The War of 1812

The War of 1812 is often remembered for some iconic moments:

- the heroism and success of the United States Navy

- the writing of The Star Spangled Banner

- the burning of Washington, D.C. by the British

- Andrew Jackson winning the Battle of New Orleans

The ‘War of 1812’ was the culmination of several conflicts that involved/impacted America:

• a war between American settlers and western Natives

• a war between the United States and Great Britain

• a war between Great Britain and Napoleonic France

• a “war” between western Americans and those ‘back east’

• a “war” between Democratic-Republicans and the last Federalists

The war carried more than just iconic significance. These conflicts:

- broke the power of all Native Americans east of the Mississippi

- convinced most American leaders of the need for a strong navy

- stamped out the final embers of Federalist Party resistance

- established the crucial peace with Britain on the Canadian border

-opened the west and south for further expansion

- positioned the U.S. as truly sovereign in the eyes of world powers

- introduced all Americans to the figure of Andrew Jackson.

So, what’s the story of the War of 1812?

FIRST, this was a war against Great Britain.

Since the close of the Revolution, American shipping had been prey to both British and French interference, but it was the British that were most hostile and damaging with their policy of impressment - forcing sailors of American ships into service on British naval vessels during their war against France.

Anger of the practice had smoldered for more than a decade; Jefferson’s Embargo Act had been ineffective in ending the practice and caused an economic burden for the US. When President Madison took office, he came under increasing pressure to use force to defend the nation’s honor and trade.

HOWEVER, fighting in the War of 1812 began as part of a different war - one with Natives in the West.

In 1810, a Shawnee leader named Tecumseh organized an alliance of tribes of the Ohio Valley in an effort to halt the expansion of American settlement. American settlers had engaged in negotiations for the Native lands using deceitful means.

This ‘war’ began with an early battle at Tippecanoe in November, 1811, when militia forces led by Indiana’s governor, William Henry Harrison, defeated a Native force led by Tecumseh’s brother, the “Prophet”. In this campaign, Harrison led1000 troops in a series of attacks on Shawnee villages in the region.

The loss at Tippecanoe did not fully deter the natives, as they found an ally in the British who supplied them with arms and encouragement. Great Britain sought to control not only Canada, but also the upper Mississippi Valley, & Britain had not entirely given up on the idea of reclaiming her former colonies. Fighting with the Natives in the west continued throughout the War of 1812.

DESTRUCTION of Native American power east of the Mississippi River continued with the Creek War (1813-14).

Andrew Jackson, in command of militia forces from Tennessee and across the south, fought a brutal campaign against the powerful Creek Nation and its Native allies. A massacre of over 500 whites and peaceful Indians at Fort Mims fueled resolve to destroy the Creek.

In 1814, the Battle of Horseshoe Bend brought the defeat of the Native alliance. The treaty that ended the fighting forced the Creeks to give up millions of acres of land, opening the deep south to future cotton cultivation.

THE REALITY of fighting on the western frontier gave credence to the claims of the WARHAWKS - young Congressmen from frontier areas led by Henry Clay from Kentucky and John C. Calhoun from South Carolina who were advocates of war.

After Tippecanoe, Clay made a rousing speech in the House of Representatives, helping to tip the scales in favor of a declaration of war against Great Britain.

Henry Clay

John Calhoun

What were the circumstances for America as viewed by the War Hawks?

MEANWHILE, the young U.S. Navy was working a miracle at sea.

Jefferson’s cutbacks in spending had taken a toll on America’s military. At the start of the war, we had only 16 navy warships ready for action and there were only 7000 troops in our army. The larger British navy set up a successful blockade of American ports.

Forced by its small numbers to adopt the tactics of small squadrons and solo patrols, U.S. captains and crews met surprising success against the larger, more experienced Royal Navy, winning engagements throughout the Atlantic and creating a legend that lives on in the U.S. Navy. One such battle took place in August 1812, when the USS Constitution defeated the British warship Gueriere and earned the nickname, “Old Ironsides” because artillery fire seemed to bounce off the ship’s thick wooden hull.

U.S.S. Constitution

U.S.S. United StatesUSS Wasp vs HMS Frolic

Isaac Hull

James Lawrence

Thomas Boyle was one of the most successful privateers of the War of 1812. During the war, he was captain of a ship called the Chasseur which had 16 twelve pound guns and was known as the Pride of Baltimore. On its first voyage, Boyle captured 18 British merchant ships. Needless to say, the Brits considered him major threat.

The American navy had tremendous assistance from scores of privateers who

rallied behind a “free trade and sailors’ rights” battle cry.

To the north, control of Lake Erie proved to be a key to the war effort.

Americans invaded Canada via in the summer of 1812. The initial invasion resulted in a loss, but they found success on Lake Erie in 1813 . After a 3 hour battle at Put-In Bay, the British warships surrendered. The army retreated into Canada and were pursued by Gen. William Henry Harrison’s forces. The two sides clashed at the Battle of the Thames, where the Americans won.

This victory brought an end to that British offensive. Lake Erie was controlled by the Americans and the western door to the U.S. was left open. Tecumseh was killed at this battle. His death dealt a huge blow to Native American resistance.

Above: Commander Oliver Hazard Perry & crew carry flag to new flagship.

To the left: Tecumseh is killed in battle.

After defeating Napoleon in April 1814, Great Britain could concentrate their efforts on the war with America. They made a final effort to win the war in 1814 by attempting a three pronged offensive through Chesapeake Bay, Lake Champlain and the Gulf of Mexico.

The Chesapeake campaign began with an attack on Washington, DC in August, 1814. President Madison was forced to flee Washington while the Brits burned much of it to the ground. In their haste to leave, his wife, Dolley, (an NC native) gathered up his important papers and saved the portrait of George Washington. The loss shocked Americans.

The Brits continued on to Baltimore, bombarding Ft. McHenry throughout the night of Sept 13, 1814. It was this battle that Francis Scott Key, an American lawyer detainee watched from the deck of a British ship and was inspired to write the poem The Star Spangled Banner. The poem became a popular symbol of patriotism, was set to music, and in 1931 Congress proclaimed it to be our national anthem.

Meanwhile, in the north, the American fleet defeated the British in the Battle of Lake Champlain in September 1814.

In the south, the Brits focused on capturing the port of New Orleans. Traveling up the Mississippi Valley, they attacked a force led by General Andrew Jackson in January, 1815. The American forces were outnumbered at the Battle of New Orleans, but they still defeated the Brits. This victory made Jackson a hero!

Ironically, the War of 1812 was already officially over. In December 1814, following a U.S. victory in the Battle of Lake Champlain, Britain and the U.S. entered into negotiations for peace. John Quincy Adams led an American delegation that negotiated the Treaty of Ghent (Belgium) that ended the war and finally secured American shipping on the high seas.

In 1817, the Rush-Bagot Agreement demilitarized the U.S.-Canadian border for all time ending nearly all disputes between the U.S. and Great Britain.

From the beginning, there was opposition to the war. Federalist political leaders in New England stoked opposition to the war by calling it “Mr. Madison’s War.”. New England suffered loss of trade due to the war on the Atlantic; people were angry and broke. The Federalists saw an opportunity to break Republican power and organized the Hartford Convention in 1814 where separation from the U.S. and peace with Britain were openly discussed. Once the peace treaty was announced, the convention ended with no secession.

However, many saw the War of 1812 as the Second War for Independence. Our victory brought a renewed confidence and sense of pride in the nation.