Theodorou Nikos

National Technical University of Athens National Center for Scientific Research

Nikolaos G. Theodorou

The Effect of Atmospheric Nuclear Tests on the

Atmospheric Ozone Layer Reduction

This presentation is based on my Msc Thesis of the Graduate Program

"Physics and Technological Applications"

which is co-organized by:

The National Technical University of Athens (NTUA),

Department of Physics (School of Applied Mathematical

and Physical Sciences)

Department of Nuclear Engineering (School of Mechanical Engineering)

and

The National Center for Scientific Research (NCSR) Demokritos.

Athens 2013

Nikolaos G.Theodorou

Summary

From the early 70’s scientists realized the consequences of Nuclear Tests causing the depletion of the

Ozone Layer. Especially when the first results in research began on the effect of NO and NO2 (known as

NOx) produced by Supersonic Aircrafts (SST).

Because of the huge amounts of produced NOx by a nuclear explosion the scientists started as early as

70’s different researches of the possible effects on the Stratospheric Ozone.

As this is a complicated phenomenon, only after the creation of powerful computers and advanced

calculation models did scientists manage to achieve better estimations of this phenomenon at the end of

70’s and the early 80’s.

Today, without a doubt, nuclear tests are known to have negative effects on the stratospheric ozone, but

it is not possible to have a precise quantitive estimation of this. This is because of the complexity and the

variety of factors that are involved on the ozone catalysis by NOx and such prediction has considerable

uncertainties and possibilities of false results especially concerning the “major tests” period of the early

60’s during which almost all scientists agreed that a decrease of 1%-6% of ozone layer had occurred.

In this paper we will present some basic features of the atmosphere, the atmospheric structure, the role

of the ozone and its measurement units, a brief outline of various nuclear weapons and lastly the

categories of the nuclear tests.

Then we will describe the time line of an atmospheric nuclear explosion and we will do a brief overview

on the most important papers that have been published from the 70’s up until now, their results and their

conclusions.

At the end we will attempt some calculations of the NOx produced by a nuclear explosion and the

quantities which finally reach on the stratosphere and are responsible for the ozone depletion. These

calculations are made by the use of computer software we have developed under the name “NOx

Calculator”.

DEFINITIONS

The Atmosphere {ref. A-1 } Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers, called atmospheric stratification (Figure-1). From highest to lowest, these layers are:

Exosphere: >400 km Thermosphere: 80 to 400 km Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km Troposphere: 0 to 12 km

Figure-1 The Atmospheric Stratification

The Ozone Layer {ref. A-1} Ozone (from the Greek, “όζειν”, to smell) is an unstable, pale-blue gas, O3 (figure-2), with a penetrating odor. The ozone is formed in the atmosphere by the interaction between the ultraviolet radiation from the sun and the oxygen. It is concentrated in a layer (ozone layer) that extends from a height of about 15 to about 30 km above the earth’s surface within the stratosphere. The ozone layer is a shield to solar ultraviolet radiation that could cause skin cancers, for example.

Figure-2 The Ozone Molecule

Ozone Measurement Unit {ref. A-1}

The Dobson unit (DU) is a unit of measurement of the columnar density of ozone in the Earth's atmosphere. One Dobson unit refers to a layer of gas that would be 10 µm thick under standard temperature and pressure (figure-3). For example, 300 DU of ozone brought down to the surface of the Earth at 0 °C would occupy a layer only 3 mm thick. A baseline value of 220 DU is chosen as the starting point for an ozone hole.

Figure-3 Dobson Unit Definition

Ozone Formation and Depletion {ref. A-1, A-2,C-1}

Radiation from the sun includes very short wave-length X-rays, ultraviolet radiation up to 400 nanometers (nm) in wave length, visible radiation (400-800 nm), and infrared radiation above 800 nm. The ultraviolet radiation between 190 and 242 nm, reaches the stratosphere, and at the increased density of oxygen there, it is absorbed by oxygen molecules to produce oxygen atoms. This process we shall call reaction (1) (see Table 1). The oxygen atoms so produced, add to oxygen molecules in the presence of any molecule M (which is usually N2 or O2) to form ozone, O3, and this process will be termed reaction (2) (see Table 1). The molecule M in reaction (2) carries away the excess energy of this reaction, and thus reactions (1) and (2) form ozone and convert some solar energy to heat in the stratosphere. When ozone absorbs sunlight (ultraviolet or visible) it is dissociated into an oxygen atom and molecule. The photochemical reaction in the ultraviolet range of sunlight will be called reaction (3) (see Table 1). However, this reaction does not decrease the amount of ozone, because reaction (3) is instantly followed by reaction (2). A distinction needs to be made between an elementary or one step reaction and the net chemical effect of a series of elementary reactions. The net formation of ozone in the stratosphere from sunlight results from two elementary reactions (see Table 1, reaction (A), involving reactions (1) and (2)).

The absorption of sunlight by ozone has the net effect of merely converting high energy ultraviolet radiation to heat in the stratosphere (see Table 1, reaction (B), involving reactions (3) and (2)).

Effects of Oxides of Nitrogen {ref. A-1, A-2,C-1} The chemical reactions whereby the oxides of nitrogen reduce ozone are well established. The reactions are simple catalytic cycles. In the NOx mechanism, nitric oxide rapidly reacts with ozone at stratospheric temperatures to give nitrogen dioxide and oxygen, (reaction (6) in Table 2) and an oxygen atom reacts with nitrogen dioxide to regenerate nitric oxide (reaction (7) in Table 2). The net reaction (involving reactions (6) and (7)) destroys ozone and oxygen atoms, but the oxides of nitrogen are not destroyed (reaction (C) in Table 2). The catalytic cycle can be repeated indefinitely, limited by the rate of reaction (7). However, reaction (6) is not always followed by reaction (7). Τhere is a competing reaction that does not destroy ozone, the photolysis of nitrogen dioxide by near ultraviolet radiation (reaction (8) in Table 2). The "do-nothing" cycle (reaction (D) in Table 2, involving reactions (6), (8), and (2)) competes the catalytic cycle (reaction (C)). The rate-determining step in the catalytic cycle is reaction (7), and its rate is thus the rate of the catalytic cycle itself. The rate constant for reaction (7) is 4600 times greater than the rate constant for reaction (4) at a typical stratospheric temperature, and thus one molecule of nitrogen dioxide, NO2, is as destructive of ozone as 4600 molecules of ozone itself. With stratospheric ozone present in a few parts per million and with the oxides of nitrogen expected to be present at a few parts per billion, it is readily seen that the oxides of nitrogen are not negligible. There is another family of reactions of the oxides of nitrogen that destroy the ozone in a catalytic cycle (NOx mechanism). This involves reactions (9), (10), and (6), which net to yield reaction (E) in Table 2. At stratospheric temperatures the rate of the first reaction is uncertain, and the full details of the second reaction have not been worked out. In this catalytic cycle the rate determining step is reaction (9). This set of reactions does not involve oxygen atoms, which are of very small concentration in the lowest stratosphere. In the lowest stratosphere, the NOx catalytic cycle may be much faster than the N02 catalytic cycle.

TABLE 2

Nuclear Weapons - Historical Overview {ref. B-1, B-2, B-3} By the end of 19th century, a new phenomenon was discovered by the physicists, “radioactivity”. Later on, around the beginning of the 20th century, they started understanding the nuclear structure. The earlier researchers in radioactivity and nuclear structure, never envisioned the complex chain of historical events which would transform their experiments into the basis of a devastating military technology. During World War II, the need of new powerful weapons, forced the scientific research and finally on 1945 the first nuclear weapon detonation on earth took place in New Mexico (USA) as test of the implosion principle’s feasibility. Four years later on 1949 the Soviet Union exploded its first nuclear bomb. Subsequently, other nations would also experiment in the testing of nuclear weapons. In 1952 the first hydrogen bomb was detonated by USA at Pacific Proving Grounds. During the next years many nuclear tests conducted by the known as “nuclear” states. Nuclear Weapons (terminology) {ref. B-1} A variety of names are used for weapons that release energy through nuclear reactions - atomic bombs (A-bombs), hydrogen bombs (H-bombs), nuclear weapons, fission bombs, fusion bombs, thermonuclear weapons. A few comments about terminology is probably in order. The earliest name for such a weapon appears to be "atomic bomb". This has been criticized as a misnomer since all chemical explosives generate energy from reactions between atoms - that is, between intact atoms consisting of both the atomic nucleus and electron shells. Further the fission weapon to which "atomic bomb" is applied is no more "atomic" than fusion weapons are. However, the name is firmly attached to the pure fission weapon, and well accepted by historians, the public, and by the scientists who created the first nuclear weapons. Since the distinguishing feature of both fission and fusion weapons is that they release energy from transformations of the atomic nucleus, the best general term for all types of these explosive devices is "nuclear weapon". Fusion weapons are called "hydrogen bombs" (H-bombs) because isotopes of hydrogen are principal components of the nuclear reactions involved. In fact, in the earliest fusion bomb

designs deuterium (hydrogen-2) was the sole fusion fuel. Fusion weapons are called "thermonuclear weapons" because high temperatures are required for the fusion reactions to occur. Measurement Units {ref. B-1} The "yield" of a nuclear weapon is a measure of the amount of explosive energy it can produce. It is the usual practice to state the yield in terms of the quantity of TNT that would generate the same amount of energy when it explodes. Thus, a 1-kiloton (KT) nuclear weapon is one which produces the same amount of energy in an explosion as does 1 kiloton (or 1,000 tons) of TNT. Similarly, a 1-megaton (MT) weapon would have the energy equivalent of 1 million tons (or 1,000 kilotons) of TNT. Types of Nuclear Tests Explosions {ref. B-1, B-2} Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test.

Atmospheric testing designates explosions that take place in the atmosphere. Generally these have occurred as devices detonated on towers, balloons, barges, islands, or dropped from airplanes, and also those which are only buried far enough to intentionally create a surface-breaking crater. Nuclear explosions that are close enough to the ground to draw dirt and debris into their mushroom cloud can generate large amounts of nuclear fallout due to irradiation of the debris. This definition of atmospheric follows that used in the Limited Test Ban Treaty, which banned this class of testing along with exoatmospheric and underwater.

Underground testing refers to nuclear tests conducted under the surface of the earth, at varying depths. Underground testing almost by definition result in seismic activity which magnitude depends on the yield of the nuclear device and the composition of the medium it is detonated in, and generally result in the creation of subsidence craters. In 1976, the United States and the USSR agreed to limit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 kt with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty. Underground testing also falls into two physical categories: tunnel tests which happen in generally horizontal tunnel "drifts", and shaft tests in vertically drilled holes.

Exoatmospheric testing refers to nuclear tests conducted above the atmosphere. The test devices are lifted on rockets. These high altitude nuclear explosions can generate a nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) when they occur in the ionosphere, and charged particles resulting from the blast can cross hemispheres following geomagnetic lines of force to create an auroral display.

Underwater testing results from nuclear devices being detonated underwater, usually moored to a ship or a barge (which is subsequently destroyed by the explosion). Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of nuclear weapons against naval vessels, or to evaluate potential sea-based nuclear weapons (such as nuclear torpedoes or depth-charges). Underwater tests close to the surface can disperse large amounts of radioactive particles in water and steam, contaminating nearby ships or structures, though they generally do not create fallout other than very local to the explosion.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiloton

Description of Air and Surface Bursts - Chronological Development of Air Burst {ref. B-4}

Immediately following the detonation of a nuclear weapon in the air, an intensely hot and luminous

(gaseous) fireball is formed. Because of its extremely high temperature, it emits thermal (or heat)

radiation capable of causing skin burns and starting fires in flammable material at a considerable distance.

The nuclear processes which cause the explosion and the radioactive decay of the fission products are

accompanied by harmful nuclear radiations (gamma rays and neutrons) which also have a long range in

air. Very soon after the explosion, a destructive shock (or blast) wave develops in the air and moves

rapidly away from the fireball (figure-4a).

Figure-4a Chronological development of an air burst; 0.5 second after 20-kiloton detonation; 1.8

seconds after 1-megaton detonation

When the primary air blast wave from the explosion strikes the ground, another blast wave is produced by reflection. At a certain distance from ground zero, which depends upon the height of burst and the energy yield of the weapon, the primary and reflected wave fronts fuse near the ground to form a single, reinforced Mach front (figure-4b). Significant quantities of thermal and nuclear radiations continue to be emitted from the fireball.

Figure-4b. Chronological development of an air burst; 1.25 seconds after 20-kiloton detonation; 4.6 seconds after 1-megaton detonation.

As time progresses, the Mach front (or stem) moves outward and increases in height. The overpressure at the Mach front is 6 pounds per square inch and the blast wind velocity immediately behind the front is about 180 miles per hour. Nuclear radiations from the weapon residues in the rising fireball continue to reach the ground. But after 3 seconds from the detonation of a 20-kiloton weapon, the fireball, although still very hot, has cooled to such an extent that the thermal radiation is no longer important. The total accumulated amounts of thermal radiation, expressed in calories per square centimeter, received at various distances from ground zero after a 20-kiloton air burst, at 1,760 feet, are shown on the scale at the bottom of the figure-4c. Appreciable amounts of thermal radiation are still received from the fireball at 11 seconds after a 1-megaton explosion; the thermal radiation emission is spread over a longer time interval than for an explosion of lower energy yield.

Figure-4c. Chronological development of an air burst; 3 seconds after 20-kiloton detonation; 11 seconds after 1-megaton detonation.

At 10 seconds after a 20-kiloton explosion at an altitude of 1,760 feet the Mach front is over 2 1/2 miles from ground zero, and 37 seconds after a 1-megaton detonation at 6,500 feet, it is nearly 9 1/2 miles from ground zero. The overpressure at the front is roughly 1 pound per square inch, in both cases, and the wind velocity behind the front is 40 miles per hour. There will be slight damage to many structures, including doors and window frames ripped off, roofs cracked, and plaster damaged. Thermal radiation is no longer important, even for the 1-megaton burst, the total accumulated amounts of this radiation, at various distances, being indicated on the scale at the bottom of the figure. Nuclear radiation, however, can still reach the ground to an appreciable extent; this consists mainly of gamma rays from the fission products. The fireball is no longer luminous, but it is still very hot and it behaves like a hot-air balloon, rising at a rapid rate. As it ascends, it causes air to be drawn inward and upward, somewhat similar to the updraft of a chimney. This produces strong air currents, called afterwinds. For moderately low air bursts, these winds will raise dirt and debris from the earth's surface to form the stem of what will eventually be the characteristic mushroom cloud (figure-4d).

Figure-4d. Chronological development of an air burst; 10 seconds after 20-kiloton detonation; 37 seconds after 1-megaton detonation.

The hot residue of the weapon continues to rise while at the same time it expands and cools. As a result, the vaporized fission products and other weapon residues condense to form a cloud of highly radioactive particles. The afterwinds have velocities of 200 or more miles per hour, and for a sufficiently low burst they will continue to raise a column of dirt and debris which will later join with the radioactive cloud to form the characteristic mushroom shape. At the times indicated, the cloud from a 20-kiloton explosion will have risen about 1 1/2 miles and that from a 1-megaton explosion about 7 miles. After about 10 minutes, the maximum heights attained by the clouds will be about 7 miles and 14 miles, respectively (figure-4e). Ultimately, the particles in the cloud will be dispersed by the wind and, unless there is precipitation, there will usually be no early (or local) fallout. Only if the height of burst is less than about 600 feet for a 20-kiloton and 3,000 feet for a 1-megaton explosion would appreciable early fallout be expected. Although the cloud is still highly radioactive, very little of the nuclear radiation reaches the ground. This is the case because of the increased distance of the cloud above the earth's surface and the decrease in the activity of the fission products due to natural radioactive decay.

Figure-4e. Chronological development of an air burst; 30 seconds after 20-kiloton detonation; 110

seconds after 1-megaton detonation.

Previous Publications Review {ref. C-1 to C-13}

Now we will do a brief overview on the most important papers that have published from the 70’s up until

now, their results and their conclusions. This review includes 12 published papers. Paul Crutzen in 1970,

he showed that the nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere accelerate the rate of ozone depletion and

identified one of the key processes in that determines the natural balance of the ozone layer. A year

later, Harold Johnston pointed out the possible threat to the ozone layer from a then planned fleet of

supersonic (SST) aircraft that could release nitrogen oxides into the middle of the ozone layer.

1. Harold Johnston, «The Effect of Supersonic Transport Planes on the Stratospheric Ozone Shield», Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. 736 (1972)

Describes the effects of NOx on the stratospheric ozone, by making a detailing atmospheric chemistry

analysis. The main scope is the NOx produced by supersonic airplanes (SST), but he does a small

reference on the NOx produced by nuclear tests.

2. Foley & Ruderman, «Stratospheric NO Production from Past Nuclear Explosions» Journal of Geophysical Research, July 20,1973

They published the first phenomenological equations to calculate the dimensions and the final height of a nuclear bomb cloud. They estimated that during certain years of intense nuclear testing, high-yield nuclear explosions seem to have injected into the stratosphere about 3x1034 nitric oxide molecules. Large catalytic ozone reduction from such NOx injection was not observed in worldwide total ozone measurements in the months following the explosions. If the NOx content was approximately doubled by the test bursts, then we would have expected a comparably large ozone reduction (certainly greater than 10%)

3. H. Johnston, G. Whiten, J. Birks, «Effects of Nuclear Explosions on Stratospheric Nitric Oxide & Ozone», Journal of Geophysical Research, September 20, 1973

They calculate the artificial produced NOx molecules, by nuclear tests, are 3x1034 and they estimate

the ozone reduction to be 1-6%. They used the data from 90 Dobson stations and they observe a

systematic “small” ozone reduction in the beginning of 60’s and they found that the ozone recovers to

the normal levels after ’63-’70.

4. Goldsmith, Tuck, Foot, Simmons, Newson, «Nitrogen oxides, Nuclear weapon testing, Concorde and Stratosperic Ozone», Nature Vol.244, August 31, 1973

They analyzed the data from Dobson ground-based observation stations and they estimated that there are not significant changes of the total ozone concentration, after nuclear test periods. Any small deviations are within the equipment measurement errors.

5. Forest Gilmore, «the production of Nitrogen Oxides by Low-altitude Nuclear Explosions», Journal of Geophysical Research, November 20, 1975.

He does a review of all previous researches and calculates that the produced NOx molecules, by an 1Mt nuclear explosion, are within the limits (0.4x1032 and 1.5x1032) molecules/Mt

6. Ernst Bauer, Forest Gilmore, «Effect of Atmospheric Nuclear Explosions on Total Ozone», Reviews of

Geophysics and Space Physics, August 1975.

This paper reviews the current knowledge of the depletion of stratospheric ozone due to the injection of Oxides of nitrogen from thermonuclear explosions in the atmosphere, using the ground-based observations of global ozone after the 1961-1962 multimegaton test series. During this period the total nuclear tests yield was ~300MT and the produced NOx was in the order of 1034 molecules. Although the previous papers estimated theoretically an ozone reduction between 1% for the South hemisphere and 5% for the North, they analyzed the observed data from ground-based stations as well as satellite NIMBUS-4 data and they concluded that existing atmospheric data do not provide a statistically significant demonstration of the catalytic destruction of ozone by oxides of nitrogen and measurements lies within the probable error of available ozone measurements.

7. Α. D. Christie, «Atmospheric Ozone Depletion by Nuclear Weapons Testing» Journal of Geophysical Research, May 20, 1976. This paper is focused on the French nuclear test of 2MT on July 1970. They used data from ground-based stations as well as satellite NIMBUS-4 data. They noticed that because of the electromagnetic radiation, the explosion produces not only NOx but also big amounts of ozone. Their data analysis confirms that nuclear explosions appear to be followed by a small augmentation rather than the expected depletion of ozone. But soon, during the next 10 days, the NOx catalytic reactions reduce the ozone amount. The final result combined with atmospheric perturbation and dynamic effects, is that little change in total ozone was observed, less than might have been expected from current(1976) models of NOx catalytic depletion. Only if the dynamic effects can be eliminated, can the effect of NOx, chemistry be unambiguously studied.

8. Harold Johnston, «Expected Short-term Local Effect of Nuclear Bombs on Stratospheric Ozone», Journal of Geophysical Research, July 20, 1977. This paper is also referred to the previous French test of 2MT. Nuclear bomb tests in the atmosphere produce both oxides of nitrogen and ozone. For bomb yields of 1Mt or more, much of the bomb-produced radioactivity, ozone and NOx are lifted in the stratosphere. The present article carries out calculations for several chemical processes expected to occur in this nuclear bomb cloud. There is a wide range of uncertainty as to how much NOx and ozone the nuclear bomb injected into the stratosphere. There would be very little NOx catalytic destruction of stratospheric ozone from this nuclear bomb during its first 10 days.

9. J. Chang, W. Duewer, D. Wuebbles, «The Atmospheric Nuclear Tests, of the 1950’s and 1960’s a

Possible Test of Ozone Depletion Theories», Journal of Geophysical Research, April 20, 1979.

In this paper, calculations carried out with more recent model chemistries result in ozone reductions that are more easily consistent with observation. In the intervening years, significant changes have occurred in the formulation of one-dimensional models of the stratosphere and in the experimental values of chemical reaction rate constants used as model input. Also, substantially more analysis of the ozone record has been carried out. They conclude that ozone changes of the magnitude of 4% are reconcilable with observation. Any model that predicts a response to the nuclear weapons tests of the 1950's and 1960's significantly larger than 4% (northern hemisphere annual average) may be in error in a way that seriously affects its reliability in other prognostic applications although the case for this may be rendered ambiguous by the possible existence of other sources of long-term O3 variability

10. G. Reinsel, «Analysis of the Total Ozone Data for the Detection of Recent Trends and the effect of Nuclear Testing During the 1960’s», Geophysical Research Letters, Vol.8, No.12, pages 1227-1230, December 1981.

They present a modeling of total ozone data for the detection of changes in ozone due to the possible effects of nuclear weapons testing in the early 1960's. Based on ozone data from a network of Dobson stations over the period 1958-1979, the results of this analysis are consistent with a maximum decrease in ozone in the northern hemisphere of approximately 2 to 4.5% due to nuclear testing effects in the early 1960's. In addition, their findings show little evidence of any significant trend in global total ozone occurring in the 1970's, with the global change during 1970-1979 estimated as (.488 + 1.354)%. They suggest that a chemical theory which predicts substantial net total ozone depletions (say, greater than 1%) during the 1970's may possibly be imprecise or incomplete, and may fail to account for all relevant factors which affect ozone. In this regard they suggest chemical model predictions of the simultaneous effects on ozone from CFM release, increases in C02, and the release of NOx.

11. National Research Council «The Effects on the Atmosphere of a Major Nuclear Exchange» Committee on the Atmospheric Effects of Nuclear Explosions, NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS Washington, D.C.

1985.

This is the report of the Committee on the Atmospheric Effects of Nuclear Explosions. The committee first constructed a baseline war scenario, made up of assumptions concerning the nature of the weapon exchange. The baseline scenario was selected so as to be representative of a general nuclear war. One-half—about 6500 megatons (Mt)—of the estimated total world arsenal would be detonated. Of this, 1500 Mt would be detonated at ground level. Of the other 5000 Mt that would be detonated at altitudes chosen so as to maximize blast damage to structures, 1500 Mt would be directed at military, economic, and political targets that coincidentally lie in or near about 1000 of the largest urban areas. All explosions would occur between 30°N and 70°N latitude. The nitrogen oxides deposited in the stratosphere by nuclear detonations would reduce the abundance of ozone. For the 6500-Mt nuclear war, the northern hemisphere ozone reduction could become substantial several months after the war. Estimates based on current stratospheric structure suggest that the amount of ozone reduction would decrease by one-half after about 2 years. In this 6500-Mt baseline case, no large multimegaton weapons would be employed by either side. In order to examine the atmospheric effects of very high yield explosions, the committee has also analyzed a second case —an 8500-Mt excursion—in which sufficient multimegaton (i.e., 20-Mt) missile warheads would be deployed to permit successful delivery of approximately 100 such weapons on superhard, high-value targets, in addition to the 6500-Mt baseline megatonnage. It is assumed that these would all be surface bursts.

12. Department for Disarmament Affairs “Nuclear Weapons: A Comprehensive Study”. United Nations Publication, New York 1991

This is the report of the Group of Experts on a Comprehensive Study on Nuclear Weapons. In a large nuclear exchange the quantities of nitrogen oxides injected into the upper atmosphere would be considerably high. These oxides would then reach the ozone layer in the stratosphere and might, through chemical reactions, partially destroy it in a few months. The extent to which the release of a given quantity of nitrogen oxides would deplete the ozone layer is not entirely clear. It is believed, however, that some 50 per cent of the ozone column might be depleted in a major nuclear exchange taking place during the summer months. In winter conditions the percentage would be smaller (some calculate 10-20 per cent).

13. Μ. Mills, O. Toon, R. Turco, D. Kinnison, and R. Garcia «Massive global ozone loss predicted following regional nuclear conflict», PNAS Αpril 8, 2008, vol. 105 no. 14

They used a chemistry-climate model and new estimates of smoke produced by fires in contemporary cities to calculate the impact on stratospheric ozone of a regional nuclear war between developing

nuclear states involving 100 Hiroshima-size bombs exploded in cities in the northern subtropics. They find column ozone losses in excess of 20% globally, 25–45% at midlatitudes, and 50–70% at northern high latitudes persisting for 5 years, with substantial losses continuing for 5 additional years. Column ozone amounts remain near or <220 Dobson units at all latitudes even after three years, constituting an extratropical ‘‘ozone hole’’. The smoke-laden air rises to the upper stratosphere, where removal mechanisms are slow, so that much of the stratosphere is ultimately heated by the localized smoke injections. Higher stratospheric temperatures accelerate catalytic reaction cycles, particularly those of odd-nitrogen, which destroy ozone. In addition, the strong convection created by rising smoke plumes alters the stratospheric circulation, redistributing ozone and the sources of ozone-depleting gases, including N2O and chlorofluorocarbons. The ozone losses predicted here are significantly greater than previous ‘‘nuclear winter/UV spring’’ calculations, which did not adequately represent stratospheric plume rise. Their results point to previously unrecognized mechanisms for stratospheric ozone depletion.

Calculations

We will attempt some calculations of the NOx produced by a nuclear explosion and the quantities which

finally reach on the stratosphere and are responsible for the ozone depletion. These calculations are

made by a computer software we have developed, under the name “NOx Calculator”.

1-Nuclear Cloud

We use the Folley-Ruderman equations {ref. C-9, Chang et Al} for a nuclear explosion with a yield Y(Mt),

the produced nuclear cloud dimensions are:

Cloud Top CT=21.64xY0.2 (Km)

Cloud Bottom CB=13.14xY0.2 (Km)

2- Ozone Layer Profile

The Ozone Layer profile depends on the latitude, (figure-5) {ref. C-6, Bauer & Gillmore} shows the ozone

profile at the latitude of 90 and 710.

The ozone profile at 450 latitude, is presented at (figure-6) {ref. C-3, Johnston, White, Birks}

On (Table-3 and Figure-7) we present the Ozone Top (OT) and Ozone Bottom (OB) values for the latitudes

of 00, 450 and 700, (by using Figure-5 and Figure-6 data).

Figure-5, ozone profile at the latitude of 90 and 710

TABLE-3

Ozone layer for latitudes (00, 450, 700)

Latitude Ozone Top OT Ozone Bottom OB Ozone Max OM Reference

00 40 km 15 km 25 km Bauer & Gillmore,/ figure 5

450 35 km 12 km 20 km Johnson, White, Birks,/ Figure 6

700 30 km 7.5 km 7.5 km Bauer & Gillmore ,/ figure 5

Figure-6, ozone profile at 450 latitude

Figure -7, Ozone layer for latitudes (00, 450, 700)

Ozone Profile

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

0 45 70 Latitude

Km ΟΤ Οmax ΟΒ

3- Quantity of NOx Produced To calculate the NOx produced by an atmospheric nuclear explosion with a Yield Y(Mt), we used the equation which derives from Table-4 {ref. C-9, Chang et Al}

ΝΟx=0.67x1032xY Μolecules/Μt

TABLE-4 Estimates of NOx , Yield per Megaton

4- Estimation of the NOx deposited in the stratosphere

We will calculate the quantity of NOx which after a nuclear explosion are lifted and finally deposited in

the stratosphere. This quantity depends of the explosions yield, the dimensions of the nuclear cloud and

the area latitude. Each area depending of its latitude, has different ozone profile, ozone bottom (OB) and

ozone top (OT). We suppose that the cloud has a spherical shape.

For our calculation we use the following terms

ozone bottom (OB)

ozone top (OT)

cloud bottom (CB)

cloud top (CT)

Our calculations are made for four different scenarios (work cases)

4.1 Case A

Only the upper part of the cloud has entered the ozone layer (grey shaded area, figure-8).

This means, OT>CT>OB>CB (figure-8)

Figure-8, ΟΤ>CT>OB>CB

The volume of a sphere is given (in spherical coordinates) by the following triple integral.

The cloud radius is:

The center of the cloud is located at height

The angle θ defines the volume which has entered the ozone layer:

The angle θ can be defined by its dependence on the height (h):

h=OB – Ho

α*cosθ = h

So angle θ is: θ= arccos (h/a) = arcos = arccos

The second integral intervals are [0,θ]= [0, arccos ]

Ho

4.2 Case – B

The whole spherical cloud leads inside the ozone layer.

ΟΤ>CT and CB>OB

The spherical volume is V=4/3 πα3

4.3 Case -C

the upper part of the sphere has surpass the upper side of the ozone layer (grey shaded area, figure-9)

and the rest volume leads inside the ozone layer. This means CΤ>OT>CB>OB (figure-9)

Figure-9, CΤ>OT>CB>OB

Following the same steps as before, angle θ defines the spherical volume that is inside the ozone layer:

The angle θ can be defined by its dependence on the height (h):

h=OT – Ho

α*cosθ = h

Ho

Angle θ equals: θ= arccos (h/a) = arcos = arccos

The 2nd integral intervals are [θ,π]= [arccos , π]

4. 4 Case -D

The lower part of the cloud is underneath the ozone bottom and the upper part of the cloud, above the

ozone top.

CΤ>OT και CB<OB

This can’t happen on any combination of latitude (0 -900) and any explosion yield (Y)

4.5 analytical calculation for the volume, triple integral

V= =

=

2π*-(cosθ2- cosθ1)+ =>

Arithmetic Results

All the above mentioned calculations are included on a software we developed with VisualBasic

environment named NOx Calculator. By the use of NOx Calculator we will present some calculation results

for the total NOx amounts from past nuclear tests, have deposited in the stratosphere and may affect the

ozone by catalytic reactions.

For our calculations we used the data from all known nuclear tests performed until today. We used some

filters to separate the tests, according to the following criteria:

First we have separated the underground, underwater and exoatmospheric tests because they

don’t inject any NOx to the stratosphere.

From the atmospheric tests we kept only those who can inject NOx in stratosphere. For this

separation we used as filter criteria, the area latitude combined with the explosions yield. So

explosions at Arctic areas <10Kt, or Tropical areas <200Kt were excluded because their fireballs

can’t reach the stratosphere. But we included explosions on these areas if they were performed

at height (eg 2~5Km) so they could reach the stratosphere. (table-5)

For example a 100Kt test at tropical area creates a fireball cloud with final cloud top (CT) 13,65km, while

the ozone bottom zone (OB) is at 15 Km. If the same yield test happens at 5km height then the upper part

of the cloud reaches the 18.5 Km and enters in the ozone zone area. (table-5)

Finally by the use of our method, we can calculate that the total NOx injections in the stratosphere by

nuclear tests until today are about 2.05x1034 molecules NOx (Table-6). These are responsible for the

ozone depletion by catalytic reactions which is estimated to be 1%-6% by different researches as we have

presented briefly before.

TABLE- 5 typical results by the use of ΝΟx Calculator for Atmospheric Nuclear Tests (10Kt – 10 Mt)

Yield Test Latitude

Produced NOx

molecules NOx molecules reached

the ozone layer

10 Kt

tropical zone 00 - 300 6.7x1029 0

Mid latitude 300 - 600 6.7x1029 0

Polar zone 600 - 900 6.7x1029 2.28x1029

100 Kt

tropical zone 00 - 300 6.7x1030 0

Mid latitude 300 - 600 6.7x1030 2.13x1030

Polar zone 600 - 900 6.7x1030 6.7x1030

1 Mt

tropical zone 00 - 300 6.7x1031 5.4x1031

Mid latitude 300 - 600 6.7x1031 6.7x1031

Polar zone 600 - 900 6.7x1031 6.7x1031

10 Mt

tropical zone 00 - 300 6.7x1032 6.7x1032

Mid latitude 300 - 600 6.7x1032 6.7x1032

Polar zone 600 - 900 6.7x1032 4.49x1032

TABLE-6 Results by the use of ΝΟx Calculator for the known Atmospheric Nuclear Tests per country

Country Total Yield (Mt) Produced NOx molecules NOx molecules reached the ozone layer

USA 142,69 9,62E+33 9,22E+33

USSR 261,59 1,75E+34 9,08E+33

U.K. 8,02 5,37E+32 4,72E+32

France 4,67 3,13E+32 3,09E+32

China 21,50 1,44E+33 1,42E+33

TOTAL 438,47 2,94E+34 2,05E+34

Nuclear Tests (Table-8, figures 10, 11)

As part of the nuclear arms race, the United States conducted around 1,030 nuclear tests between 1945

and 1992. Most of the tests took place at the Nevada Test Site and the Pacific Proving Grounds in the

Marshall Islands. Ten other tests took place at various locations in the United States, including Alaska,

Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico.

The Soviet Union conducted 715 nuclear tests between 1949 and 1990, including 219 atmospheric, underwater, and space tests. Most of them took place at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan and the Northern Test Site at Novaya Zemlya. Additional tests were conducted at various locations in Russia and Kazakhstan, while a small number of tests were conducted in Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan.

The United Kingdom has conducted 45 tests (21 in Australian territory, including 9 in mainland South

Australia at Maralinga and Emu Field, many others in the U.S. as part of joint test series).

France conducted 210 nuclear tests between February 13, 1960 and January 27, 1996.

The People's Republic of China conducted 45 tests (23 atmospheric and 22 underground, all conducted at Lop Nur Nuclear Weapons Test Base, in Malan, Xinjiang) 400 N.

India announced it had conducted a test of a single device in 1974 near Pakistan's eastern border under the codename Operation Smiling Buddha. After 24 years, India publicly announced 5 further nuclear tests on May 11 and May 13, 1998. The official number of Indian nuclear tests is 6, conducted under two different code-names and at different times.

Pakistan conducted 6 official tests, under 2 different code names, in the final week of May 1998. From 1983 to 1994, around 24 nuclear cold tests were carried out by Pakistan; these remained unannounced and classified until 2000. In May 1998, Pakistan responded publicly by testing 6 nuclear devices.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malan,_Xinjiang&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang

CONCLUSIONS

In the present analysis we have seen the complexity to calculate the ozone depletion by previous nuclear

tests. The main reason is that during the big tests period, the Dobson stations network did not covering

the biggest globe areas, and satellite coverage was also limited. This created many uncertainties and most

of the results were within the probable error of available ozone measurements.

Moreover, in such big geophysical phenomena, the multiplicity of interactions as well as their complexity,

does not allow the application of precise models but only the estimation of minimum and maximum

values.

It is also important to recognize that ozone catalysis is a particularly photochemical phenomenon and for

its study we must consider many factors as:

The area the test was performed (latitude)

The height of the explosion

Explosions Yield

The season of the year (eg. summer or winter)

The 11year sun activity

Wind direction and speed at the specific time.

The results of the ozone depletion by a nuclear explosion, don’t appear immediately. There are results

that can appear much awhile later and at a different location, and this makes the whole phenomenon not

accountable and nor easily related with the specific explosion.

Furthermore, we must also consider that a lot of tests have been performed without any previous

publicity and that makes the comparison of ozone data, before and after the test, more difficult.

Of course the most complicated issue is that of the direct correlation of the ozone depletion by NOx

produced by nuclear tests. We should not forget that ozone can be depleted by many other reasons, like

CFC’s or other anthropogenic activities or even natural reasons like volcanic eruptions, atmospheric

movements ect. Also the sun 11year period, creates more cosmic rays which enter the atmosphere and

ionize the atoms of N2 and O2 creating NOx.

All the formentioned reasons, make the separation of the nuclear explosion NOx effects on the

stratospheric ozone depletion, impossible.

The lack of complete comprehension of all natural and anthropogenic reasons that may affect the ozone,

makes any calculations concerning the ozone depletion by past nuclear tests, even more inaccurate. So

we must understand that the relation between an explosion, the quantity of produced NOx and then the

calculation of the quantity of ozone depleted by them, is far away from reality and only qualitive results

and secondary some quantitive results, are to be expected.

Today without a doubt, although there are so many uncertainties concerning the “major tests” of early

‘60s, most of the scientists agree that a decrease of 1%-6% of ozone layer had occurred.

In our work and our calculation, we confirmed that up to now because of the past nuclear tests have

been produced and reached the ozone layer, 2.05x1034 molecules NOx, (Table 6, Tables(7.1-7.5)). This

agrees with the previous studies, and according to them, this quantity of NOx is responsible for an ozone

loss about (1%-6%).

With our calculation, we have proven that most of the total NOx in the stratosphere, are originated by

the Soviet tests, 9.08x1033 molecules ΝΟx (Table-7.2) and the USA tests, 9.22x1033 molecules ΝΟx (Table-

7.1). The remainder nuclear states produced much lesser NOx quantity.

We also pinpointed that a small yield explosion <10Kt, if located at tropical zone can’t eject NOx in the

stratosphere, but if it does takes place at polar zone, then some little quantity of NOx molecules can reach

the ozone layer (Table-5).

On the contrary, if the explosion yield is very big >10Mt, then at tropical areas all the produced NOx can

reach the ozone layer, but at polar areas the upper part of the cloud will surpass the ozone layer and

some NOx molecules may eject above it (Table-5)..

The most adverse consequences for the ozone layer are explosions with a medium yield (800 Kt- 2Mt) as

much as the total produced NOx molecules which finally end up in the ozone layer.

Finally, we believe that today computer abilities are incomparable with the computers the most

researchers had at 70’s and 80’s and may a re-examination of the NOx effects at the total ozone will be

more accurate today. As we already have mentioned {C-14, Mills et Al}, have used an advanced, modern

software for climate-chemical models and a 3D calculation physics program. Using such advanced

software and models, we could re-estimate the ozone depletion by NOx produced by past nuclear tests.

REFERENCES

A- For atmosphere and ozone layer

1. E.Hinis, N.Theodorou, «The Effect of Atmospheric Nuclear Tests on the Atmospheric Ozone Layer reduction», http://dspace.lib.ntua.gr/handle/123456789/8687

2. Enviromental Polution, S.M.Shafi, Atlantic Publishers 2005, chapter 8

B- Nuclear weapons and Nuclear tests

1. E.Hinis, N.Theodorou, «The Effect of Atmospheric Nuclear Tests on the Atmospheric Ozone Layer reduction», http://dspace.lib.ntua.gr/handle/123456789/8687

2. K.Tsipis , «Arsenal, understanding weapons in the nuclear age», Simon and Schuster, 1983

3. Henry DeWolf Smyth , «Atomic Energy for Military Purposes», Maple Press, Pennsylvania 1945

4. S.Glasstone & P.Dolan, «The effects of nuclear weapons», US Department of Defense 1977

C- Previous rechearches

1. Harold Johnston, «The Effect of Supersonic Transport Planes on the stratospheric Ozone Shield», Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. 736 (1972)

2. Foley & Ruderman, «Stratospheric NO Production from Past Nuclear Explosions» Journal of Geophysical Research, July 20,1973

3. H. Johnston, G. Whiten, J. Birks, «Effects of Nuclear Explosions on Stratospheric Nitric Oxide & Ozone», Journal of Geophysical Research, September 20,1973

4. Goldsmith, Tuck, Foot, Simmons, Newson, «Nitrogen oxides, Nuclear weapon testing, Concorde and Stratosperic Ozone», Nature Vol.244, August 31, 1973

5. Forest Gilmore, «the production of Nitrogen Oxides by Low-altitude Nuclear Explosions», Journal of Geophysical Research, November 20, 1975.

6. Ernst Bauer, Forest Gilmore, «Effect of Atmospheric Nuclear Explosions on Total Ozone», Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, August 1975.

7. Α. D. Christie, «Atmospheric Ozone Depletion by Nuclear Weapons Testing» Journal of Geophysical Research, May 20, 1976.

http://dspace.lib.ntua.gr/handle/123456789/8687

8. Harold Johnston, «Expected Short-term Local Effect of Nuclear Bombs on Stratospheric Ozone», Journal of Geophysical Research, July 20, 1977.

9. J. Chang, W. Duewer, D. Wuebbles, «The Atmospheric Nuclear Tests, of the 1950’s and 1960’s a Possible Test of Ozone Depletion Theories», Journal of Geophysical Research, April 20, 1979.

10. G. Reinsel, «Analysis of the Total Ozone Data for the Detection of Recent Trends and the effect of Nuclear Testing During the 1960’s», Geophysical Research Letters, Vol.8, No.12, pages 1227-1230, December 1981.

11. Department for Disarmament Affairs “Nuclear Weapons: A Comprehensive Study”. United Nations Publication, New York 1991

12. National Research Council «The Effects on the Atmosphere of a Major Nuclear Exchange» Committee on the Atmospheric Effects of Nuclear Explosions, NATIONAL ACADEMY

PRESS Washington, D.C. 1985.

13. Μ. Mills, O. Toon, R. Turco, D. Kinnison, and R. Garcia «Massive global ozone loss predicted following regional nuclear conflict», PNAS Αpril 8, 2008, vol. 105 no. 14

TABLES

Atmospheric tests, who have injected NOx in the ozone layer (tables 7.1-7.5)

TABLE-7.1

USA TESTS

Bicini- Enewatec 100 N

Christmas Island 20 N

Operation Test Site Date Yield (Mt)

Nox Produced

Nox at Ozon Layer

Ivy 1952 MIKE Enewatac Novem. 1 10,40 6,97E+32 6,97E+32

KING Enewatac Novem. 15 0,50 3,35E+31 1,79E+31

Castle 1954 BRAVO Bicini- Enewatac March 1 15,00 1,01E+33 1,01E+33

ROMEO Bicini- Enewatac March 27 11,00 7,37E+32 7,37E+32

NECTAR Bicini- Enewatac May 14 1,69 1,13E+32 1,12E+32

UNION Bicini- Enewatac April 26 6,90 4,62E+32 4,62E+32

YANKEE Bicini- Enewatac May 5 13,50 9,05E+32 9,05E+32

Redwing 1956 CHEROKEE Bicini- Enewatac May 21 3,80 2,55E+32 2,55E+32

ZUNI Bicini- Enewatac May 28 3,50 2,35E+32 2,35E+32

FLATHEAD Bicini- Enewatac June 11 0,37 2,48E+31 1,01E+31

DAKOTA Bicini- Enewatac June 26 1,10 7,37E+31 6,20E+31

MOHAUK Bicini- Enewatac July 2 0,36 2,41E+31 9,49E+30

APACHE Bicini- Enewatac July 9 1,85 1,24E+32 1,24E+32

NAVAJO Bicini- Enewatac July 11 4,50 3,02E+32 3,02E+32

HURON Bicini- Enewatac July 21 0,25 1,68E+31 3,76E+30

TEWA Bicini- Enewatac July 21 5,00 3,35E+32 3,35E+32

Hardtack I 1958 FIR Johnston Island May 12 1,36 9,11E+31 8,34E+31

KOA Johnston Island May 13 1,37 9,18E+31 8,43E+31

YELLOWWOOD Johnston Island May 26 0,33 2,21E+31 7,84E+30

MAPLE Johnston Island June 10 0,22 1,47E+31 2,39E+30

ASPEN Johnston Island June 14 0,32 2,14E+31 7,30E+30

WALNUT Johnston Island June 15 1,45 9,72E+31 9,11E+31

REDWOOD Johnston Island June 27 0,41 2,75E+31 1,24E+31

ELDER Johnston Island June 27 0,88 5,90E+31 4,48E+31

OAK Johnston Island June 28 8,90 5,96E+32 5,96E+32

CEDAR Johnston Island July 2 0,22 1,47E+31 2,39E+30

DOGWOOD Johnston Island July 12 0,40 2,68E+31 1,18E+31

POPLAR Johnston Island July 12 9,30 6,23E+32 6,23E+32

PISONIA Johnston Island July 17 0,26 1,74E+31 4,24E+30

OLIVE Johnston Island July 22 0,20 1,34E+31 1,54E+30

PINE Johnston Island July 27 2,00 1,34E+32 1,34E+32

Dominic I 1962 ADOBE Christmas Island April 25 0,19 7,30E+31 6,12E+31

AZTEC Christmas Island April 27 0,41 2,75E+31 1,24E+31

ARKANSAS Christmas Island May 2 1,10 7,37E+31 6,20E+31

QUESTA Christmas Island May 4 0,67 4,49E+31 2,94E+31

FRIGATE BIRD Christmas Island May 6 0,60 4,02E+31 2,46E+31

ENCINO Christmas Island May 12 0,50 3,35E+31 1,79E+31

ALMA Christmas Island May 25 0,78 5,23E+31 3,73E+31

TRUCKEE Christmas Island June 9 0,21 1,41E+31 1,96E+30

YESO Christmas Island June 10 3,00 2,01E+32 2,01E+32

HARLEM Christmas Island June 12 1,20 8,04E+31 7,01E+31

RINCONADA Christmas Island June 15 0,80 5,36E+31 3,88E+31

BIGHORN Christmas Island June 27 7,65 5,13E+32 5,13E+32

BLUESTONE Christmas Island June 30 1,27 8,51E+31 7,59E+31

STARFISH PRIME Christmas Island July 8 1,40 9,38E+31 8,68E+31

SUNSET Christmas Island July 10 1,00 6,70E+31 5,41E+31

PAMLICO Christmas Island July 11 3,88 2,60E+32 2,60E+32

CHAMA Christmas Island October 18 1,59 1,07E+32 1,03E+32

CALAMITY Christmas Island October 27 0,80 5,36E+31 3,88E+31

HOUSATONIC Christmas Island October 30 8,30 5,56E+32 5,56E+32

TOTAL 142,69 9,62E+33 9,22E+33

TABLE -7.2

SOVIET TESTS

Semipalatinsk 500 N

Novaya Zemlya 730 N

Operation Test Site Date Yield (Mt) NOx

Produced NOx at Ozon

Layer

1953 Joe-4 Semipalatinsk August 12 0,4 2,68E+31 2,35E+31

1954 Semipalatinsk October 23 0,06 4,02E+30 2,81E+29

1955 Joe-18 Semipalatinsk October 11 0,25 1,68E+31 1,18E+31

1955 Joe-19 Semipalatinsk November 22 1,6 1,07E+32 1,07E+32

1956 Semipalatinsk August 30 0,9 6,03E+31 6,03E+31

1956 Semipalatinsk November 17 0,9 6,03E+31 6,03E+31

1957 Semipalatinsk April 6 0,06 4,02E+30 2,81E+29




1957 Novaya Zemlya September 24 1,6 1,07E+32 1,07E+32

1957 Novaya Zemlya October 6 2,9 1,94E+32 1,94E+32

1958 Novaya Zemlya February 23 0,86 5,76E+31 5,76E+31



1958 Novaya Zemlya March 21 0,65 4,36E+31 4,36E+31












1958 Novaya Zemlya October 24 1 6,70E+31 6,70E+31






1961 Novaya Zemlya September 18 1 6,70E+31 6,70E+31






1961 Raduga Novaya Zemlya October 20 1,45 9,72E+31 9,72E+31



1961 Tsar Novaya Zemlya October 30 57 3,82E+33 0,00E+00



1961 Novaya Zemlya November 2 0,12 8,04E+30 8,04E+30



1962 Novaya Zemlya August 5 21,1 1,41E+33 4,97E+32




1962 Novaya Zemlya August 25 10 6,70E+32 4,49E+32



1962 Tyulpan Novaya Zemlya September 8 1,9 1,27E+32 1,27E+32


















1962 Novaya Zemlya December 18 0,11 7,37E+30 7,37E+30




1962 Test 219 Novaya Zemlya December 24 24,2 1,62E+33 4,83E+32


TOTAL 261,59 1,75E+34 9,08E+33

TABLE -7.3

BRITISH TESTS

Christmas Island 20 N

Malden Island 40 S

Operation Test Site Date Yield (Mt)

Nox Produced

Nox at Ozon Layer

Grapple X 1957 Christmas Island November 8 1,8 1,21E+32 1,21E+32

Orange Herald Malden Island May 31 0,72 4,82E+31 3,29E+31

Grapple Y 1958 Christmas Island April 28 3 2,01E+32 2,01E+32

Grapple Z 1958 Flagpole Christmas Island August 22 1,2 8,04E+31 7,01E+31

Halliard Christmas Island September 11 0,8 5,36E+31 3,88E+31

Granite 1957 Short Malden Island May 15 0,3 2,01E+31 6,24E+30

Purple Malden Island June 19 0,2 1,34E+31 1,54E+30

TOTAL 8,02 5,37E+32 4,71E+32

TABLE -7.4

FRENCH TESTS

Fangataufa 220 S

Algeria 280 N

Operation Test Site Date Yield (Mt) Nox Produced

Nox at Ozon Layer

Gebroise bleue 1960 Algeria February 13 0,07 4,69E+30 6,92E+29

Canopus 1962 Fangataufa August 24 2,6 1,74E+32 1,74E+32

Lincorne 1970 Fangataufa July 4 2 1,34E+32 1,34E+32

TOTAL 4,67 3,13E+32 3,09E+32

TABLE -7.5

CHINESE TESTS

Lop Nur 400 N Operation Test Site Date Yield (Mt) Nox Produced Nox at Ozon

Layer

1966 No-3 Lop Nur May 9 0,3 2,01E+31 1,56E+31

1966 No-5 Lop Nur December 28 0,5 3,35E+31 3,20E+31

1967 No-6 Lop Nur June 17 3,3 2,21E+32 2,21E+32

1968 No-8 Lop Nur December 27 3 2,01E+32 2,01E+32

1969 No-10 Lop Nur September 29 3 2,01E+32 2,01E+32

1970 No-11 Lop Nur October 14 3 2,01E+32 2,01E+32

1972 No-14 Lop Nur March 18 0,2 1,34E+31 8,28E+30

1973 No-15 Lop Nur June 27 2 1,34E+32 1,34E+32

1974 No-16 Lop Nur June 17 1 6,70E+31 6,70E+31

1976 No-19 Lop Nur September 26 0,2 1,34E+31 8,28E+30

1976 No-21 Lop Nur November 17 4 2,68E+32 2,68E+32

1980 No-27 Lop Nur October 16 1 6,70E+31 6,70E+31

TOTAL 21,5 1,44E+33 1,42E+33

Table 8, Known Nuclear Tests Worldwide

Year United States Soviet Union United

Kingdom France China Total

A U A U A U A U A U

A = atmospheric; U = underground

1945 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1946 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2

1947 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1948 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

1949 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1950 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1951 15 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18

1952 10 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 11

1953 11 0 5 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 18

1954 6 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16

1955 17 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24

1956 18 0 9 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 33

1957 27 5 16 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 55

1958 62 15 34 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 116

1959 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1960 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 3

1961 0 9/1* 58 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 71

1962 39 55/2 78 1 0 2** 0 1 0 0 178

1963 4 41/2 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 50

1964 0 39/6 0 9 0 2 0 3 1 0 60

1965 0 37/1 0 14 0 1 0 4 1 0 58

1966 0 44/4 0 18 0 0 5/1* 1 3 0 76

1967 0 39/3 0 17 0 0 3 0 2 0 64

1968 0 52/4 0 17 0 0 5 0 1 0 79

1969 0 45/1 0 19 0 0 0 0 1 1 67

1970 0 38/1 0 16 0 0 8 0 1 0 64

1971 0 23/1 0 23 0 0 5 0 1 0 53

1972 0 27 0 24 0 0 3/1 0 2 0 57

1973 0 23/1 0 17 0 0 5/1 0 1 0 48

1974 0 22 0 21 0 1 7/2 0 1 0 54

1975 0 22 0 19 0 0 0 2 0 1 44

1976 0 20 0 21 0 1 0 4/1 3 1 51

1977 0 20 0 24 0 0 0 7/2 1 0 54

1978 0 19 0 31 0 2 0 10/1 2 1 66

1979 0 15 0 31 0 1 0 10 1 0 58

1980 0 14 0 24 0 3 0 11/1 1 0 54

1981 0 16 0 21 0 1 0 12 0 0 50

1982 0 18 0 19 0 1 0 9/1 0 1 49

1983 0 18 0 25 0 1 0 9 0 2 55

1984 0 18 0 27 0 2 0 8 0 2 57

1985 0 17 0 10 0 1 0 8 0 0 36

1986 0 14 0 0 0 1 0 8 0 0 23

1987 0 14 0 23 0 1 0 8 0 1 47

1988 0 15 0 16 0 0 0 8 0 1 40

1989 0 11 0 7 0 1 0 8/1 0 0 28

1990 0 8 0 1 0 1 0 6 0 2 18

1991 0 7 0 0 0 1 0 6 0 0 14

1992 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 8

1993 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

1994 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2

1995 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 2 7

1996 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3

Total 215 815 219 496 21 24 50 160 23 22 2046#

1030 715 45 210 45

* Number after / beginning in 1961 in the U.S. column represents PNEs. In the French column number after / represents safety tests.

** All UK underground tests were conducted in the U.S.

# Grand total includes one underground explosion by India conducted on May 18, 1974. No tests by these nations occurred from 1997-2002.

Figures

Figure-10

Figure-11, Nuclear testing Locations

Theodorou Nikos

Documents

Transcript of Theodorou Nikos