Theory and Methods
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Transcript of Theory and Methods
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Theory and Methods
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Learning Theory Define: The more or less permanent
change in behaviour potentiality which occurs as a result of repeated practice.
• The change could be permanent or temporary
• The behaviour does not necessarily have to be observable (fMRI)
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Learning Theory Classical (Respondent) Conditioning
(or Pavlovian Conditioning) Pavlov and Watson - conditioned reflex
method Reflex - a biologically determined
behaviour that is always elicited by a particular stimulus
Behaviour is called respondent behaviour
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Learning Theory Elements of classical conditioning
US (unconditioned stimulus) UR (unconditioned response) CS (conditioned stimulus)
It can be perceived and attended Does not elicit UR itself
CR (conditioned response) Occurs before UR Smaller in magnitude than UR Form of response may be different than UR
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Schematic of Elements
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CS
UR
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USCS
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Learning Theory Elements of classical conditioning
(cont.) CS preceeds US CS overlaps with US in time
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Example of Acquisition & Extinction
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10-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+
CS-US Unpaired CS-US Paired
CS Alone ExtinctionAcquisition
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Learning Theory Operant Conditioning (learning)
Skinner believed in operant behaviours that are not reflexes but are emitted due to their consequences
Response/reinforcer (reward) association Behaviour is an instrument to attain some
end Example: rats in a maze to get food
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T-maze
Multiple T-maze: Honzik (1936)
Food Box
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Constant Variable
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Learning Theory: Operant Thorndike - Law of
Effect Responses which
produce rewards (or positive consequences) will tend to increase in frequency
Example: infants and footkicking
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Learning Theory: Operant Negative reinforcers
A response that has the consequence of removing something unwanted
Punishers Consequences that reduce the expression
of a behaviour
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Learning Theory Habituation
Simplest form of learning Most often used with infants Like classical conditioning, starts with a reflex With repeated exposure to the eliciting stimulus,
response declines Dishabituation - the recovery of the reflex
response when a new eliciting stimulus is presented
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Learning Theory Habituation (cont.)
most commonly habituated reflexes are the orienting response and the startle response
Kellman & Spelke (1983)
Habituate Unitary Object Test Two Object Test
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Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura Observational learning Previous learning was active,
whereas in some learning the child is passive and just observes
Imitation - Meltzoff deferred imitation
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Ethology Study of development from an
evolutionary perspective Imprinting - interaction between biology
and environment Lorenz and chicks Language Visual deprivation
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Research Methods Theory - A set of expressions put forth
as an explanation of facts and empirical findings
A good theory makes predictions as yet unknown facts called a hypothesis need to test hypothesis
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Hypothesis Testing
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Research Methods Two requirements for testing:
1) objective methods
2) measurable behaviors - morality
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Types of Research Descriptive - observing and recording Correlational - describes the relation
between two variables measured on a -1.00 to 1.00 scale
(correlation coefficient) severe limitation - correlation does not
indicate causality
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Correlations
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Types of Research Experimental - purpose is to draw
cause-and-effect conclusions one variable is manipulated - Independent
variable effect on the other variable is measured -
Dependent variable
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Developmental Research Need to take into account time
Longitudinal same subject is studied repeatedly at
different ages can be either correlational or experimental
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Developmental Research Longitudinal (cont.)
typically, two types of questions 1) Stability 2) Early Experience Effects Problems -
subject loss repeated testing effects length of the study
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Developmental Research Cross-sectional
study children at different ages to examine differences in behavior at different ages
Problem cannot study stability or earlly experience
effects cohort effect - differences are due to different
age populations being members of different generations
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Developmental Research Longitudinal/Cross-Sectional Combo
also called cross-sequential design can test for cohort effects & repeated
testing examine stability and age differences
Microgenetic Examining a small group begining at an
age where major development Example: Perception Again, problem of repeated testing
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Cross-sequential design
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Developmental Research Case Studies
typically used in clinical research study a single individual Problem of generalizing conclusion to
whole population
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Developmental Research Cross-Cultural
Comparative compare species to examine evolutionary issues mostly, to do studies not possible in
humans