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Theory and Research. Two Big Questions I. Is Development Active or Passive? A. Mechanistic Model:...
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Transcript of Theory and Research. Two Big Questions I. Is Development Active or Passive? A. Mechanistic Model:...
![Page 1: Theory and Research. Two Big Questions I. Is Development Active or Passive? A. Mechanistic Model: people are like machines that react to environmental.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062804/5697bf7a1a28abf838c83226/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Theory and Research
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Two Big Questions
I. Is Development Active or Passive?
A. Mechanistic Model: people are like machines that react to environmental input (and activated genetic predispositions).
B. Organismic Model: people are active growing organisms that set their own development in motion.
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II. Is Development Continuous or Does It Occur in Stages?
A. Mechanistic theorists...
1. Quantitative (Continuous) Change: incrementalchanges that build on each other leading to constant psychological growth.
B. Organismic theorists
2. Qualitative (Discontinuous) Change: changes occur ina series of distinct stages. At each new stage, people areable to deal with entirely different problems with entirelynew abilities.
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Five Theoretical Perspectives of Human Development
I. Psychoanalytic Perspective: Sigmund FreudA. Libido: a psychosexual energy.
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B. Personality
1) Id: the part that is comprised of all of our biological drives that demand immediate gratification.
2) Ego: the rational, negotiating, and decision-making component of the personality.
3) Superego: the internalized values and rules we receive from our parents and society.
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When the conflict is resolved in a positive and constructive manner, the person moves into the next stage of development in a psychologically healthy state. If the conflict is not resolved, the negative effects will most likely carry over into future stages, and have a detrimental effect on the challenges that are yet to be faced.
II. Psychosocial Perspective: Erik Erikson
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III. Learning Perspective: changes in behavior result from experience or adaptation to the environment.
A. Learning Theory 1: Behaviorism: a mechanistic theory that describes observed behavior as a predictable response to experience.
1) Classical Conditioning: Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response.Applies to involuntary responses.
2) Operant Conditioning: Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences. The individual learns from the consequences of “operating” in the environment.Applies to voluntary responses.
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Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
John Watson: Conditioning of Fear
Orphan boy ‘Little Albert’
– 3. Albert cried because of noise– 4. Eventually, site of rat made
Albert cry
– 1. Albert liked the furry rat – 2. Rat presented with loud CRASH!
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Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
Increases likelihood of behavior reoccurring
Positive: Giving a rewardCandy for finishing a task
Negative: Removing something aversiveNo chores for getting an A+ on homework
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Operant Conditioning: Punishment
Decreases likelihood of behavior reoccurring
Positive: Adding something aversiveExtra Chores
Negative: Removing something pleasantTaking away car keys
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B. Learning Theory 2: Social Learning
1) Social Learning: we learn about many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time by observing the behaviors of others and from imagining the consequences of our own.
2) Self-Efficacy in Social Learning: we tend to imitate people we admire and who are perceived as similar to us in some fashion.
Bandura’s“Bobo” Doll Study
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IV. Cognitive Perspective
A. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory: He tried to understand how children cognitively develop through the mistakes they make.
1) Schema: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
2) Assimilation: we interpret new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.
3) Accommodation: we adapt our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new and different information.
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B. Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages
1) Sensorimotor: experiencing the world through our senses and our actions, such as looking, touching, tasting, etc., (age 0 to 2).
Lack of…Object Permanence: the awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived.
2) Pre-operational: representing things with words and images, but lacking logical reasoning (age 2 to 6).
Kids realize that they exist, understand time, and the permanence of objects, but they do not understand the...
Conservation of Mass: the understanding that physical propertiesdo not change when nothing is added or taken away, even thoughappearances may change.
They suffer from…Egocentrism: the inability to take another person’s physical view.
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3) Concrete Operational: the ability to think logically about concrete events and engage in inductive reasoning. The ability to do basic math and understand the conservation of mass (age 7 to 11).
4) Formal Operational: engage in abstract reasoning and deductive reasoning. Capable of moral and ethical thought (age 11 and up).
C. The Information-Processing approach: cognitive development is continuous and improvements are due to age-related increases in speed, complexity, and efficiency of mental processing and increases in information storage capacity.
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V. Evolutionary Perspective: Charles Darwin
Developmentally, certain behaviors are more adaptable at certain stages of development.
1) Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: the distance between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with assistance from others.
2) Scaffolding: temporary support to help a child master a task.
Darwin argued that all species shared a remote common ancestor and over time we broke off into separate species. Different characteristics of a species may be more or less adaptable in particular environments. Those that were more adaptable continued into future generations while themaladaptive ones died off.
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Research Methods
A. Quantitative Research: focuses on “hard” data and numerical or statistical measures.
B. Qualitative Research: focuses on non-numerical data such as subjective experiences, feelings, beliefs, etc...
I. Methodological Concepts
C. Theory: an explanation or model created from a great many observations and capable of making valid predictions or hypotheses.
D. Falsifiable: stated in such clear, precise terms that we can see what evidence would count against it.
E. Hypothesis: a tentative explanation for an observation that can be tested through research.
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II. Basic Research Designs
A. Case Study: a thorough description of the person, including the person’s abilities and disabilities, medical conditions, life history, unusual experiences, or whatever else seems relevant.
B. Ethnographic Studies: an in-depth examination of the patterns of relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and traditions that make up a society’s way of life.
1) Correlation: a measured relationship between 2 variables.
C. Correlational Study: a procedure in which investigators measure the correlation between 2 variables without controlling for either of them.
2) Correlation Coefficient: a mathematical estimate of the relationship between 2 variables: The range is –1 to +1.
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D. Experiment: a study in which the investigator manipulates atleast one variable while measuring at least one other variable.
1) Independent Variable: the item that the experimenter manipulates to get an effect.
2) Dependent Variable: the item that the experimentermeasures to see if the independent variable had an effect.
3) Experimental Group: group that receives the treatment (Independent Variable) that an experiment is designed to test.
4) Control Group: group that is treated just like theexperimental group, but does not receive the treatment.
5) Random Assignment: experimenter uses some randomprocess of assigning people to each group.
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III. Scientific Method: the way in whichscientists go about investigating and makingclaims about phenomena.
A. Hypothesis: a tentative explanation for an observation thatcan be tested through research.
B. Method: the process by which you test your hypothesis.
C. Results: the recorded outcome of the method.
D. Interpretation: your evaluation of the results.
E. Replicability: the ability for other people to replicateprevious results through further experimentation using thesame procedures.
F. Operational Definitions: a definition that specifies the procedures used to produce or measure something.
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IV. Sampling
A. Population: the entire group of people to be considered.
B. Sample: a small number of people taken from the population.
1) Convenience Sample: a sample that can include anyone.
2) Representative Sample: a sample that closely resembles the population you are studying.
3) Random sample: each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
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V. Forms of Data Collection
A. Survey: a study of the prevalence of certain beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors based on people’s responses to specific questions.
B. Naturalistic Observation: a careful examination of what happens under more or less natural conditions.
C. Laboratory Observation: behavior is observed and recorded in a controlled environment.
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VI. Developmental Research Designs
A. Cross-Sectional Study: a study designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion.
B. Longitudinal Study: a study designed to assess changes in a sample over time.
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C. Sequential Study: a combination of a Cross-Sectional Study and a Longitudinal Study.
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VII. Ethical Concerns with Humans: experimenters must be careful that the designs of their studies do not harm participants mentally, emotionally, or physically.
A. Informed Consent: a statement informing participants what to expect in an experiment and that requires their acceptance of the procedures.
C. Right to Privacy and Confidentiality: results and names must be kept confidential.
B. Avoidance of Deception