THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES I

Lecturer: Dr. Paul Narh Doku

Contact: pndoku@ug.edu.gh

Department of Psychology, University of Ghana

Session Overview

• This session will deal with the meaning and scope of psychology, misconceptions about psychology, pseudoscience (para- and pseudo – psychology), the goals of psychology and the relevance of psychology in our lives.

This Session’s Goals and Objectives

At the end of this session, you will be able to:

– Define or explain what a theory is.

– Explain the key words in the definition of theory.

– List at least three relevance issues of a theory.

– Explain the main ideas and assumptions underlying the learning theory.

– Mention the various forms the theory takes.

– List two of the contributions of the theory.

– Mention two of the criticisms made against each theory discussed.

Session Outline

The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:

• Part I - Meaning and scope of psychology

• Part II - Misconceptions about psychology,

• Part III - Pseudoscience (para- and pseudo – psychology)

• Part IV - The goals of psychology

• Part V - The relevance of psychology in our lives.

Reading List

Pastorino, E., and Doyle-Portillo, S. (2006). What is

psychology? Thompson wadsworth. P. 209-242

Weiten, W. (2007). Psychology: Themes & variations (7thed).

P. 214-244

Kalat, W. J. (2014). Introduction to psychology (10th ed).

Wadsworth, cengage learning. Pp 185-216

Coon, D. and Mitterer, O. J (2012). Psychology: modules for

active learning (13th ed). Cengage learning. Pp. 226-258

Nairne, S. J. (2014). Psychology (6th ed). Wadsworth,

cengage learning. Pp. 209-232

The session notes titled “theoretical perspective I”

TOPIC 4: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN

PSYCHOLOGY

Dr. Paul Narh Doku

What is a Theory?

A theory is a group of logically organised laws.

An explanation of facts and relationships in science (Lahey,

2003).

An integrated set of principles that organise and predict

observable behaviours or events.

A comprehensive explanation of a natural phenomena which

leads to accurate prediction.

• A scientific theory summarizes a hypothesis

or group of hypotheses that have been

supported with repeated testing.

• If enough evidence accumulates to support

a hypothesis, it moves to the next step -

known as a theory and becomes accepted

as a valid explanation of a phenomenon.

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• The science of psychology is one where there are

many approaches/theories to solve, work with and

explain behaviour and what is happening with the

mind.

• Each of the theories has merit. It is more a matter

of personal preferences and some take a bit from

each other to form their own perspective.

• It is worth understanding each of these

contemporary perspectives in psychology.

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• There are various different approaches in

contemporary psychology.

• An approach is a perspective (i.e. view) that

involves certain assumptions (i.e. beliefs) about

human behaviour: the way they function, which

aspects of them are worthy of study and what

research methods are appropriate for undertaking

this study.

• There may be several different theories within an

approach, but they all share these common

assumptions.

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Biological Perspective

Biological Theory/Perspective

Based on the assumption that all behaviours correspond in

one way or the other to the activities of the brain and the

nervous system.

The theory seeks the link between the electrical and chemical

activity of the brain, the chemical activity of hormones, and

heredity on one hand, and behaviour and mental processes on

the other.

According to this perspective, humans differ because they are

born with different genes, and develop slightly different brain

and hormonal patterns

Biological

Some of the issues covered under this perspective are:

How does the brain work? How is it related to thoughts,

feelings perception and abnormal behaviour?

Do certain genes predispose the individual to drug and

alcohol abuse?

How are messages transmitted through the body?

Merits

Understanding of human behaviour with its emphasis on

roles of hormones, genes, central nervous system and other

internal activities and mechanisms of the individual.

Has led to a lot of research on brain and hormones which

have demonstrated the link between internal mechanisms and

overt behaviour.

Has deepened understanding of biological basis of behaviour

and psychopathalogy and other illness.

Demerits

Emphasis on biology as main basis of behaviour takes away

responsibility from the individual.

The nature of studies makes it difficult to use human beings

instead animals are usually used for such studies

Since animals are not same as human there is a limit to which

these studies will be applicable to humans

The approach is too mechanistic and take a rather

reductionist view of humans.

Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary Perspective

Focus on evolution of behaviour and mental processes.

Evolutionary psychologists believe that much of human social

behaviour such as aggressive behaviour and mate selection

have hereditary basis.

They were behaviours passed from generation to generation

because they have survival value.

Merits

• Evolutionary psychologists hold that behaviours or traits that occur universally in all cultures are good candidates for evolutionary adaptations including the abilities to infer others' emotions, discern kin from non-kin, identify and prefer healthier mates, and cooperate with others.

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Merits Continues

• They report successful tests of theoretical predictions related to such topics as infanticide, intelligence, marriage patterns, promiscuity, perception of beauty, bride price, and parental investment

• The theories and findings of EP have applications in many fields, including economics, environment, health, law, management, psychiatry, politics, and literature.

Demerits

• Controversies concerning EP involve questions of testability,

• Cognitive and evolutionary assumptions (such as modular functioning of the brain, and large uncertainty about the ancestral environment),

• Importance of non-genetic and non-adaptive explanations,

• As well as political and ethical issues due to interpretations of research results.

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Behavioural/Learning Perspective

The theory lays emphasis on the environment and observable behaviour

as manifested in the stimulus and response (S-R) mechanism.

Based on assumption that Behaviour (B) is a function of a Person (P) and

information gained from the Environment (E). That is B= (P &E)

The take the position that that a person’s mind is empty at birth (tabula

rasa) but it is environment which imprints on it as a result of experience.

Learning/ Experience drives behaviour

Three types of learning

Learning by association (classical conditioning)

Operant Learning (Instrumental learning)

Social learning (observational learning)

Learning by association (classical conditioning)

Classical conditioning is learning by association because it is

based on pairing two or more stimuli over a period.

Attributed to the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) while

studying physiology of digestion in dogs.

He paired the sound of a bell with presentation of meat loaf

to a dog over period.

After a number of pairings between the sound of a bell

followed immediately with presentation of meat loaf, later

the mere sound of a bell elicited the same response

(salivation)

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

UCS (meat) UCR (salivation)

(unconditioned stimulus) (unconditioned

response)

NS (Bell) NR (no salivation)

(Neutral Stimulus) (No Response)

NS + UCS (bell + meat) UCR (salivation)

CS (Bell) CR

(conditioned Stimulus) (conditioned

response)

Learning by association

The process of paring the NS and the UCS is called the trial

period.

The time required for pairing to develop the association depends

on organism involved, the kind of UCS and the type of neutral

stimulus involved.

In addition, learning by association involves four other principles.

a. Learned generalization,

b. Learned discrimination,

c. Extinction and

d. Spontaneous recovery

Operant Learning

Operant /Instrumental Learning

In operant learning, an act is performed before reward is presented.

An organisms has to make conscious effort to bring the behaviour into existence

Behaviour is shaped by its consequences.

This is influenced by Edward Thorndike’s three laws

Law of Effect (behaviour followed by a reward has high probability of being repeated and …)

Law of Exercise (practice strengthens the learning, disuse weakens it)

Law of Readiness (If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled

in him).

In OC, reward and punishment are key understanding behaviour.

Influential theorists are B.F Skinner and J. B Watson.

Social Learning (Observational)

Learning by observing others (modelling and imitating others)

Albert Bandura admitted that external rewards may be key in

getting people to perform learned behaviour, he emphasized on

intrinsic reward and punishment as against external ones.

Individuals are more likely to imitate those they like, respect, and

regard as competent.

Generally, the performance of an observed act depends on the

consequences of what happens to the model

Behaviour depends on what is observed, intrinsic rewards and

punishments associated with the behaviour, the prevailing norms and who

one’s model is

MERITS

Emphasis on observable behaviour and environment.

Focus on observable behaviour removes subjective

interpretations and ambiguities.

Makes psychology more scientific.

Places responsibility in terms of behaviour on individual and

society as against nature, biology or heredity.

The role of reward and punishment in shaping behaviour.

Demerits

Present individuals as passive beings who just imbibe what

society presents without playing active role.

Has no place for biological factors

Maturation is unimportant to behaviour

Too much emphasis on reward and punishment