SETTING THE STAGE In the eighth century B.C., before the Nok were spreadingtheir culture throughout West Africa, the kingdom of Kush in East Africa had becomepowerful enough to conquer Egypt. (See Chapter 4.) However, fierce Assyrians sweptinto Egypt during the next century and drove the Kushite pharaohs south. Kush nev-ertheless remained a powerful kingdom for over 1,000 years—until it was conqueredby another even more powerful kingdom.

The Rise of the Kingdom of AksumThe kingdom that arose was Aksum (AHK•soom). It was located south of Kush on arugged plateau on the Red Sea, in what is now Eritrea and Ethiopia. A legend tracesthe founding of the kingdom of Aksum and the Ethiopian royal dynasty to the son ofKing Solomon of ancient Israel and the Queen of Sheba. That dynasty includes the20th-century ruler Haile Selassie. In fact, the history of Aksum may have begun asearly as 1000 b.c., when Arab peoples crossed the Red Sea into Africa. There theymingled with Kushite herders andfarmers and passed along their writtenlanguage, Ge’ez (GEE•ehz). They alsoshared their skills of working stone andbuilding dams and aqueducts.

The first mention of Aksum was in aGreek guidebook written around A.D.100, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Itdescribes Zoskales (ZAHS•kuh•leez),thought to be the first king of Aksum.He was “a stickler about his possessionsand always [greedy] for getting more,but in other respects a fine person andwell versed in reading and writingGreek.” Greece was not the only coun-try to interact with Aksum, however.Under Zoskales and other rulers,Aksum began conquering people inother lands. The Aksumites seized areasalong the Red Sea and the Blue Nile inAfrica. They also crossed the Red Seaand took control of lands on thesouthwestern Arabian Peninsula.

Aksum Controls InternationalTrade Aksum’s location andexpansion into surrounding areas

The KingdomofAksumandEastAfricanTrade

2TERMS & NAMES

• Aksum• Adulis• Ezana

MAIN IDEA

The kingdom of Aksum became aninternational trading power andadopted Christianity.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Ancient Aksum, which is now Ethiopia,is still a center of Eastern Christianity.

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GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Location What nearby waterways enabled Aksum to become a

major trading center?2. Movement What continents or countries did Aksum’s trade

routes give it access to?

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made it an important trading center. It was a hub for caravan routes to Egypt andMeroë, the capital of Kush. Its miles of coastline and ports on the Red Sea gave itinfluence over sea trade on the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean as well. Tradersfrom Egypt, Arabia, Persia, India, and the Roman Empire crowded Aksum’s chief sea-port, Adulis (AHD•uh•luhs), near present-day Massawa. As a result, Aksum soonbecame an international trading power.

Aksumite merchants traded necessities such as salt and luxuries such as rhinoceroshorns, tortoise shells, ivory, emeralds, and gold. In return, they chose from items suchas imported cloth, glass, olive oil, wine, brass, iron, and copper. Around a.d. 550, anEgyptian merchant named Cosmas described how Aksumite agents bargained for goldfrom the people in southern Ethiopia:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThey take along with them to the mining district oxen, lumps of salt, and iron, and whenthey reach its neighborhood they . . . halt . . . and form an encampment, which theyfence round with a great hedge of thorns. Within this they live, and having slaughteredthe oxen, cut them in pieces and lay the pieces on top of the thorns along with thelumps of salt and the iron. Then come the natives bringing gold in nuggets like peas . . .and lay one or two or more of these upon what pleases them. . . . Then the owner of themeat approaches, and if he is satisfied he takes the gold away, and upon seeing this itsowner comes and takes the flesh or the salt or the iron.COSMAS, quoted in Travellers in Ethiopia

A Strong Ruler Expands the Kingdom The kingdom of Aksumreached its height between a.d. 325 and 360, when an exceptionallystrong ruler, Ezana (AY•zah•nah), occupied the throne. Determinedto establish and expand his authority, Ezana first conquered the partof the Arabian peninsula that is now Yemen. Then, in 330, Ezanaturned his attention to Kush, which already had begun to decline. In350, he conquered the Kushites and burned Meroë to the ground:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TI carried war against [them] when they had rebelled. . . . I burnt theirtowns of stone and their towns of straw. At the same time, my menplundered [stole] their grain, their bronze, their iron and their copper,destroyed the idols in their homes, their stocks of corn and of cotton;and they threw themselves into the river. . . .KING EZANA OF AKSUM, quoted in Africa: Past and Present

A Cosmopolitan Culture DevelopsFrom the beginning, Aksumites had a diverse cultural heritage. Thisblend included traditions of the Arab peoples who crossed the RedSea into Africa and those of the Kushite peoples they settled among.As the kingdom expanded and became a powerful trading center, itattracted people from all over the ancient world.

The port city of Adulis was particularly cosmopolitan. It includedpeople from Aksum’s widespread trading partners, such as Egypt, Arabia, Greece,Rome, Persia, India, and even Byzantium. In the babble of tongues heard in Aksum,Greek stood out as the international language of the time, much as English does inthe world today.

The Spread of Christianity The Aksumites, like other ancient Africans, tradition-ally believed in one god. They called their god Mahrem and believed that their kingwas directly descended from him. They were also animists, however, and worshippedthe spirits of nature and honored their dead ancestors. They offered sacrifices—oftenas many as a dozen oxen at a time—to those spirits, to Mahrem, and often, to theGreek god of war, Ares.

Vocabularycosmopolitan:including elementsfrom many parts ofthe world.

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Ezana

Mid-Fourth Century A.D.

Ezana of Aksum, who reigned fromabout A.D. 325 to 360, succeeded tothe throne as an infant after thedeath of his father. While his motherruled the kingdom, he was educatedby a young Christian man from Syriawho had been captured and takeninto the court.

When Ezana finally became rulerof Aksum, he converted toChristianity and established it as thekingdom’s official religion. “I willrule the people with righteousnessand justice and will not oppressthem, and may they preserve thisThrone which I have set up for theLord of Heaven,” he vowed.

These spiritual aims—alongwith his earthly conquests—gainedhim the title negusa nagast, or“king of kings.”

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Merchants exchanged more than raw materials and finished goods inAksum. They shared ideas as well. One of these ideas was a new religion,Christianity. Based on the teachings of Jesus and a belief in one God—monotheism—Christianity began in Palestine about a.d. 30. It spreadthroughout the Roman Empire and then to Aksum. King Ezana’s conversionand his devout practice of Christianity strengthened its hold in Aksum.

In a.d. 451, a dispute arose over the nature of Christ—whether he wassolely divine, or both divine and human. This dispute led to a split betweenEgypt and Ethiopia on the one hand and the church of Constantinople andRome on the other. The Egyptian and Ethiopian churches, which believedin the wholly divine nature of Christ, followed their separate paths. Theybecame the Coptic Church of Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.The influence of these churches has continued. The Ethiopian OrthodoxChurch today boasts a membership of more than 22 million people—overhalf the population of the country.

Aksumite Architecture The establishment of Christianity was just onelasting achievement of the Aksumites. They also developed a unique archi-tecture. They used stone instead of mud bricks to construct vast royalpalaces and public buildings. Like the Egyptians, the Aksumites used nomortar. Instead, they carved stones to fit together tightly. Aksum’s kings alsobuilt huge stone pillars called stelae (STEE•lee). These presumably weremeant to celebrate the kings’ conquests and to demonstrate Aksum’s great-ness. Some are 60 feet tall and were among the largest structures in theancient world. Ezana left a lasting reminder of Aksum’s spiritual and struc-tural achievements in his last stele. He dedicated this soaring stone to theChristian God, “the Lord of heaven, who in heaven and upon earth ismightier than everything that exists.”

Language and Agriculture The inscription on Ezana’s stele is written inGe’ez, the language brought to Aksum by its early Arab inhabitants. Aside fromEgypt and Meroë, Aksum was the only ancient African kingdom known to havedeveloped a written language. It was also the first state south of the Sahara to mint itsown coins. Made of bronze, silver, and gold, these coins were imprinted with the saying,“May the country be satisfied.” Ezana apparently hoped that thisinscription would make him popular with the people. Every time theyused a coin, it would remind them that he had their interests at heart.

In addition to these cultural achievements, the Aksumites adaptedcreatively to their rugged, hilly environment. They created a newmethod of agriculture, terrace farming. This enabled them to greatlyincrease the productivity of their land. Terraces, or steplike ridgesconstructed on mountain slopes, helped the soil retain water andprevented its being washed downhill in heavy rains. The Aksumitesdug canals to channel water from mountain streams into the fields.They also built dams and cisterns, or holding tanks, to store water.

The Fall of AksumAksum’s cultural and technological achievements enabled it to lastfor 800 years. The kingdom finally declined, however, under invaderswho practiced the religion called Islam (ihs•LAHM). Its founder wasthe prophet Muhammad, and by the time of his death in 632, his fol-lowers had conquered all of Arabia. This territory included Aksum’slands on the Arabian coast of the Red Sea. The Islamic invaderswent on to conquer vast territories in the Mediterranean world,spreading their religion as they went. Because Aksum had protected

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. RecognizingEffects How didAksum’s location andinteraction with otherregions affect itsdevelopment?B. Answer Its loca-tion on water andland trade routes gaveit access to new ideasand products, marketsfor it own products,and the means of con-quering and expand-ing its kingdom.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. AnalyzingCauses What condi-tions led to Aksum’sbecoming a ChristianKingdom?

A. Answer Its sta-tus as a trade centerwhere ideas wereexchanged, andEzana’s conversion toChristianity.

A Road Paved with Gold:Aksum to Rome

The kingdom of Aksum had atremendous impact on the ancientMediterranean world. It particularlyinfluenced one of the mostimportant powers of the time, theRoman Empire. Roman ships cameto Adulis weekly to trade with theAksumites. Many Roman merchantslived in Adulis, and in the capitalcity, Aksum.

One of the chief commoditiesthat linked the two powers wasgold. The Aksumites had access toit from inland gold mines, and theRomans needed it to support themonetary system of their growingempire. Rome and Aksum werelinked not only by gold, however.They also shared a spiritual link intheir commitment to Christianity.

GlobalImpact

This towering stone pillar, orstele, was built to celebrateAksum’s achievements. Stillstanding today, its size andelaborate inscriptions make itan achievement in its own right.

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Muhammad’s family and followers during his rise to power, however, his followers ini-tially did not invade Aksum’s territories on the African coast of the Red Sea. Retainingcontrol of that coastline enabled Aksum to remain a trading power.

Before long, though, the invaders seized footholds on the African coast as well. In710 they destroyed Adulis. This conquest cut Aksum off from the major ports alongboth the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. As a result, the kingdom declined as aninternational trading power. But it was not only Aksum’s political power that weak-ened. Its spiritual identity and environment were also endangered.

As the invaders spread Islam to the lands they conquered, Aksum became isolatedfrom other Christian settlements. To escape the advancing wave of Islam, Aksum’srulers moved their capital over the mountains into what is now northern Ethiopia.There, depletion of the forests and soil erosion as well as Aksum’s new geographic iso-lation led to its decline as a world power.

Although the kingdom of Aksum reached tremendous heights and left a lastinglegacy in its religion, architecture, and agriculture, it lived out its lifespan within a fairlysmall area. Other cultures, both in Africa and around the world, have developed not byexpanding locally, but by moving over great distances. As their living circumstanceschanged, they adapted to the other peoples and environments they encountered.

This 15th-centuryEthiopian fanshows the Christianinfluence thatbegan in Aksumand continues inthe area today. Itmay have beenused during thechurch service tokeep flies fromsettling on thecommunion breadand wine.

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2. TAKING NOTES

Use a web like the one below tolist the achievements of Aksum.

Write a paragraph comparingAksum’s achievements with thoseof another empire, such as Egyptor Rome.

3. ANALYZING CAUSES

Why did the kingdom of Aksumdecline?

THINK ABOUT• the rise and spread of Islam• Aksum’s relocation• changes in the environment

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Power and Authority Do youthink that the kingdom of Aksumwould have reached the sameheights if Ezana had not becomeking? Explain your answer.

THINK ABOUT• Ezana’s accomplishments• Aksum’s importance as a trading

center• Ezana’s conversion to Christianity• the decline of Aksum

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Aksum• Adulis• Ezana

Section Assessment2

Aksum’s achievements

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Societies and Empires of Africa 371

SETTING THE STAGE While the Almohads and Almoravids were building empires inNorth Africa, three powerful empires flourished in West Africa. These ancient Africanempires arose in the Sahel—the savanna region just south of the Sahara. They grewstrong through the controlling of trade.

Ghana: Land of GoldBy A.D. 200, trade across the Sahara had existed for centuries. However, this traderemained infrequent and irregular because of the harsh desert conditions. Most packanimals—oxen, donkeys, and horses—could not travel very far in the hot, dry Saharawithout rest or water. Then in the third century A.D., Berber nomads began usingcamels. The camel could plod steadily over much longer distances, covering asmuch as 60 miles in a day. In addition, it could travel up to ten days withoutwater, twice as long as most pack animals. With the camel, nomadsblazed new routes across the desert and trade increased.

The trade routes crossed the savanna through the regionfarmed by the Soninke (soh•NIHN•keh) people. The Soninkepeople called their ruler ghana, or war chief. Muslim tradersbegan to use the word to refer to the Soninke region. By the700s, Soninke rulers of the kingdom of Ghana were growing richfrom taxing the goods that traders carried through their territory.

Gold-Salt Trade The two most important trade items were gold andsalt. Gold came from a forest region south of the savanna between the Niger(NY•juhr) and Senegal (SEHN•ih•GAWL) rivers. Miners dug gold from shafts as deep as100 feet or sifted it from fast-moving streams. Some sources estimate that until about1350, at least two-thirds of the world’s supply of gold came from West Africa. Althoughrich in gold, West Africa’s savanna and forests lacked salt, a material essential to humanlife. The Sahara contained deposits of salt. In fact, in the Saharan village of Taghaza,workers built their houses from salt blocks because it was the only material available.

Arab and Berber traders crossed the desert with camel caravans loaded down withsalt. They also carried cloth, weapons, and manufactured goods from ports on theMediterranean. After a long journey, they reached the market towns of the savanna.Meanwhile, African traders brought gold north from the forest regions.

Merchants met in trading cities, where they exchanged goods under the watchfuleye of the king’s tax collector. In addition to taxing trade, royal officials made sure thatall traders weighed goods fairly and did business according to law. Royal guards alsoprovided protection from bandits.

Empire of Ghana In his royal palace, the king stored gold nuggets and slabs of salt(collected as taxes). Only the king had the right to own gold nuggets, although golddust freely circulated in the marketplace. By this means, the king limited the supply ofgold and kept its price from falling. Ghana’s African ruler acted as a religious leader,

BackgroundSalt helps the humanbody retain water inhot weather. It alsopreserves food so thatit does not spoil soquickly.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. RecognizingEffects What werepositive and negativeeffects of the king’scontrol of trade?A. AnswerPositive—weighedgoods fairly, did busi-ness according to law,kept price of gold up;Negative—taxedtraders for goods.

West African Empiresand Civilizations

2TERMS & NAMES

• Ghana• Mali• Sundiata• Mansa Musa• Ibn Battuta• Songhai• Hausa• Yoruba• Benin

MAIN IDEA

West Africa contained severalpowerful empires and states, includingGhana, Mali, and Songhai.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

These empires demonstrate therichness of African culture beforeEuropean colonization.

Miners in a forestregion of WestAfrica dug up goldnuggets like this.The king of Ghanapassed a law thatall nuggets shouldbe given to him.

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BackgroundAnimism is the beliefthat spirits—residingin animals, plants,and natural forces—play an important rolein regulating daily life.

chief judge, and military commander. He headed a large bureaucracyand could call up a huge army. In 1067, a Muslim geographer andscholar named al-Bakri wrote a description of Ghana’s royal court:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe king adorns himself . . . wearing necklaces and bracelets. . . . Thecourt of appeal is held in a domed pavilion around which stand tenhorses with gold embroidered trappings. Behind the king stand tenpages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on hisright are the sons of the subordinate [lower] kings of his country, allwearing splendid garments and with their hair mixed with gold.AL-BAKRI, quoted in Africa in the Days of Exploration

By the year 800, Ghana had become an empire. Because Ghana’sking controlled trade and commanded a large army, he could

demand taxes and gifts from the chiefs of surrounding lands. As long as the chiefsmade their payments, the king left them in peace to rule their own people.

Islamic Influences While Islam spread through North Africa by conquest, south ofthe Sahara, Islam spread through trade. Muslim merchants and teachers settled in thestates south of the Sahara and introduced their faith there.

Eventually, Ghana’s rulers converted to Islam. By the 11th century, Muslim adviserswere helping the king run his kingdom. While Ghana’s African rulers and many mem-bers of the court accepted Islam, many people in the empire clung to their animisticbeliefs and practices. Much of the population never converted. Those who did keptmany of their former beliefs, which they observed along with Islam. Among the upperclass, Islam’s growth encouraged the spread of literacy. To study the Qur’an, converts toIslam had to learn to read and write Arabic.

BackgroundAl-Bakri claimed thatGhana’s army was200,000 strong. Somemodern scholarsbelieve that figurewas exaggerated.

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GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Region Compare the regions occupied by the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai

empires in terms of size and location.2. Human-Environment Interaction How did the environment both

contribute resources to and cause problems for traders?

At Fez, the tradersbuy goods broughtacross theMediterranean.

At Taghaza,they take onsalt andmore water.

They load up withwater at Sijilmasa. Itwill take 25 days toreach Taghaza.

They trade the saltand other goods forgold at Timbuktu.They also load up onwater and food forthe return journey.

A European drew this sketch of Timbuktu inthe early 1800s, long after its economic powerhad declined. However, the mosque from the1300s is still visible in the background.

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Societies and Empires of Africa 373

In 1076 the Muslim Almoravids of North Africa completed their conquest ofGhana. Although the Almoravids eventually withdrew from Ghana, the war had badlydisrupted the gold-salt trade. Ghana never regained its power.

Empire of MaliBy 1235 the kingdom of Mali had emerged. Its founders were Mande-speaking peo-ple, who lived south of Ghana. Like Ghana’s, Mali’s wealth was built on gold. AsGhana remained weak, people who had been under its control began to act indepen-dently. In addition, miners foundnew gold deposits farther east. Thiscaused the most important traderoutes to shift eastward, whichmade a new group of people—thepeople of Mali—wealthy. It alsoallowed them to seize power.

Sundiata Conquers an EmpireMali’s first great leader, Sundiata(sun•JAHT•ah), came to power bycrushing a cruel, unpopular leader.Then, in the words of a Mande oraltradition, “the world knew no othermaster but Sundiata.” Sundiatabecame Mali’s mansa, or emperor.Through a series of military victo-ries, he took over the kingdom ofGhana and the trading cities ofKumbi and Walata. A period ofpeace and prosperity followed.

Sundiata proved to be as great aleader in peace as he had been inwar. He put able administrators incharge of Mali’s finances, defense,and foreign affairs. From his new capital at Niani, he promoted agriculture andreestablished the gold-salt trade. Niani became an important center of commerce andtrade. People began to call Sundiata’s empire Mali, meaning “where the king lives.”

Mansa Musa Expands Mali Sundiata died in 1255. Influenced by Arab traders,some of Mali’s next rulers became Muslims. These African Muslim rulers builtmosques, attended public prayers, and supported the preaching of Muslim holy men.The most famous of them was Mansa Musa (MAHN•sah moo•SAH),who may have been Sundiata’s grandnephew.

Like Sundiata, Mansa Musa was a skilled military leader who exer-cised royal control over the gold-salt trade and put down every rebel-lion. His 100,000-man army kept order and protected Mali from attack.Under Mansa Musa, the empire expanded to roughly twice the size ofthe empire of Ghana. To govern his far-reaching empire, he divided it intoprovinces and appointed governors, who ruled fairly and efficiently.

A devout Muslim, Mansa Musa went on a hajj to Mecca from 1324 to1325. When he returned, Mansa Musa ordered the building of newmosques at the trading cities of Timbuktu (TIHM•buhk•TOO) and Gao.Timbuktu became one of the most important cities of the empire. Itattracted Muslim judges, doctors, religious leaders, and scholars from far andwide to its mosques and universities.

This is a Spanishmapmaker’s idea ofhow Mansa Musalooked.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. AnalyzingCauses Why wouldthe disruption of tradedestroy Ghana’spower?B. PossibleAnswer BecauseGhana’s power wasbased on wealthgained from control-ling trade.

BackgroundBetween Sundiataand Mansa Musa,Mali experienced tur-moil—five differentrulers in only 30years!

Sundiata

?–1255

Sundiata came from the kingdom ofKangaba near the present-day Mali-Guinea border. According to oraltradition, he was one of 12 royalbrothers who were heirs to thethrone of Kangaba.

When Sumanguru, ruler of aneighboring state, overran Kangabain the early 1200s, he wanted toeliminate rivals, so he murdered allof Sundiata’s brothers. He sparedSundiata, who was sickly andseemed unlikely to survive.However, as Sundiata grew up, hegained strength and became apopular leader of many warriors. In1235, Sundiata’s army defeatedSumanguru and his troops.

Although a Muslim, Sundiataalso performed traditional Africanreligious ceremonies as emperor.This helped him unify his empire.

Mansa Musa

?–1332

The strongest of Sundiata’ssuccessors, Mansa Musa was adevout Muslim. On his hajj, MansaMusa stopped in Cairo, Egypt. Fivehundred slaves, each carrying astaff of gold, arrived first. They werefollowed by 80 camels, eachcarrying 300 pounds of gold dust.Hundreds of other camels broughtsupplies. Thousands of servants andofficials completed the procession.

An Egyptian official wrote:This man Mansa Musa spreadupon Cairo the flood of hisgenerosity: there was noperson, officer of the court, orholder of any office of theSultanate who did not receivea sum of gold from him.

Mansa Musa gave away so muchgold that the value of this preciousmetal declined in Egypt for 12 years.

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THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. MakingInferences Whymight the people whohad been conqueredby Mali want to breakaway?C. PossibleAnswers Becausethey resented beingcontrolled by Mali;because they wantedto take over trade forthemselves.

Travels of Ibn Battuta In 1352, one of Mansa Musa’s successors prepared toreceive a traveler and historian named Ibn Battuta (IHB•uhn ba•TOO•tah). A nativeof Tangier in North Africa, Ibn Battuta had traveled for 27 years, visiting most of thecountries in the Islamic world.

After leaving the royal palace, Ibn Battuta visited Timbuktu and other cities inMali. He found he could travel without fear of crime. As a devout Muslim, he praisedthe people for their study of the Qur’an, but criticized them for not strictly practicingIslam’s moral code. However, Mali’s justice system also impressed him:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThey are seldom unjust, and have a greater abhorrence of injustice than any other peo-ple. Their sultan shows no mercy to anyone who is guilty of the least act of it. There iscomplete security in their country. Neither traveler nor inhabitant in it has anything tofear from robbers.IBN BATTUTA, quoted in Africa in the Days of Exploration

Ibn Battuta left Mali in 1353. Within 50 years, the once-powerful empire began toweaken. Most of Mansa Musa’s successors lacked his ability to govern well. In addi-tion, the gold trade that was one basis of Mali’s wealth again shifted eastward as newgoldfields were developed.

Empire of SonghaiAs Mali declined in the 1400s, people who had been under its control began to breakaway. Among them were the Songhai (SAWNG•HY) to the east. They built up anarmy, extended their territory to the large bend in the Niger River near Gao, and

gained control of the all-important trade routes. Gao was the capital of their empire.

Sunni Ali, a Conquering Hero The Songhai had two extraordi-nary rulers. One was Sunni Ali, who built a vast empire by militaryconquest. Sunni Ali’s rule began in 1464 and lasted almost 30 years.

Sunni Ali built a professional army that had a riverboat fleet ofwar canoes and a mobile fighting force on horseback. He forged theSonghai empire through his skill as a military commander and hisaggressive leadership. In 1468, Sunni Ali achieved his first major mil-itary triumph. He captured the city of Timbuktu, which had been animportant part of Mali’s empire.

Five years later, he took Djenné, also a trade city that had a univer-sity. To take Djenné, Sunni Ali besieged the city for seven years beforeit fell in 1473. Sunni Ali sealed the takeover of Djenné by marrying itsqueen.

Askia Muhammad Governs Well After Sunni Ali’s death in 1492,his son succeeded him as ruler. Almost at once, he faced a majorrevolt by Muslims who were angry that he did not practice their reli-

gion faithfully. The leader of the revolt was a devoutMuslim named Askia Muhammad. He drove SunniAli’s son from power and replaced him.

Islam in West Africa

South of the Sahara, many convertsto Islam also kept their Africanbeliefs. They found ways to includetheir traditional rituals and customsinto their new religion.

The status of women in WestAfrican societies demonstrates howlocal custom altered Muslimpractice. In many 15th-centuryMuslim societies, women seldom lefttheir homes. When they did, theyveiled their faces. Muslim women inWest Africa, however, did not wearveils. They also mingled freely withmen in public—which shockedvisiting Muslim religious leaders.

Cultural blending also affectedarchitecture. West Africans usedlocal techniques to build the mosqueat Kawara, shown below. Theysculpted it beautifully from mud.

Daily Life

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During his 35-year rule, Askia Muhammad proved to be an excellent administrator.He set up an efficient tax system and chose able officials. Adding to the centralizedgovernment created by Sunni Ali, he appointed officials to serve as ministers of thetreasury, army, navy, and agriculture. Under his rule, the well-governed empire thrived.

Despite its wealth and learning, the Songhai Empire lacked modern weapons. In1591, a Moroccan fighting force of several thousand men equipped with gunpowderand cannons crossed the Sahara and invaded Songhai. The Moroccan troops quicklydefeated the Songhai warriors, who were armed only with swords and spears. The col-lapse of the Songhai Empire ended a 1,000-year period in which powerful kingdomsand empires ruled the central region of West Africa.

Other Peoples of West AfricaWhile empires rose and fell in some parts of West Africa, in other areas city-states devel-oped. As in Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, Muslim traditions influenced some of these city-states. Other city-states held to their traditional African beliefs.

Hausa City-States Compete The Hausa (HOW•suh) were a groupof people named after the language they spoke. The city-states of theHausa people first emerged between the years 1000 and 1200 in thesavanna area east of Mali and Songhai in what is today northernNigeria. Songhai briefly ruled the Hausa city-states, but they soonregained their independence. In such city-states as Kano, Katsina, andZazzau (later Zaria), local rulers built walled cities for their capitals.These cities had populations of 50,000 or more. From their capitals,Hausa rulers governed the farming villages outside the city walls.

Each ruler depended on the crops of the farmers and on a thrivingtrade in salt, grain, and cotton cloth made by urban weavers. Becausethey were located on trade routes that linked other West African stateswith the Mediterranean, Kano and Katsina became major tradingstates. They profited greatly from supplying the needs of caravans.Kano was noted for its woven and dyed cloth and for its leather goods.

Zazzau, the southernmost state, conducted a vigorous trade inenslaved persons. Zazzau’s traders raided an area south of the city andsold their captives to traders in other Hausa states. These traders soldthem to other North or West African societies in exchange for horses,harnesses, and guns. The Hausa kept some enslaved workers to buildand repair city walls and grow food for the cities.

All the Hausa city-states had similar forms of government. Rulersheld great power over their subjects, but ministers and other officials acted to check thispower. For protection from outside enemies and from each other, each city-state raisedan army of mounted horsemen. Although rulers often schemed and fought to gain con-trol over their neighbors, none succeeded for long. The constant fighting among city-states prevented any one of them from building a Hausa empire.

Yoruba Kings and Artists Like the Hausa, the Yoruba(YAWR•uh•buh) people all spoke a common language. Originally theYoruba-speaking people belonged to a number of small city-states inthe forests on the southern edge of the savanna in what is todayBenin and southwestern Nigeria. In these communities most peoplefarmed. Over time, some of these smaller communities joinedtogether under strong leaders. This led to the formation of severallocalized Yoruba kingdoms.

Considered divine, Yoruba kings served as the most important reli-gious and political leaders in their kingdoms. All Yoruba chiefs tracedtheir descent from the first ruler of Ife (EE•fay). According to legend,

BackgroundThe Chinese inventedgunpowder in the 9th century. About1304, Arabs devel-oped the first gun,which shot arrows.

This modern Hausa village inNigeria has manytraditionally con-structed mudbuildings.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. AnalyzingCauses In your ownwords, restate themain reason that theHausa did not developan empire.D. Answer Theydeveloped severalcity-states of roughlyequal power andfought constantly;none was able todominate the others.

Queen Amina’s Reign

In the 1500s, the Hausa city-state ofZazzau (later called Zaria) wasgoverned by Queen Amina. Shewas remembered as the“headdress among the turbans.”Her rule was distinguished for itsmilitary conquests.

The Kano Chronicle, a history of the city-state of Kano, records:

At this time Zaria, under QueenAmina, conquered all thetowns as far as Kawararafa andNupe. Every town paid tributeto her. . . . Her conquestsextended over 34 years.

Queen Amina’s commitment toher Muslim faith also led her toencourage Muslim scholars,judges, and religious leaders fromreligious centers at Kano andTimbuktu to come to Zazzau.

SPOTLIGHTON

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HISTORY THROUGH ART: Sculpture

Benin SculptureAccording to tradition, Yoruba artists taught their techniques to

artists in nearby Benin. One of the primary functions of the artists ofBenin was to please the ruler by recording his history or displaying hispower. Adorning the palace walls were brass plaques commemoratingthe ruler’s great achievements. Brass heads showed the ruler and hisfamily as idealized figures.

376 Chapter 15

Queen MotherBenin is perhaps most

famous for royal headssuch as this one. In Benin,

the queen mother held agreat deal of power.

To symbolize that,she wore a woven

crown called a“chicken’s beak.”

Brass LeopardThis snarling leopard is a symbol ofthe king’s royal power. It is also awater vessel used on ceremonialoccasions. Water was poured into thehollow vessel through a hole on top of thehead. When the vessel was tilted, waterpoured out through the nostrils.

Bronze BoxThis box is shaped like a section of the palace. On the center tower are a bird, which symbolizes disaster, and a python.Standing on the ridge of theroof are two Portuguesesoldiers holding guns.

Drawing Conclusions Whatdoes each of these sculpturesreveal about who had power inBenin? What can you concludeabout changes that might havebeen happening in Benin?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R17

Comparing How do peopletoday try to demonstrate theirpower to others—through art orthrough some other way? Explain.

Connect to Today

Connect to History

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Societies and Empires of Africa 377

the creator sent this first ruler down to earth at Ife, where he founded the firstYoruba state. His many sons became the heads of other Yoruba kingdoms. AllYoruba chiefs regarded the king of Ife as their highest spiritual authority. Todemonstrate his power, each king surrounded himself with a large royalcourt and soldier-bodyguards. However, a secret society of religious andpolitical leaders limited the king’s rule by reviewing the decisions he made.

Ife and Oyo were the two largest Yoruba kingdoms. Ife, developedby 1100, was the most powerful Yoruba kingdom until the late 1600s,when Oyo became more prosperous. As large urban centers, both Ifeand Oyo had high walls surrounding them. With fertile soil and amplerainfall, most rural farms in the surrounding areas produced surplus food,which was sent to the cities. This enabled city dwellers to becometraders and craftspeople.

The Ife produced gifted artists who carved in wood andivory. They produced terra cotta sculptures and cast in bronze,brass, and copper. Some scholars believe that the rulers sup-ported artists, who may have lived at court. Many clay and metalcasts portray Ife rulers in an idealistic way.

Kingdom of Benin To the south and west of Ife, near the delta ofthe Niger River, lay the kingdom of Benin (buh•NIHN). Like the Yorubapeople of Ife and Oyo, its people made their homes in the forest. Thefirst kings of Benin date from the 1300s. Like the Yoruba kings, the oba,or ruler, of Benin based his right to rule on claims of descent from thefirst king of Ife.

In the 1400s, the oba named Ewuare made Benin into a major WestAfrican state. He did so by building a powerful army. He used it to control an areathat by 1500 stretched from the Niger River delta in the east to what is today Lagos,Nigeria. Ewuare also strengthened Benin City by building walls around it. Inside thecity, broad streets were lined by neat rows of houses.

The huge palace contained many courtyards and works of art. Artists working for the oba created magnificent brass heads of the royal family and copper figurines.Brass plaques on the walls and columns of the royal palace of the oba showed legends,historical scenes, and the great deeds of the oba and his nobles. According to tradi-tion, Benin artists learned their craft from an Ife artist brought to Benin by the oba to teach them.

In the 1480s, Portuguese trading ships began to sail into Benin’s port at Gwatto.The Portuguese traded with Benin merchants for pepper, leopard skins, ivory, andenslaved persons. This began several centuries of European interference in Africa—during which they enslaved Africans and seized African territory for colonies. Mean-while, East Africans—discussed in Section 3—prospered from trade and developedthriving cities and empires.

Vocabularyterra cotta: areddish-brown clay,hard ceramic.

Although carvedsometime withinthe last twocenturies, thismother and child is done in a tradi-tional Yoruba style.

2. TAKING NOTES

Compare the Mali Empire and theSonghai Empire using a Venndiagram like the one below.

3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Which of the two—the Yorubapeople or the people of Benin—had more influence on the other?Explain.

THINK ABOUT• when the kingdoms flourished• political traditions of each• artistic traditions of each

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Economics What do you thinkwas the most effective methodGhana used to regulate itseconomy? Explain.

THINK ABOUT• trade routes• ownership of gold• taxes

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Ghana• Mali• Sundiata• Mansa Musa• Ibn Battuta• Songhai• Hausa• Yoruba• Benin

Section Assessment2

Mali

both

Songhai

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SETTING THE STAGE As early as the third century, the kingdom of Aksum had takenpart in an extensive trade network. From its Red Sea port, Aksum traded with Arabia,Persia, India, and Rome. In the 600s, Muslim forces gained control of Arabia, the Red

Sea, and North Africa. The Muslims cut off the Aksumites from theirport. The Aksumites moved their capital south from Aksum to Roha(later called Lalibela) shortly before 1100. In the meantime, othercities on the east coast were thriving on Indian Ocean trade.

East Coast Trade CitiesBy 1100, waves of Bantu-speaking people had migrated across cen-tral Africa to the east coast. There they established farming and fish-ing villages. At the same time, traders took advantage of themonsoons to make their way across the Indian Ocean to East Africa.Slowly, the existing coastal villages grew into bustling seaports, builton trade between East African merchants and traders from Arabia,Persia, and India. As trade increased, many Muslim Arab andPersian traders settled in these port cities. Arabic blended with theBantu language to create the Swahili (swah•HEE•lee) language.

Persian traders moved south from the Horn of Africa—a triangu-lar peninsula near Arabia. They brought Asian manufactured goodsto Africa and African raw materials to Asia. In the coastal markets,Arab traders sold porcelain bowls from China and jewels and cottoncloth from India. They bought African ivory, gold, tortoiseshell,ambergris, leopard skins, and rhinoceros horns to carry to Arabia.

By 1300, more than 35 trading cities dotted the coast fromMogadishu in the north to Kilwa and Sofala in the south. Like the empires of WestAfrica, these seaports grew wealthy by controlling all incoming and outgoing trade. Somecities also manufactured trade goods for export. For example, weavers in Mogadishu andSofala made cloth. Workers in Mombasa and Malindi made iron tools.

BackgroundMore Bantu-speakingpeople moved souththan east. Eventually,they settled much ofsouthern Africa.

Vocabularyambergris: a grayish-white substance fromthe intestines ofsperm whales, usedto make perfume.

Eastern City-States andSouthern Empires

3TERMS & NAMES

• Swahili• Great Zimbabwe• Mutapa

MAIN IDEA

From 1000 to 1500, East African city-states and southern African empiresgained wealth and power through trade.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

The country of Zimbabwe and citiessuch as Mogadishu and Mombasa havetheir roots in this time period.

378

Swahili

Over the centuries, contactsbetween two peoples—Bantuspeakers and Arabs—led to thecreation of a new people and a newlanguage. Many Arab tradersmarried African women. In time,people of mixed Arab and Africanancestry came to be called Swahili.The word comes from an Arabicterm meaning “people of the coast”and refers to the East African coast.

Although Swahili peoples do notshare a single culture, they dospeak a common language. Swahiliis a Bantu language with manywords borrowed from Arabic.Today, Swahili is spoken by about30 million people—about half of allpeople who speak a Bantulanguage. In Tanzania and Kenya,Swahili is the official language.

GlobalImpact

Trade Goods

• savanna region

• shells of hawksbill sea turtles

• mines in southern Africa

• tusks from elephants in savanna region

• leopard skins

• tortoiseshell

• gold

• ivory

Point of Origin Products MadeRaw Materials

• saddles

• combs

• coins, jewelry

• carved chess pieces and sword hilts

SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Charts1. Which raw materials came from the savanna region?2. Rank the raw materials in order of value, and explain your decision.

In some parts ofAfrica, cowrieshells were usedfor currency. Thecowrie is a seasnail that lives inthe Indian Ocean.Its shell isbeautifully colored.

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Societies and Empires of Africa 379

The City-State of Kilwa In1331, Ibn Battuta visited Kilwa. Hecalled it one of the most beautifulcities in the world. He admired theluxurious way that its Muslim rulersand merchants lived. The richestfamilies lived in fine houses of coraland stone. They slept in beds inlaidwith ivory and their meals wereserved on Chinese porcelain.Wealthy Muslim women wore silkrobes and gold and silver bracelets.

Kilwa grew rich because it wasas far south on the coast as a shipfrom India could sail in one mon-soon season. Therefore, tradegoods from southerly regions hadto funnel into Kilwa, so Asian mer-chants could buy them.

In addition, in the late 1200sKilwa had seized the port of Sofala,which was a trading center for goldmined inland. By controlling Sofala,Kilwa was able to control the over-seas trade of gold from southernAfrica. This made Kilwa the wealthi-est, most powerful coastal city-state.

Portuguese Conquest In 1488,the first Portuguese ships rounded the southern tip of Africa and sailed north, looking fora sea route to India. They wanted to gain profits from the Asian trade in spices, per-fumes, and silks. When the Portuguese saw the wealth of the East African city-states,they decided to conquer those cities and take over the trade themselves.

Using their heavy ships’ guns, the Portuguese took Sofala, Kilwa, and Mombasa. Theyburned parts of Kilwa and built forts on the sites of Kilwa and Mombasa. The Portugueseremained a presence on the East African coast for the next two centuries.

Islamic InfluencesAs in West Africa, Muslim traders introduced Islam to the East African coast, and thegrowth of commerce caused it to spread. Even the smallest towns had a mosque for thefaithful. A Muslim sultan, or ruler, governed most cities. In addition, most governmentofficials and wealthy merchants were Muslims.

Islamic Law In 1331, Ibn Battuta visited the East African city of Mogadishu. Hedescribed how Muslim religious leaders and government officials decided legal matters:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe Shaikh [sultan] takes his place in his hall of audience and sends for the Qadi [judge].He takes his place on the Shaikh’s left and then the lawyers come in and the chief ofthem sit in front of the Shaikh. . . . Then food is brought and . . . those who are in theaudience chamber eat in the presence of the Shaikh. . . . After this the Shaikh retires tohis private apartments and the Qadi, the wazirs [government ministers] . . . and . . . chiefamirs [military commanders] sit to hear causes and complaints. Questions of religiouslaw are decided by the Qadi, other cases are judged by the . . . wazirs and amirs. If a caserequires the views of the [Shaikh], it is put in writing for him. He sends back an imme-diate reply.IBN BATTUTA, Travels of Ibn Battuta

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. AnalyzingCauses What werethe two main reasonsKilwa became sowealthy?A. Answer Its favor-able location causedtrade to funnel intothe city; It controlledSofala and its goldtrade.

B. Answer The Qadijudged religiouscases; the wazirs andamirs judged nonreli-gious cases; theSultan (or Shaikh)judged cases thatwere speciallyreferred to him.THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SummarizingName the four typesof people whodecided legal mattersand what type ofcases they judged.

0 1,000 Miles

0 2,000 Kilometers

40°E

80°E

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

Equator 0° I N D I A N O C E A N

Nile

R.

Limpop

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Red

Sea

Gulf of Aden

CongoR

.Z a mbezi R.

L. Victoria

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Sofala

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Zimbabwe

Aksum Aden

Zeila

Dhofar

Mogadishu

Calicut

Muscat

Mombasa

Malindi

Lalibela

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agas

car

INDIA

ARABIA

EGYPT

East African Trade, 1000

Land routeSea route

Winter monsoonRain forestSavannahDesert

Summer monsoon

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps1. Movement How far did a trader have to travel to make a round

trip from Calicut in India to Kilwa in Africa and back again?2. Human-Environment Interaction Which monsoon would a trader

rely on to sail from India to Africa?

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Most rulers, government officials, and merchants were Muslim. However, the vastmajority of people along the East African coast held on to their traditional religiousbeliefs. This was also true of the people who lived in inland villages.

Enslavement of Africans Along with luxury goods, Arab Muslim traders exportedenslaved persons from the East African coast. Traders sent Africans acquired throughkidnapping and raids to markets in Arabia, Persia, and Iraq. The wealthy in thesecountries often bought enslaved persons to do burdensome domestic tasks. Muslimtraders shipped enslaved Africans across the Indian Ocean to India, where Indianrulers employed them as soldiers. Enslaved Africans also worked on docks and shipsat Muslim-controlled ports and as household servants in China.

Although traders had been enslaving East Africans and selling them overseas sinceabout the ninth century, the numbers remained small—perhaps about 1,000 a year.The trade in enslaved persons did not increase dramatically until the 1700s. At thattime, Europeans started to buy captured Africans for their colonial plantations.

Southern Africa and Great ZimbabweThe gold and ivory that helped the coastal city-states grow rich came from the interior ofsouthern Africa. In southeastern Africa the Shona people established a city called GreatZimbabwe (zihm•BAHB•way), which grew into an empire built on the gold trade.

Great Zimbabwe By 1000, the Shona people had claimed the fertile, well-wateredplateau between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers in modern Zimbabwe. The areawas well suited to farming and cattle raising. Its location also had economic advan-tages. Great Zimbabwe stood near an important trade route linking the inland gold-fields with the coastal trading city of Sofala. Sometime after 1000, Great Zimbabwegained control of these trade routes. From the 1200s through the 1400s, it becamethe capital of a thriving state. Its leaders taxed the traders who traveled these routes.They also demanded payments from less powerful chiefs. The city of Great Zimbabwewas the economic, political, and religious center of its empire.

By 1450, the city of Great Zimbabwe was abandoned. No one knows for sure why ithappened. According to one theory, cattle grazing had worn out the grasslands. Inaddition, farming had worn out the soil, and people had used up the salt and timber.The area could no longer support a large population.

Ruins of Zimbabwe Almost everything that is known about Great Zimbabwe comesfrom its impressive 60 acres of ruins. Portuguese explorers knew about the site in the

C. Possible AnswerAlthough it was wide-spread geographically,the numbers weresmall compared tothose after 1700.THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. DrawingConclusions Howextensive was thetrade in enslaved per-sons from East Africabefore 1700?

BackgroundThe Shona are agroup of Bantu-speaking peoples.

Great Zimbabwe

1000 1500

1000 GreatZimbabwe begins tocontrol trade routesover which gold iscarried.

1200 GreatZimbabwe taxestraders andbecomes wealthy.

1450 The city ofGreat Zimbabwe

is abandoned.

City of Great ZimbabweThe Shona people built this impressive city to be the center of their empire.

• It covered more than 60 acres.

• Its population was more than 10,000.

• The walls contain approximately 900,000 stone blocks. They were so well built that the blocks hold togetherwithout mortar.

This photograph shows part of the Great Enclosure and the cone-shaped tower. ➤

This picture of a personstanding next to thetower shows how veryhigh both the tower andthe enclosing walls are.

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Societies and Empires of Africa 381

1500s. Karl Mauch, a German explorer, was one of the first Europeans to physicallyrediscover the remains of these stone dwellings in 1871.

The word zimbabwe comes from a Shona phrase meaning “stone enclosure.” Theruins consist of two complexes of stone buildings that once housed the royal palace ofGreat Zimbabwe’s rulers. The Great Enclosure is a massive curving wall up to 36 feethigh and 15 feet thick. Because there was no way for soldiers to climb to the top ofthe walls, archaeologists theorize that they were not used primarily as defenses. Themassive walls were probably built to impress visitors with the strength of Zimbabweand its ruler. Inside the walls stands a cone-shaped tower. Among the ruins werefound tall figures of birds, carved from soapstone. Archaeologists believe the construc-tion of Great Zimbabwe may have taken 400 years.

Mutapa Empire According to Shona oral tradition, a man named Mutota left GreatZimbabwe about 1420 to find a new source of salt. Traveling north, he settled in a val-ley with fertile soil, good rainfall, and ample wood. There he founded a new state toreplace Great Zimbabwe. As the state grew, its leader Mutota used his army todominate the northern Shona people living in the area. Heforced them to make payments to him.

These conquered people called Mutota and his succes-sors mwene mutapa, meaning conqueror or “master pillager.”The Portuguese who arrived on the East African coast in theearly 1500s believed mwene mutapa to be a title of respectfor the ruler. The term is also the origin of the name ofthe Mutapa Empire. By the time of Mutota’s death, theMutapa Empire had conquered all of what is nowZimbabwe except the eastern portion. By 1480 Mutota’s sonMatope claimed control of the area along the ZambeziRiver to the Indian Ocean coast.

The Mutapa Empire was able to mine gold deposited innearby rivers and streams. In addition, Mutapa rulers forcedpeople in conquered areas to mine gold for them. The rulerssent gold to the coastal city-states in exchange for luxuries.Even before the death of Matope, the southern part of hisempire broke away. However, the Mutapa Dynasty continued toremain in control of the smaller empire.

In the 1500s, the Portuguese tried to conquer the empire. Whenthey failed to do so, they resorted to interfering in Mutapa politics. Theyhelped to depose one ruler and put one they could control on the throne.This was a forerunner of increasing European interference in Africa incenturies to come.

D. Possible AnswerTo get control of thegold trade.THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. MakingInferences Why doyou think thePortuguese wanted toconquer the MutapaEmpire?

BackgroundMost other walledcities were built sothat soldiers couldclimb to the top of thewalls and shootarrows at attackers.

2. TAKING NOTES

Use a chart like the one below toexplain one example of culturalinteraction brought about by tradeon the coast of East Africa.

Do you think this interaction had apositive or negative effect?Explain.

3. COMPARING

Compare the Portuguese whoarrived in East Africa with therulers of the Mutapa Empire.

THINK ABOUT• how they treated other groups of

people• what motivated their actions

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Interaction withEnvironment Create a chart,sketch, or collage thatdemonstrates how the people ofGreat Zimbabwe interacted withtheir environment, both positivelyand negatively, over time.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Swahili• Great Zimbabwe• Mutapa

Section Assessment3

This is aPortuguese portraitof one of the kingsof the MutapaEmpire.

resulting interaction

cultural group cultural group

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