

-Barack ObamaJune 21st, 2012

campaign ad

Bureau of Labor Department stats

Median earnings of full-time female workers is 77% of the median earnings of

full-time male workers….

A few considerations…

• How many hours is “full-time?”– Anything between 35 and 80…– “Full-time” men average more hours

• What is “the same work?”– Doesn’t differentiate between different

occupations with income gaps like teacher/lawyer– Women are more likely to be in lower paying field

such as education, social work

Does that statistic REALLY mean that a woman is paid LESS than a man doing the SAME kind

of work?

Does that statistic REALLY mean that a woman is paid LESS than a man doing the SAME kind of

work?

…or does it reflect that men work, on average, more hours per week in different, higher-paid fields?

Does that statistic REALLY mean that a woman is paid LESS than a man doing the SAME kind of work?

…or does it reflect that men work, on average, more hours per week in different, higher-paid fields?

…in any case we can’t be sure because the statistic is not based on a comparison of men and women doing the same kind of work for the same number of hours.

Qualitative & Quantitative Data

• Quantitative: –Provides BREADTH

• Qualitative:–Provides DEPTH

Battered Dogs Get More Empathy Than Battered Adults

Battered Dogs Get More Empathy Than Battered Adults

• What is the research question?• What methods were used?• What were the findings? • What theoretical approach was used in the

interpretation of the findings?

Ethical Considerations

• Voluntary participation• No harm to participants• Anonymity and confidentiality• Deception (debriefing)• Analysis and reporting• Institutional Review Boards• Professional Codes of Ethics

Summary• Social scientists utilize a variety of qualitative and quantitative

research methods to collect data on social phenomena – no method is best, it depends on the research question to be answered

• Theoretical orientations provide a framework for interpreting the data collected by the various methods– many exist but are not necessarily contradictory, rather they offer

different ways of examining the same phenomenon

• Social scientists conduct both pure research (with the goal of simply expanding our knowledge ) and applied research (with the goal of addressing social problems and concerns)