Theories of Matter. usually rigid, having definite shape and volume Solids.
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Transcript of Theories of Matter. usually rigid, having definite shape and volume Solids.
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Theories of MatterTheories of Matter
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• usually rigid, having definite shape and volume
SolidsSolids
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• definite volume• assume shape of
containers but may not fill them
• can flow under influence of force
LiquidsLiquids
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• low density• can flow• can completely fill its
container• easily compressed and
rarified
GasesGases
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• exist when the particles of matter have enough kinetic energy that at least some of their electrons become stripped away
• very high temperatures
PlasmasPlasmas
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• fluid-like, as gases or liquids
• consist of a neutral mixture of electrons and positively charged particles
PlasmasPlasmas
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• solids, liquids, and gases have been understood for centuries
• states of matter are difficult to define with precision
States of MatterStates of Matter
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• Elements: the basic chemical building blocks of matter
• cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary means
Particles of MatterParticles of Matter
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• John Dalton developed atomic theory—matter is made up of atoms
• now know that atoms can be subdivided
Particles of MatterParticles of Matter
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• Protons: positively charged particles, found in the nucleus of an atom
• Neutrons: neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom
Particles of MatterParticles of Matter
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• Electrons: negatively charged particles occupying a region of space around the nucleus• 1/1860 the mass of a
proton
Particles of MatterParticles of Matter
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• Elementary particles: these make up protons, neutrons, and electons• quarks are an example• not fully understood
Particles of MatterParticles of Matter
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• atoms can combine:• molecules• formula units• chemical compounds
Particles of MatterParticles of Matter
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• Ions: charged particles consisting of one or more atoms with a mismatch between the total numbers of protons and electrons
Particles of MatterParticles of Matter
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• inconvenient to measure in grams or kilograms
• relative mass unit• atomic mass unit (amu)• unified atomic mass unit (u)
Atomic MassAtomic Mass
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• Mole: amount of a substance containing 6.022 × 1023 particles
• Avogadro’s constant (NA) or Avogadro’s number
Atomic MassAtomic Mass
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• A carbon-12 atom has a mass of 12.00 u. Avogadro’s number of carbon-12 atoms will have a mass of 12.00 g.
Atomic MassAtomic Mass
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• Ideal gas model is a good illustration of the kinetic theory
• Pressure = sum of impulsive forces divided by area of sides
Gas PressureGas Pressure
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• more atoms in the container → greater pressure
• smaller “area” on which to exert force → greater pressure
Gas PressureGas Pressure
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• greater speed (kinetic energy) of atoms in the container → greater pressure
Gas PressureGas Pressure
F =F =ΔtΔt
2mv2mv
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• The particles in solids are held rigidly with strong intermolecular force.
• These particles can vibrate in place.
Kinetic TheoryKinetic Theory
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• The velocity of these vibrations determines the particles’ kinetic energy.
• Large amounts of kinetic energy are indicated with high temperatures.
Kinetic TheoryKinetic Theory
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• Liquids have particles in close association but with more mobility.
Kinetic TheoryKinetic Theory
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• Cohesion: intermolecular attraction similar particles in a liquid have for each other
Kinetic TheoryKinetic Theory
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• Adhesion: intermolecular attraction between particles of dissimilar materials
Kinetic TheoryKinetic Theory
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• The kinetic theory of matter considers matter as a collection of numerous, extremely tiny particles in continuous motion.
Kinetic TheoryKinetic Theory
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• Although the kinetic theory of matter has limitations, it does a good job predicting the behavior of matter under many conditions.
Kinetic TheoryKinetic Theory
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States of MatterStates of Matter
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ArrangementArrangement• Crystalline solids: particles
are held in fixed patterns• unit cell• NaCl is a good example• most metals
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ArrangementArrangement• Amorphous solids:
particles do not form repeating patterns• glass
• Heterogeneous solids: have combination of crystalline and amorphous solids
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Elastic ModulusElastic Modulus• Solids can change shape
in response to certain forces
• Tensile forces tend to pull apart
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Elastic ModulusElastic Modulus• Stress (σ): related to the
tension force normal (perpendicular) to the cross-sectional area
• Defined: force per unit area
σ =AF
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Elastic ModulusElastic Modulus• Strain (ε): amount
stretched (Δl) divided by the initial length (li)
• usually expressed as a simple decimal or percent
ε =li
Δl
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Elastic ModulusElastic Modulus• Elastic modulus (E): ratio
of the normal stress to the linear strain
• units: N/m²• plural: elastic moduli
E =εσ
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Elastic ModulusElastic Modulus• determined experimentally
and listed in tables for various substances
• measure of a material’s resistance to change in shape (stiffness)
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Elastic ModulusElastic Modulus• If a wire’s elastic modulus,
cross-sectional area, initial length, and the tension exerted on it are known, the change in length can be estimated:
Δl =AEF·li
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ForcesForces• Compressive forces: crush
or push particles of matter together
• Shearing forces: tend to cause layers of particles within the solid to slide parallel to each other
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Shear ModulusShear Modulus• Shear stress equals the
force exerted parallel to the surface, divided by the surface area.
• Shear strain is the ratio of deformation of the object parallel to the force, divided by the separation of the two surfaces.
• Shear modulus (G) is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain:
G =shear stressshear strain
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Stress-Strain GraphStress-Strain Graph
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Stress-Strain GraphStress-Strain Graph• Proportional limit:
maximum strain without permanent deformation
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Stress-Strain GraphStress-Strain Graph• Elastic limit: limit of
reversible deformation
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Stress-Strain GraphStress-Strain Graph• At the fracture point, the
object breaks.
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Stress-Strain GraphStress-Strain Graph• Materials work harden
when stress is applied in a cyclic way, causing them to become harder or more brittle.
• This changes the stress-deformation curve.
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TransitionsTransitions• Melting: from solid to liquid
• The melting point is usually a predictable temperature at which this occurs
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TransitionsTransitions• Melting: from solid to liquid
• A solid’s molecules gain (absorb) enough kinetic energy to break out of their rigid arrangements and move more freely
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TransitionsTransitions• Melting: from solid to liquid
• The melting point of a solid also depends on the pressure
• Water has unusual properties
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TransitionsTransitions• Water expands when it
freezes.• higher pressures hinder
freezing• Regelation: melting under
pressure
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FluidsFluids• Liquids and gases are
both classified as fluids.• no fixed shape• assume the shape of
their containers• can flow under the
influence of a force
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Surface TensionSurface Tension• Cohesion at the surface of
a liquid pulls the molecules at the surface toward the interior.• The net force is inward.• This is especially
evident with polar molecules like water.
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Surface TensionSurface Tension• explains why water forms
into droplets• meniscus• overflow a glass with
water
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AdhesionAdhesion• a liquid’s surface
molecules may be more attracted to an adjoining surface than to each other
• capillarity• liquids flowing into fibrous
and porous materials
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GasGas• particles are very energetic
and widely separated• most gases are elements or
molecular compounds
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VaporizationVaporization• a change of state from solid
or liquid to gas• Sublimation: directly
from solid to gas• Boiling: characterized by
rapid formation of vapor bubbles within a liquid
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VaporizationVaporization• a change of state from solid
or liquid to gas• Evaporation: vaporization
of a liquid below the boiling point and above the freezing point of the liquid
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EvaporizationEvaporization• occurs only at the natural
surface of a liquid• primary means water uses
to return to the atmosphere• liquids cool as they
evaporate
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EvaporizationEvaporization• in a closed container, a
dynamic equilibrium may be reached• molecules entering
gaseous phase equal in number to those entering liquid phase
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EvaporizationEvaporization• in a closed container, a
dynamic equilibrium may be reached• vapor pressure: pressure
of the gas when the closed system has reached equilibrium
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Vapor PressureVapor Pressure• depends on the kind of
liquid and its temperature• volatile liquids have low
cohesive forces with high vapor pressures
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Vapor PressureVapor Pressure• nonvolatile liquids tend to
have lower vapor pressure at a given temperature
• nonvolatile liquids tend to have lower vapor pressure at a given temperature
• nonvolatile liquids tend to have lower vapor pressure at a given temperature
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CondensationCondensation• vapor goes from the
gaseous state to liquid• depends on multiple factors
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SolidificationSolidification• phase transition from liquid
to solid• also called freezing• freezing and melting points
are almost always the same for a pure substance
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SolidificationSolidification• gases can enter the solid
phase• deposition• depends on temperature
and other factors
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Phase DiagramsPhase Diagrams• shows relationships among
phases of a substance compared to controlling factors such as pressure and temperature
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Phase DiagramsPhase Diagrams• Triple point: the
combination of temperature and pressure where all three phases of a substance can coexist
• water: 0.01°C and 0.006 atm