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Theories of Emotion& Motivation
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EmotionEmotion
a response of the whole organismphysiological arousal
expressive behaviors
conscious experience
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Theories of Emotion
Does your heart pound because you are afraid... or are you afraid because you feel your heart pounding?
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James-Lange Theory of EmotionExperience of emotion is awareness of
physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Fear(emotion)
Poundingheart
(arousal)
Sight of oncoming
car(perception of
stimulus)
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Cannon-BardTheory of Emotion
Emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger: physiological
responses subjective
experience of emotion
Sight of oncoming
car(perception of
stimulus)
Poundingheart
(arousal)
Fear(emotion)
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Schachter’s Two Factor Theory of Emotion
To experience emotion one must: be physically
aroused cognitively
label the arousal
Cognitivelabel
“I’m afraid”
Fear(emotion)
Sight of oncoming
car(perception of
stimulus)
Poundingheart
(arousal)
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Cognition and EmotionThe brain’s shortcut for emotions
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Two Routes to Emotion
Appraisal
Event
Emotionalresponse
Physiologicalactivation
Expressivebehavior
Subjectiveexperience
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Two Dimensions of Emotion
Positivevalence
Negativevalence
Higharousal
Lowarousal
pleasantrelaxation joy
sadnessfear
anger
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Emotional ArousalAutonomic nervous system controls
physiological arousal
Sympatheticdivision (arousing)
Pupils dilate
Decreases
Perspires
Increases
Accelerates
Inhibits
Secrete stresshormones
Parasympatheticdivision (calming)
Pupils contract
Increases
Dries
Decreases
Slows
Activates
Decreasessecretion of
stress hormones
EYES
SALIVATION
SKIN
RESPIRATION
HEART
DIGESTION
ADRENALGLANDS
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Arousal and Performance
Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks
Performancelevel
Low
Arousal
High
Difficult tasks Easy tasks
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Emotion-Lie Detectors
Polygraph machine commonly used in
attempts to detect lies measures several of the
physiological responses accompanying emotionperspirationheart rateblood pressurebreathing changes
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Emotion- A Polygraph Examination
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Emotion- Lie Detectors
Control Question Up to age 18, did you ever
physically harm anyone?Relevant Question
Did the deceased threaten to harm you in any way?
Relevant > Control --> Lie
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Emotion-Lie Detectors
Control question
Relevantquestion
Control question
Relevantquestion(a) (b)
Respiration
Perspiration
Heart rate
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Emotion-Lie Detectors
50 Innocents50 Thieves
1/3 of innocent declared guilty
1/4 of guilty declared innocent (from Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984)
Percentage
Innocentpeople
Guiltypeople
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Judged innocent by polygraphJudged guilty by polygraph
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Emotion-Lie Detectors
Is 70% accuracy good? Assume 5% of 1000 employees actually
guiltytest all employees285 will be wrongly accused
What about 95% accuracy? Assume 1 in 1000 employees actually
guiltytest all employees (including 999
innocents)50 wrongly declared guilty1 of 51 testing positive are guilty (2%)
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Expressing EmotionGender and expressiveness
Men Women
Sad Happy ScaryFilm Type
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Numberof
expressions
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Expressing Emotion
Smiles can show different emotions:
A) Mask angerB) Overly politeC) Soften
criticismD) Reluctant
compliance
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Expressing Emotion
Culturally universal expressions
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Experiencing Emotion
The Amygdala-a neural key to fear learning
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Experiencing Emotion
Catharsis emotional release catharsis hypothesis
“releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
Feel-good, do-good phenomenon people’s tendency to be helpful
when already in a good mood
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Experiencing Emotion
Subjective Well-Being self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life
used along with measures of objective well-beingphysical and economic indicators to evaluate people’s quality of life
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Experiencing Emotion
Are today’s collegians materialistic?
Percentagerating goal
as veryimportant
oressential
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
01966 ‘68 ‘70 ‘72 ‘74 ‘76 ‘78 ‘80 ‘82 ‘84 ‘86 ‘88 ‘90 ‘92 ‘94 ‘96
Year
Developing a meaningful life philosophy
Being very well-off financially
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Experiencing Emotion
Does money buy happiness?
Year
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Averageper-person
after-tax incomein 1995 dollars
Percentagedescribingthemselves asvery happy
$20,000$19,000$18,000$17,000$16,000$15,000$14,000$13,000$12,000$11,000$10,000
$9,000$8,000$7,000$6,000$5,000$4,000
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Percentage very happy
Personal income
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Experiencing EmotionValues and life satisfaction
MoneyLove
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00Life satisfaction
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
Importancescores
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Experiencing Emotion
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon tendency to form judgments relative to
a “neutral” level brightness of lights volume of sound level of income
defined by our prior experienceRelative Deprivation
perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
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Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion
Strong
Neutral
StrongFirst experience
(a)
Strong
Neutral
StrongAfter repeated experiences
(b)
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Happiness is...Researchers Have Found ThatHappy People Tend to
Have high self-esteem (in individualistic countries)
Be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable
Have close friendships or a satisfyingmarriage
Have work and leisure that engagetheir skills
Have a meaningful religious faith
Sleep well and exercise
However, Happiness Seems Not MuchRelated to Other Factors, Such as
Age
Gender (women are more often depressed, but also more often joyful)
Education levels
Parenthood (having children or not)
Physical attractiveness
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Motivation
Motivation a need or desire that energizes
and directs behaviorInstinct
complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
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MotivationDrive-Reduction Theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
Drive-reducingbehaviors
(eating, drinking)
Need(e.g., for
food, water)
Drive(hunger, thirst)
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Motivation
Homeostasis tendency to maintain a balanced or
constant internal state regulation of any aspect of body
chemistry around a particular levelIncentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied
then higher-level safety needs become active
then psychological needs become active
Self-actualization needsNeed to live up to one’s
fullest and unique potential
Esteem needsNeed for self-esteem,
achievement, competence,and independence; need for
recognition and respect from others
Safety needsNeed to feel that the world is organized and
predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
Belongingness and love needsNeed to love and be loved, to belong
and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation
Physiological needsNeed to satisfy hunger and thirst
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Motivation-Hunger
Stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time in minutes
Subject swallowsballoon, which
measures stomachcontraction
Subject presseskey each timewhen hungry
Stomach contractions
Hunger pangs
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Motivation-Hunger
Glucose the form of sugar that
circulates in the blood provides the major source of
energy for body tissues when its level is low, we feel
hunger
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Motivation-Hunger
Set Point the point at which an individual’s
“weight thermostat” is supposedly set
when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
Basal Metabolic Rate body’s base rate of energy
expenditure
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Motivation-Hunger
The hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions
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Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa when a normal-weight person diets and
becomes significantly (>15%) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve
usually an adolescent femaleBulimia Nervosa
disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of highly caloric foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercise
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Eating Disorders- Anorexia Nervosa
when a person is less than 85% of their normal body weight
95% of sufferers are female most are between the ages of 18-3030% of persons diagnosed with
anorexia nervosa die
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Women’s Body Images
Thinnest Women’sideal
What womenbelieved men
preferred
What menactually
preferred
Women’scurrent
body image
Fattest
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Sexual Motivation
Sex is a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values
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Sexual Motivation
Sexual Response Cyclethe four stages of sexual responding
described by Masters and Johnson excitementplateauorgasmresolution
Refractory Periodresting period after orgasm, during
which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
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The Sexual Response Cycle
Males Females
Orgasm
Plateau
ExcitementResolution
Resolutionwith orgasm
Resolutionwithoutorgasm
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Sexual Motivation
Estrogen a sex hormone,
secreted in greater amounts by females than by males
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Forces Affecting Sexual Motivation
Physiologicalreadiness
Imaginativestimuli
Externalstimuli
Sexual motivation
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Sexual Disorders
Problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning In Men
premature ejaculation• ejaculation before they or their
partners wishimpotence
• inability to have or maintain erection
In Womenorgasmic disorder
• infrequent or absent orgasms
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Sexual MotivationSame drives, different attitudes
Iceland Germany Great Canada Mexico United India Taiwan Singapore Britan States
Country
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentanswering
wrong
“Do you think it is, or is not, wrong for a couple to have a baby if they are not married?”
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Sexual MotivationBirths to unwed parents
United States
Canada
Japan
Britain
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Year
40%
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Percentageof births
to unwedmothers
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Sexual Motivation
Sexual Orientation an enduring sexual attraction
toward members of either one’s own gender (homosexual orientation) or the other gender (heterosexual orientation)
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Sexual MotivationChanging attitudes
Extramarital sex is “always wrong”
Homosexual sex is “always wrong”
1987 1998Year
100%
80
60
40
20
0
Source: National Opinion Research Center(University of Chicago) General Social Survey
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Motivation
Achievement Motivation a desire for significant
accomplishmentfor mastery of things, people, or
ideasfor attaining a high standard
McClelland and Atkinson believed fantasies would reflect achievement concerns
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Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation desire to perform a behavior for its
own sake or to be effectiveExtrinsic Motivation
desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
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Rewards Affect Motivation
Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’Controlling reward
Child: “As long as she pays, I’ll study.’’Extrinsic motivation
Mom: “Your grades were great! Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner.’’Informative reward
Child: “I love doing well.’’Intrinsic motivation
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Motivation
Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology sub-field of psychology that studies and
advises on workplace behavior I/O Psychologists
help organizations select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, and design products and assess responses to them
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Motivation
Task Leadership goal-oriented leadership that sets
standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals
Social Leadership group-oriented leadership that
builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support
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Motivation
Theory X assumes that workers are basically lazy,
error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money
should be directed from aboveTheory Y
assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity