Theories of Religion

Topic 1 – AQA Sociology

Definitions

There are three definitions you need to know…

• Substantive

• Functional

• Social Constructionist

Substantive Definition

• Weber defines religion as a belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically.

• Exclusive (draw a clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs)

• Western bias (exclude religions which do not have the Western idea of a God)

• Conform to a widespread view of religion as a belief in God. However, this leaves no room for beliefs and practices which don’t include God.

Functional Definitions

• The social and psychological functions religion performs for society.

• Durkheim defines religion as the contribution it makes to social integration rather than any specific belief in God or the supernatural.

• Yinger says one functions religion plays is that it answers ‘ultimate’ questions about the meaning of life and what happens when we die.

• Inclusive (so non Western-bias)

• However, just because an institution helps integrate individuals, it doesn’t mean it is a religion.

Social Constructionist

Definitions• This is how members of a society define religion – social

constructionists believe it is not possible to produce a single, universal definition.

• Aldridge argues for it’s followers, Scientology is a religion even though governments denied its legal status as a religion and sought to ban it.

• Definitions can be contested and are influences by those who have the power to define the situation.

• Don’t assume a religion has to include a belief in God.

• This definition can get close to the meanings people give to religion.

• Can’t generalise the nature of religion.

Functionalist Theories

Functionalists think society is like an organism whose

needs are met by different institutions. They believe there is

a need for social order and solidarity for cooperation

amongst members. The existence of a value consensus (a

set of shared norms and values) means people won’t

pursue selfish desires and society won’t disintegrate.

Durkheim

The Sacred and The Profane

• The Sacred: things set apart and forbidden which inspire

feelings of awe, fear and wonder and are surrounded by taboos

and prohibitions. They evoke powerful feelings as the symbols

represent things of a greater power, which Durkheim thinks is

society. So, when people worship the symbols, they are

worshipping society. By doing so, they are uniting as a single

moral community.

• The Profane: these things have no special significance; they

are ordinary and mundane. It involves definite rituals or

practices in the relation to the sacred and these rituals are

collective.

Durkheim

Totemism

Durkheim believes the essence of religion is found in a clan

society. So, he studied the Arunta Society. The Arunta clan

consists of bands of kin who come together periodically to

perform rituals which involve worshipping a sacred totem.

The totem symbolises the clans emblem, identity, origin,

solidarity and a sense of belonging. When they worship the

totem, they are therefore worshipping society. It represents

the power of a group which an individual is ‘utterly

dependent’.

Durkheim

The Collective Conscience

This is represented by the sacred symbols. The collective

conscious is the shared norms and values that make social

life and cooperation possible. Regular shared religious rituals

reinforce the collective conscious and maintain social

integration. This binds individuals together, reminding us of

our part in a single moral community to which we owe loyalty.

Without society’s power, we would be nothing and so by

feeling as if we are a part of something great, we feel strong

enough to face life’s trials and obstacles.

Durkheim

Cognitive Functions of Religion

Religion is the source of all intellectual/cognitive capacities.

In order to share our thoughts, we need to use the same

categories as others. Religion is the origin of the categories

we need for communication and reasoning.

Durkheim and Mauss’ book says religion provides basic

categories. Also, the division of tribes into clans gives us the

first notion of classification.

Criticisms

• Worsley says there is no sharp division between the

sacred and the profane and different clans actually share

the totem.

• It is hard to apply to large scale societies. Durkheim does

not explain conflict between religious communities.

• Mestrovic argues Durkheim’s ideas can’t be applied to a

contemporary society because there is increased diversity,

so the collective conscious is fragmented.

Psychological Functions

Malinowski believes religion promotes solidarity by

performing psychological functions.

1. At Times of Life Crisis: (i.e. birth, puberty). This periods

mark disruptive changes which religion minimises. For

example, funerals reinforce solidarity amongst survivors

and immorality provides comfort by denying death.

2. Where the Outcome is Important but Uncontrollable and

Uncertain: Trobriand Islanders Study – Lagoon fishing is

safe and predictable. Ocean fishing is dangerous,

uncertain and gives confidence to undertake hazardous

tasks.

Value and Meaning

Parsons argues religion helps individuals to cope with

unforseen events and controllable outcomes.

• Creates and Legitimates Society’s Sacred Values: by

sacralising them (making them sacred). This serves to

promote consensus value and social stability.

• Primary Source of Meaning: this answers ‘ultimate

questions’ about the human condition. This helps us to

adjust to adverse events and maintains stability.

Civil Religion

Bellah defines civil religion as a belief system that attaches

sacred qualities to society itself. He believes civil religion

integrates society in a way that individual religion cannot.

Also, civil religion can claim the loyalty of all Americans,

unlike Churches and Denominations. American civil religion

involves loyalty to the nation and a belief in God (both of

which are equated with being a true American). It is

expressed through rituals, symbols and beliefs (i.e. the

national anthem). Civil religion is “the American way of life”

Functional Alternatives

Bellah notes functional alternatives are non-religious

beliefs and practices which perform similar functions

to those of organised religions. Bellah argues that

although civil religion involves a belief in God, this

doesn’t have to be the case. Groups such as the

Nazis had secular, non-religious, political beliefs and

rituals around which they sought to unite society.

However, the problem with the idea of functional

alternatives is the same as with functional definitions

of religion; it ignores what makes religion distinctive

and different.

Evaluation of Functionalism

• Neglects negative aspects of religion (e.g.

oppression of women and the poor)

• Ignores religion as a source of division and

conflict.

• Is civil religion really a religion? Especially since is

it not based on a belief in the supernatural.

Marxist Theories

Marxists see society as based on harmony and consensus.

They believe society is split into two classes: the ruling class

and the working class. The ruling class own the means of

production which exploit and alienate the working class.

There is always the potential for class conflict. Marx

predicted the working class will become conscious of their

exploitation and unite to overthrow capitalism.

Marxism sees religion as a feature only of class-divided

society. In a classless society, religion will not be needed and

it will disappear.

Religion as Ideology

Marx believes religion operates as an ideological weapon

used by the ruling class to legitimate the suffering of the poor

as inevitable and God-given. It misleads the poor into

believing that their suffering is virtuous and they will be

favoured in the after life. This creates a false consciousness

which prevents the poor from acting to change their situation.

Religion as Ideology

Lenin describes religion as a ‘spiritual gin’ – an intoxicant

doled out to the masses by the ruling class to confuse them

and keep them in their place. He believes the ruling class

use religion cynically to manipulate the masses and keep

them from trying to overthrow the ruling class by creating a

‘mystical fog’ which obscures reality.

Religion and Alienation

Marx believes religion is a product of alienation. In

the dehumanising work conditions, the working class

turn to religion for consolation. It acts an an opiate to

mask the problem, but as it is a distorted view of the

world it can’t offer a solution. But, the promises of an

afterlife create an illusory happiness that distracts

them from the source of suffering – capitalism.

Criticisms

• Marx ignores positive functions. Neo-Marxists see

certain forms of religion as assisting the

development of class consciousness.

• Althusser rejects the concept of alienation as

unscientific and based on a romantic idea that we

have a ‘true self’.

• Abercombie and Turner say in pre-capitalist

society, Christianity only had a limited impact on

the peasantry.

Feminist Theories

Feminists see society ad patriarchal with many

feminists regarding religion as a patriarchal

institution that reflects and perpetuates this

inequality between men and women. Religious

beliefs function as a patriarchal ideology that

legitimates female subordination.

Evidence of Patriarchy in

Religion

• Religious organisations: feminists see them as male

dominated. Armstrong believes women’s exclusion from

priest hood is evidence of their marginalisation

• Places of worship: often segregate the sexes and

marginalise women. Women’s participation may be

restricted: taboos regarding menstruation for example will

mean they are seen as polluting and so this prevents

participation.

• Sarced texts: feature the doing of male Gods and are

written and interpreted by men. They also reflect anti-

female stereotypes.

• Religious laws and customs: give women fewer

rights by legitimating and regulating women’s

traditional domestic and reproductive role.

Woodhead says the exclusion from Catholic

priesthood is evidence of the Church’s deep

unease about emancipation.

However, women have not always been subordinate to men in religion. Armstrong points out early religions often placed women at the centre. But, from about 4,000 years ago, the rise of monotheistic religions saw the rise of a single, all powerful male God.

El Saadawi sees the rise of monotheism as legitimating the power of men over women. Patriarchy is actually re-shaping religion.

The C of E has now permitted women priests since 1992 and recently, female bishops also.

Religious Feminism

Woodhead argues there are ‘religious forms of

feminism’ (women can use religion to gain freedom

and respect). She uses the example of the Hijab.

She says the Hijab symbolises a woman’s resistance

to oppression and liberation so they can enter the

public sphere without losing culture and history

whilst increasing their power and influence.

Marxist Feminist

De Beauvoir believes religion is used by the

oppressor to control the oppressed. Religion

compensates for women of the second class status.

Religion also acts as an instrument of a deception;

women are socialised to be relatively passive but are

promised false rewards. This is despite the fact that

women introduce kids to religion so they are vital to

it.