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Transcript of Theories of Personality Observational Learning – Chapter 13 The Humanistic Perspective – Chapter...
Theories of Personality
Observational Learning – Chapter 13The Humanistic Perspective – Chapter 14
April 25, 2003Class # 12
Albert Bandura (1925-present)
Pioneering researcher in observational learningWas born in the small town of Mundare in northern Alberta, Canada He received his bachelors degree in Psychology from the University of British Columbia in 1949He went on to the University of Iowa, where he received his Ph.D. in 1952It was there that he came under the influence of the behaviorist tradition and learning theory
Bandura’s Background
In 1953, he started teaching at Stanford University…While there, he collaborated with his first graduate student, Richard Walters, resulting in their first book, Adolescent Aggression, in 1959Bandura was president of the APA in 1973, and received the APA’s Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions in 1980He continues to work at Stanford to this day
Social Learning Theory
Also called observational learning, this is learning that occurs by observing and imitating others (the person being observed is referred to as the model)Major components involved in
observational learningAttentionRetentionReproductionMotivationPerformance (Self-efficacy)
Major ComponentsAttention If you are going to learn anything, you have to be paying attention. Likewise,
anything that puts a damper on attention is going to decrease learning If, for example, you are sleepy, groggy, drugged, sick, nervous, etc you will learn less. Likewise, if you are being distracted by competing stimuli
Retention Second, you must be able to retain -- remember -- what you have paid attention to
Imagery Verbal coding (using language to help describe what was seen) Mental rehearsal using both imagery and language
Production (Reproduction) You have to have the ability to reproduce the behavior in the first place. For example: Some people can watch Olympic ice skaters all day long, yet not be
able to reproduce their jumps, because they can’t ice skate at all! On the other hand, if they could skate, their performance would in fact improve if they watch skaters who are better than they are
Major Components
Motivation Bandura feels that even with all this you’re still not
going to do anything unless you are motivated to imitate, i.e. until you have some reason for doing it
Bandura mentions a number of motives: past reinforcement
past rewards promised reinforcements
incentives that we can imagine vicarious reinforcement
seeing and recalling the model being reinforced
Major Components
PerformanceShould I repeat what I just saw? What are the consequences to model and
observer?
Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) The “Bobo" Doll Experiment
Note : Bandura did a large number of variations on the “Bobo doll” experiment…we’ll look at a few
Phase 1 Pre-schoolers were divided into two groups and put
into two separate rooms and allowed to play with "attractive" toys while “Bobo” an unattractive inflatable, adult-sized, egg-shaped balloon creature (the kind that bounces back after it's been knocked down) sat by itself at the far end of the rooms
Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) The “Bobo" Doll Experiment
Phase 2 Group 1: While playing with the attractive toys the
children witnessed adults enter the room and start beating the daylights out of the clown
Group2: While playing with the attractive toys the children witnessed adults enter the room and play nicely with Bobo
Phase 3 The attractive toys were taken away from each group
Results: What happened next?
Bandura (1965) The “Bobo" Doll Experiment
In the 1965, version kids watched films of adults beating on Bobo – but each had different endings…Film 1: Adult praised and rewarded with candy and soda by another
adult who was heard saying, “You’re a strong champion”
Film 2: Adult is scolded by another adult, “You’re very bad” or “Hey
there, you big bully, you quit picking on that clown”
Film 3: Neutral ending – neither reward nor punishment
Who cares about what a kid does to a "Bobo" doll?
Well, that’s what the critics said…”those things are made to punched aren’t they?”Responding to criticism that Bobo dolls were supposed to be hit, Bandura did a film of a young woman beating up a live clown When the children went into the other room, what should they find there but -- the live clown! They proceeded to punch him, kick him, hit him with little hammers, and so on…
Violence in Schools
3M thefts and violent crimes (16000 per day) occur on school property each year (National Crime Survey, 2000)7% of teenagers have been victims of a violent crime (compare this to less than 3% of the population over 19)Recent studies have found that 21% had seen weapons at their schools and 15% had actually taken a weapon into school22% report have been in a fight in the past year – mostly boys but girls are on the increase as well 35% fear being attacked at school24% fear being attacked going to and from school13% avoid certain areas inside the school out of fear of being attacked
82% of school's nationwide have reported an increase in violence over the past 7 years
Is Television To Blame?
Bandura feels his theory applies hereHundreds of studies say yes! Why?
they become immune to the horrors of violence (they are desensitized)
they gradually come to accept violence as a way to solve problems they imitate the violence they observe on television they identify with certain characters (ex: Bruce Willis, WWF, etc.)
The Social-Cognitive Perspective: Conceptualizing Behavioral Problems
Can depression be a result of learning from our environment?
Can negative expectations from this learning also contribute to this?
The Social-Cognitive Perspective: Conceptualizing Behavioral Problems
Learned helplessness (Seligman, 1970s)
Uncontrollable events
Explanatory style (Seligman, 1980s)How we explain eventsLocus of Control (Rotter, 1954)
Attributional/Explanatory Style Model of Depression
Extension of Learned Helplessness model
We make attributions about events that happen in our lives
The I.S.G. Formula
Attributions can be: Internal/External Locus of Control
This is taken from Rotter (1954)Related to affect and self esteem
Stable/Unstable Consequences of the event?
(Long term? Short term?)
Global/SpecificDomain specificity?
Explanatory Style Illustration:Why did you fail that math
test?Internal: “I’m stupid”
External: “The test was unfair”
---------------------------------------------------------------
Stable: “I always do poorly on tests”
Unstable: “I’ll do better on the next one”
---------------------------------------------------------------
Global: “I’ll never get my degree”
Specific: “I’m not doing well in this particular class, but I’m doing well in my other classes”
Optimistic vs. Pessimistic Styles
Optimistic explanatory styleGood event: internal/stable/globalBad event: external/unstable/specific
Pessimistic explanatory styleGood event: external/unstable/specificBad event: internal/stable/global
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
The son of prosperous businesspeopleHe was reared in a strict religious environment that placed great emphasis on the value of hard work, the sharing of responsibility, and educationStrict upbringing led to Rogers being quite isolated as a youth but also very self-disciplinedStarted school in the second grade as even before kindergarten he could read at this level
BiographyRogers enrolled in the University of Wisconsin with the intention of studying agriculture
However, he soon decided to prepare for the ministry
Leaving Wisconsin in 1924, he entered the Union Theological Seminary in New York
Biography
While at this famous religious institute he took a student organized seminar course called “Why am I entering the seminary?”… Shortly after taking that course he left the seminary What was religion’s loss however became psychology’s gain
Rogers became deeply involved in clinical work with disturbed children, and his interests shifted to clinical psychologyHe received his doctorate from Columbia University in 1931 and went to work at a guidance clinic in Rochester, New York
Biography
He later taught at Ohio State University, the University of Chicago, and the University of Wisconsin, before settling at the Center for Studies of the Person in La Jolla, CaliforniaThroughout his career, Rogers continued to work extensively with delinquent and underprivileged children, gathering the experience that led to his theory of nondirective or person-centered therapy
He was a leader of the humanistic psychology movement until his death in 1987
Rogers’ views
His view of human behavior is that it is "exquisitely rational" (1961)
Furthermore, in his opinion: "the core of man's nature is essentially
positive" (1961) man is a "trustworthy organism" (1977)
These beliefs are reflected in his theory of personality
Client-Centered non-directive therapy Carl Rogers came to the conclusion that Freudian techniques did not work and that the less he tried to manipulate the therapy, the more likely was improvement in his patientsOut of this experience he developed his notion of client-centered therapy He called it 'client-centered' because it is the intention
that the patient should arrive at the insights rather than the therapist
It is non-directive because the therapist does not try to direct the patient's attention to particular topics, such as early childhood experiences
Unlike Freud, who wanted his patients to talk about their feelings, Rogers wanted them to experience them
Changed the name…
Later, Rogers changed the name of his theory to “person-centered”
He felt this better described the process
Either name though suggests that the client or person has responsibility for his or her own improvement
The Phenomenal World
According to Rogers we enter the world with no self-concept and no selfAll we have is sensory impressions, biological processes, motor activitiesRogers said every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience
He called this the phenomenal world
The Phenomenal World
As we grow, we learn to differentiate our self from the other parts of the phenomenal world and eventually come to see ourselves as an independent selfIn Rogers' view, people came to him for counseling because, as a result of experiences as they had grown up, they had become someone they were notAs a result, they would be suffering from
anxiety, stress, low self-esteem
Core of Personality
Core TendencyThe tendency to actualize one's inherent
potentialitiesThis potential exists in all living organisms,
even plantsHumans possess an additional form
The attempt to actualize the self Referred to as self-actualization
Core Characteristics of Personality
Self The person's conscious sense of who and what you
are Is available to awareness, although not always in
awareness. Gradually emerges through experiences with verbal
labels such as "I" or "Me"Phenomenological Reality A person's private perception of reality (whether or
not it agrees with objective reality). Experience is the highest authority. If you think you are not good-looking or smart, this is part of your self concept regardless of reality
Core Characteristics of Personality
Need for Positive RegardThe universal need for acceptance,
love, and approval from othersParticularly important during infancy
Need for Positive Self-RegardWhen acceptance and approval come
from within the individual and forms part of the self-concept
Development
Rogers does not specify any developmental stages, but does make some comments concerning development in general… Of basic importance is the fact that one's inherent
potentialities are genetically determined, while the self-concept is socially determined
Thus, there is the possibility of a difference between the two
Development
The important influences are:Conditional Positive Regard Conditions of Worth Incongruence Unconditional Positive RegardCongruence
Conditional Positive Regard
The granting of love and approval only when behaving in accordance with parent's wishes, or when parents withdraw love if the child misbehaves. Leads to next influence (see next slide)
Conditions of Worth
The individual's belief that he/she is worthy of affection only when expressing desirable behaviors
Sounds similar to Freud’s superego???
IncongruenceWhen there is a split between experience and self-concept (disorganization) Prevents self-actualization Leads to defensive behavior
Major defenses Preventing threatening experiences from reaching
awareness at all Distortion of experience
Sounds like Freud’s repression and rationalization???
Unconditional Positive Regard
The granting of love and approval regardless of individual's behavior…Does not mean lack of restraint… If a child runs out in front of a truck, stop
him and tell him it is dangerous, but don't spank him and tell him he is a bad, evil boy
Note:Rogers was totally against punishment
as a means of controlling behavior
Congruence
When the self concept is in agreement with inherent potentialities and there are minimal conditions of worth
Leads to openness to experience and a fully functioning person
Periphery of Personality
Rogers discussed only two broad types…One where the self-actualizing tendency is
vigorously functioning One where it is not
Fully Functioning Person
The ideal person Has received unconditional positive regard,
has few conditions of worth, and has congruence between self and potentialities
Fully Functioning Person
CharacteristicsOpenness to ExperienceExistential LivingOrganismic TrustingExperiential FreedomCreativity
Characteristics of a Fully Functioning Person
Openness to Experience opposite of defensiveness Is reflective and much emotional depth (for
both pleasure and pain)
Existential LivingLiving fully in each and every momentThe absence of rigidity, is flexible,
adaptable, and spontaneous
Fully Functioning Person
Organismic Trusting intuitive living
the ability to accept information from all bases experience is the highest authority
if it feels right, it probably is…very different from Freudian views
Experiential Freedom the freedom to choose among alternatives
Creativity the ability to produce new and effective ideas and
things
Maladjusted Person
Has received conditional positive regard and developed conditions of worth
There is incongruence between self and potentialities
Maladjusted Person
Characteristics: Defensive Living
Not open to experience Live According to preconceived plan
generally laid down by parents Disregards organism
not intuitive Feels manipulated
not free to choose Common and conforming
Conforms despite reservations
CriticismsCommon Carl we all have the capacity for evil… Critics say Rogers didn’t appreciate this His world wasn’t real
Critics also say: that there is a certain amount of selfishness in Roger's theoryOne critic has called Humanistic Psychology
"the narcissism of our culture" that we are so lost in self love that we fail
to relate to outside reality
Characteristics of successful therapists
Congruence
Empathy
Learn from Client
Unconditional Positive Regard
Rogers believed that these four characteristics of the person doing therapy were more important than the therapist's philosophy or technique
Successful Therapists
CongruenceGood therapists can't be phony they must be able to relate to others
honestly and sincerelyThey don't have to be perfect, but can't be
defensive when relating to othersCan't play games with clients
Successful Therapists
EmpathyMust be able to put yourself in your
client's shoesMust be accurate empathy
Not just "Yeah, I know what you are feeling, because I...".
Successful Therapists
Learn from ClientGood therapists can shut up and listenTherapy is a two-way street, and the
therapist should benefit from therapy also
Note:Rogers always worked 12 - 20 hours of
therapy/week Felt it helped him
Successful Therapists
Unconditional Positive RegardYou must genuinely like the clientYou do not have to approve of his or her
behavior, but must be able to separate the sins from the sinner
Basic Rogerian fundamentals…
People have this natural tendency for growth…
We have the freedom to choose…
Free will, etc.
Self-actualization is our primary goal
The focus was a 100% positive outlookPeople are basically good
Existential Psychology
Another part of the humanistic perspective include those that believe in basic Rogerian beliefs but add some cautions…Existential psychologists say that growth
and reaching one’s highest potential has a negative side…
A cost is involved…too many responsibilities
Rogers makes “free will” sound very good…
Existential psychologists add this warning…Well, since we have free will to make
choices if they turn out to be wrong choices…
Who do we blame???Only ourselves…can’t blame it on
some unconscious force, etc.We are alone in the universe…
Existential Psychology
Existentialism is a philosophy developed chiefly in the 20th century that attempts to find meaning in a seemingly meaningless world
The central themes of existentialism: Dasein
We are an autonomous, separate, and evolving entity We have no existence apart from the world we live in
An individual must assume all responsibilities for his or her acts of free will without any absolute knowledge of what is right or wrong
Existential Psychology
But some people don’t accept the responsibilities of their life choices…
Maybe even commit suicide to get out of the responsibilities…
But humanistic psychologists say that even this is a choice…Their choice
Okay, now that I’ve finally made the choice…
Well, first there was existential anxiety involved in making the choice… So, I guess I have this free will to do what I think is
right…but am I smart enough to know what is right…am I sure I will be doing the right thing?
Okay, I finally made the choice – but now I’m second-guessing myself Existential Guilt
The onus is on me I have to live with my decision
A hostile world?
Existentialism analyzes the somewhat dismal situation mankind has been thrown into, and produces a model for how an individual should live his or her lifeHowever, why should someone attempt to
live a life of morals and meaning in the cold and indifferent world that these psychologists depict?
Emptiness and LonelinessWell, this is a concern for existentialists… They are afraid that people have lost faith in values
They feel powerless against big businesses and government and even those they love I worked my butt off for my company for 25 years and now they lay me
off and hire some young kid who’s good at video games to take my place…
I gave him the best years of my life…and now he leaves me for his young secretary…
I try to be a good person but for what reason – everybody takes advantage of my good nature anyway Nice guys finish last… So its no more Mr. Nice Guy (Ms. Nice Woman) for me
Emptiness and Loneliness
Existentialists feel that when individuals have lost their commitment to their earlier set of values they experience the emptiness of despair
The hostile world is victorious
But where’s the real blame for this desperate existence that they now live? The existential psychologists points to the individual
The problem is within the individual who must be responsible for their own actions
What is the aim of existential psychotherapy?
The goals of existential therapy are: To enable people to become more truthful with
themselves To widen their perspective on themselves and the
world around them To find clarity on how to proceed in the future
while taking lessons from the past and creating something valuable to live for in the present
The aim is to offer the means for individuals to examine, confront and clarify and reassess their understanding of life, the problems encountered throughout their life, and the imposed limits inherent in our lives