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The Voynich Botanical Plants

L ike anyone who has viewed the Voynich Manuscript Botanical

drawings, we were confused by their fantastic and eccentriccharacteristics. Fortunately one of us (Edith) observed that the creeperillustrated in Folio !r was very si"ilar to a creeper growing outsideher back door. #ky flower ($hunbergia grandiflora), is a native of %ndia.%t has pairs of elongated heart&shaped leaves and clusters of light blueor white tubular flowers si"ilar to those of bindweed. $he leaves of

bindweed spiral alternately along the ste". 's neither sky flower norbindweed have sta"ens and a pistol e tending above the corolla of theflower, both creepers should be e cluded as a possibility for Folio !r.%t does not see" likely that anyone living in *th century Europewould have seen sky flower, but it "ade us consider the possibility thatthe Voynich Manuscript botanical drawings are sketches of actualplants and not copies of pictures fro" a Medieval herbal or products of so"eone+s bi arre i"agination.

W e therefore set about trying to "atch the Voynich Manuscript

drawings with known herbs and weeds. 'cting on the pre"ise that theVoynich Manuscript is a *th century %talian "anuscript, we li"ited ourselection to plants native to Europe or at least the old world ande cluded all plants fro" the '"ericas. -ur "atches are illustrated withpersonal photographs, or with photographs or drawings fro" the

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%nternet that are in the public do"ain. $here are ! drawings ofplants in the Voynich Manuscript, the "a/ority of a high enoughstandard to allow recognition of the plant even though the te t is notreadable. #o far we have been able to assign na"es to about !0, or

1234 of the drawings. 5hen we correlated a plant with a VoynichManuscript drawing we tried to "atch the flower, the leaf, and whenavailable the root. Modern botany does not rely on root structure forplant identification so so"eti"es finding drawings or photographs ofplant roots is difficult.

S o"e of our correlations "ay be incorrect with respect to either

genus or species. 'n e act "atch "ay no longer be possible due to

changes fro" either "utation or cultivation or both. 5e noted that afew of the plants, like Masterwort, were on the endangered specieslist, so it would not be surprising for so"e of the Voynich Manuscriptplants to be e tinct. %n a few cases the drawing has insufficient data toidentify the plant.

A fter spending "onths correlating the Voynich Manuscript botanical

drawings with ! st century plants, we arrived at the followingconclusions6

• $he Voynich Manuscript botanical drawings are realisticrepresentations of living plants even if the author occasionallyenhanced his drawings with fanciful e"bellish"ents like the cat+sbody for roots in folio 27v.

• Many of the plants are herbs, vegetables, or flowers and arenative to or cultivated in the Mediterranean region, in particular,%taly.

• %n the *th century, %taly was at the center of the crossroads oftrade between the East and 5est. $he 8ortuguese, under theguidance of 9enry the :avigator, began e ploring the 'fricancoast around 0 7. $his cul"inated in Vasco da ;a"a+s historicvoyage in 023 to %ndia. <hristopher <olu"bus discovered the

=:ew 5orld> in 02!. $he Medici and the elite of Florence, at thecenter of the ?enaissance, were hungry for infor"ation about

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8ortuguese and #panish discoveries. Europe was beset byrepeated epide"ics of the plague and the diet of "any peoplewas sparse and li"ited. $he only re"edy available for treatingillness and accidents was the use of herbs. :ew plants fro"

distant lands would have been of interest and cultivated fortheir food value and "edicinal properties. $herefore, althoughplants fro" 'frica and 'sia "ay be suspect, they should not beauto"atically e cluded fro" the list of co"parisons.

• $he colors used on the Voynich Manuscript botanical drawingswere "ainly brown, green, blue, and in a few cases, red, andyellow. 5e speculate that the author was strictly li"ited in hischoice of colors and for so"e drawings was reduced to usingonly green and brown, and in a few cases, only brown. $he

author was probably poor and his finances li"ited. $he inks andpaints used in the Voynich Manuscript is given in ;erry @ennedyand ?ob <hurchill+s book (@ennedy ;. and <hurchill ?, !770, $heVoynich Manuscript, %nner $raditions, Ver"ont, p. 0).

• 5e have used v, !v, 2v and 20v of the plants fro" the VoynichManuscript Botanical that Aana #cott has identified. 5e do notagree on the other picks, this does not "ean that Aana #cott iswrong we are open to corrections. 'nyone interested can checkour picks against his by co"paring this 5eb site with6 VoynichManuscript 8ictures 5eb site.

• %n all the botanical folios, the drawing was "ade first, then thespace around the drawings was filled with Voynichese script. %fthe author was a young Ceonardo da Vinci, he continued thispractice of drawing first, writing second in his later "anuscripts.

• Finally, if you still consider the Voynich Manuscript botanicaleccentric and fantastic, you should take a look at the plantsbelow. Dou will reali e that it is not the Voynich Manuscriptbotanical drawings that are fantastic, but Mother :ature, whohas produced a wide variety of unusual plants for oura"a e"ent and en/oy"ent en/oy"ent.

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I f any reader can offer a better plant, or identify an o"itted folio, we

will be happy to update the web site and suitably acknowledge the

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contributor. Dou "ay contact us at6 edithsherwood g"ail.co" . $wofolios that we have not been able to identify or even ha ard a guessat are 3r and 0!r on the right.

B efore you e a"ine the !0 co"parisons, we would like to

acknowledge our gratitude to 5ikipedia and their contributors for "ostof the infor"ation and photographs used in this article. 'dditionalinfor"ation was obtained fro" ' Modern 9erbal, Vols % and %%, Mrs. M.;rieve, Aover 8ublications, :ew Dork, 2 . $his "aterial is alsoavailable at Botanical.co" . 5e illustrated "ost of our "atches with6

• 8ersonal photographs•

8hotographs or drawings fro" 5ikipedia .• Arawings fro" the book by -tto 5ilhel" $ho"G, Flora von

Aeutschland Hsterreich und der #chwei , published in 33*. $hisbook has been "ade available online by @urt #tueberat www.BioCib.de .

• Arawings fro" the book by <arl ' el Magnus Cind"an, Bilder ur:ordens Flora ( 27 & 27*) , available online through 8ro/ect?uneberg and "irrored at www.BioCib.de .

• Arawings fro" Fuchs Botanical I *02 , also available online

through @urt #tueber at www.BioCib.de .• Arawings fro" @Jhler+s Medicinal 8lants by Fran Eugen @Jhler,available online through 5ikipedia .

• Arawings fro" <urtis+s Botanical Maga ine .• Arawings fro" the rare book collection at the Missouri Botanical

;arden 5eb site.

Folio v

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Full %"age

F olio v, Aeadly :ightshade or Belladonna ('tropa belladonna), is

an e tre"ely to ic and hallucinogenic plant, native to Europe and

:orth 'frica. %t is a low growing shrub with dull green leaves, purplebell&shaped flowers, and black berries. 'll parts of belladonna are to icincluding its rough thick brown root. $he plant contains the alkaloidatropine, a drug used by ophthal"ologists to dilate the pupils of theeye. :ote6 this plant was identified by 8etersen .

Folio !rFull %"age

F olio !r, Aiffuse @napweed (<entaurea diffusa), is native of ;reece

and 'sia Minor. $his weed has a long taproot, and pale&green alternateleaves that are deeply divided into lobes, "easuring to inches inlength. $he single, upright ste" produces several spreading branchesthat end with pink or white thistle&like flowers. Auring the Middle 'gesknapweed had a reputation for curing wounds and was an ingredient ina fourteenth century oint"ent called Ksalve.+ $his folio could also berepresented by spotted knapweed (<entaurea biebersteinii), also

native to Eurasia.

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Folio !vFull %"age

F olio !v, :y"phoides, is an aLuatic plant native to Europe and 'sia.

$he s"all, five&lobed flowers are held above the surface of the waterand the roots are e"bedded in the "ud at the botto" of the pond,while the large kidney shaped leaves float on the water surface.

Folio rFull %"age

Folio r, Feathery a"aranth (<elosia argentea), is a widespread

weed throughout tropical 'frica. %t is pri"arily used in 'frica as a leafyvegetable for soups, sauces, or stews. <elosia has plu"e&like flowersranging in color fro" dark&cri"son to orange and golden&yellow"aking it a useful bedding and pot plant ( 8rota Aatabase ). 'notherpossibility for Folio r is croton (<odiaeu" variegatu"), a nativeof #outhern 'sia.

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Folio vFull %"age

F olio v, Aungwort or Bear+s foot (9elleborus foetidus) is a s"all,herbaceous shrub native to 5estern Europe. %t has a thick, succulentste" pal"ately co"pound leaves drooping green, cup&shapedflowers and short rhy o"es for roots. 'll parts of the plant arepoisonous . $he leaves e"it a bad s"ell when crushed. ' goodphotograph of the shrub can be viewed at the Belle5ood ;ardens 5ebsite .

Folio 0rFull %"age

F olio 0r, 'lpine #a ifrage (#a ifraga cespitosa), is a species of

edible plant found in :orthern te"perature ones. %t has a taproot,and the leaves are opposite and evenly distributed along the trailing

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ste"s. 't the beginning of each growing season the old leaves turnorange and die ( Mc annet <.C., 'iken #.;., Aallwit M. ., ;illespie C. .and. <onsaul C.C. ). $he flowers are single and purple. $he na"e,#a ifrage, co"es fro" the Catin for rock&breaker because of its

apparent ability to split rocks. 's a result, it was prescribed as a herbfor breaking up bladder and gallstones.

Folio 0vFull %"age

F olio 0v, ?a"pion (<a"panula rapunculus), is found in the woodsand "eadows of Europe and 'sia. $his biennial plant is grown inFrance, ;er"any, and %taly for its turnip&like roots and leaves whichare eaten in salads. $he stars "ay represent an e"pty caly on thelong ste" with linear leaves and five&lobed, purple, bell&shapedflowers. $here is an %talian tradition that the possession of a ra"pione cites Luarrels a"ong children and the story of ?apun el is related tothe theft of ra"pions fro" a "agician+s garden.

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Folio *rFull %"age

F olio *r, 5olf+s bane ('rnica "ontana), is a European flowering

plant with large, yellow, daisy&like flowers. $he root is a curvedrhi o"e with brittle, wiry rootlets. $he ste" is erect and generally notbranched. -void, leathery leaves at the base of the ste" are arrangedin a rosette. 't the ape of the ste" leaves are opposite. $incture of'rnica has been used for e ternal application to sprains, bruises, andwounds, and as a paint for chilblains when the skin is unbroken.?epeated applications "ay produce severe infla""ation. Aue to itsto ic properties it is seldo" used internally.

Folio *vFull %"age

F olio *v, Mallow (Malva sylvestris), is native to Europe and :orth

'frica. $he pink&red flowers are used as a natural dye. $he perennialroots are thick, long, and tapering. $he flowers, leaves, and roots areedible and the ?o"ans considered dishes "ade fro" the plant as adelicacy. $he plant was once used as a sweetener

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in "arsh"allow foods . $he e"ollient properties of the plant are usedto soothe coughs and digestive proble"s . ( ;rieve, M., )

Folio r

Full %"age

F olio r, Bear Breeches ('canthus "ollis), is native to #outhern

Europe and one of the earliest garden plants to be cultivated. %t has acluster of deeply&lobed, dark&green, basal leaves. $he purple&whiteflowers with green bracts are produced on a ste" growing above theleaves. $he plant propagates fro" tubers. ?o"ans used scrolls and theleaves fro" the 'canthus plant to decorate the <orinthian colu"ns.

Folio vFull %"age

F olio v, #ea 9olly (Eryngiu" "ariti"u"), grows in coastal areas of

Europe. %t has a taproot silvery, spiny&toothed leaves and flowers

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surrounded by thistle&like bracts. $he na"e Eryngiu" co"es fro" the;reek word to cure indigestion. %n "edieval ti"es sea holly was alsoused as an aphrodisiac.

Folio rFull %"age

F olio r, #tarflower ($rientalis europaea), is a s"all woodland plant

found in :orthern Europe. %t is a "e"ber of the pri"ulaceae fa"ilyand is on the endangered species list. $he plant base has one or "orewhorls of teardrop shaped leaves that turn a copper hue in the latesu""er. $he s"all white flowers usually have &3 petals. $here is a

drawing of a star flower (3 petals) in the right hand top corner ofCeonardo da Vinci+s drawing of the #tar of Bethlehe" ( petals). $heplant was used in an oint"ent for treating wounds.

Folio vFull %"age

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F olio v, Bog Myrtle (Myrica gale), is native to 5estern Europe. $he

finely&serrated, si"ple leaves are arranged in a spiral along the ste"the flowers are catkins, with "ale and fe"ale catkins on separateplants the fruit is a s"all drupe. 8rior to the th century, the leaveswere used to flavor beer, later being replaced with hops. $he foliagehas been used as an insect repellent and, by tradition, it is part of?oyal 5edding bouLuets.

Folio 3rFull %"age

F olio 3r, ;reen 8ea (8isu" sativu"), is an annual Eurasian vine of

the legu"e fa"ily that is grown for its protein&rich seeds. <ultivationof pea plants spread fro" the Middle East into Europe during :eolithicti"es. $he pea is an annual, cool&season crop. Each leaf has abranched tendril at its tip and one to three pairs of leaflets. $heflowers are white or purple and the "ature pea pod contains &2seeds. Mendel used green pea plants to establish his laws ofinheritance and for"ulated the basic principles of "odern genetics.

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Folio 3vFull %"age

F olio 3v, <o"frey (#y"phytu" officinale C.), grows in da"p

"eadows in Europe. %t has a black, turnip&like root and large, hairy,broad leaves that decrease in si e the higher they grow up the ste".$he ste" ends in a cluster of s"all, bell&shaped, purple flowers. Aueto the presence of steroidal saponins and "ucilage in co"frey, the rootand leaves were useful in treating a wide variety of ail"ents rangingfro" bronchial proble"s, broken bones, sprains, arthritis , gastric andvaricose ulcers, severe burns, and acne and other skin conditions.

Folio 2rFull %"age

F olio 2r, <asteroil (?icinus co""unis), is a suckering, perennial

shrub native to the Eastern and #outheastern 'frica. 'bout ,777years ago the plant spread fro" Egypt to the Mediterranean, the

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Middle East, and %ndia. $he leaves of casteroil are attached by thecenter of the leaf blade to reddish purple ste"s ( vet.purdue.edu ). %thas very to ic seeds which are used to produce a nonedible oil.<asteroil seeds have been found in Egyptian to"bs and the ;reeks

used the oil fro" casteroil seeds to anoint their bodies. <astoroil isused as a purgative.

Folio 2vFull %"age

F olio 2v, Viola (Violaceae), was identified by Aana #cott (@ennedy

;. and <hurchill ?, !770, $he Voynich Manuscript, %nner $raditions,Ver"ont, p. 0). $his plant is native to the "ore te"perate regions of the :orthern he"isphere. 'll parts of the plant are edible being richin vita"ins ' and <. $he flowers are used as an herbal tea and asdecorations for cakes.

Folio 7rFull %"age

F olio 7r, <hicory or Endive (<ichoriu" pu"ilu"), is a bushy,

perennial herb with blue or lavender flowers. %t originated in the

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countries around the Mediterranean #ea. $he ?o"ans used chicory intheir recipes and 9orace stated6 ='s for "e, olives, endives, and"allows provide sustenance.> $oday the leaves are used in salads andthe parsnip&like roots are cooked for a vegetable or dried and used as

a coffee substitute.

Folio 7vFull %"age

F olio 7v, $winflower (Cinnaea borealis), is found in cool te"perate

forests of Europe, 'sia and :orth '"erica. $his s"all plant has slenderste"s with opposite, evergreen oval leaves (the leaves of the plant7v are very long), the flowers are paired, pendulous, and pale pinkwith a five&lobed corolla. $his was Cinnaeus+ favorite plantNit wasna"ed after hi" and he took the flower as his personal sy"bol whenhe was raised to the #wedish nobility in * .

Folio rFull %"age

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F olio r, ?ose"ary (?os"arinus officinalis), is an evergreen,

woody, upright or sprawling, perennial herb native to theMediterranean region. %t has a taproot s"all, blue flowers and thin,spiky, evergreen leaves with a pungent aro"atic odor, that are used toflavor a wide variety of Mediterranean foods . ?ose"ary can bepropagated either by seeds, layering of branches, or division of roots.$he ancients used rose"ary to i"prove "e"ory and it was also usedas a sy"bol of re"e"brance at funerals and weddings. -rpheliare"inds us6 =rose"ary is for re"e"berance.>

Folio v

Full %"age

F olio v, $ur"eric (<urcu"a longa), is a rhi o"atous, herbaceous,

perennial plant of the ginger fa"ily, native to tropical #outh 'sia. %n"edieval Europe, tur"eric was known as %ndian #affron and was usedas an alternative to saffron. $ur"eric is the yellow spice used in %ndiancurries and found in '"erican prepared "ustard , and is produced byboiling, drying, and then grinding the rhi o"es. 8eople whose diets arerich in tur"eric have lower rates of breast cancer as well as prostate ,lung, and colon cancers.

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Folio rFull %"age

F olio r, Banana, is indigenous to #outheast 'sia. $he "ain

banana ste" is known as a pseudo&ste" and dies after it produces astick of bananas and is replaced by another pseudo&ste". Folio rindicates that this plant had a nu"ber of pseudo&ste"s. 'rab tradersintroduced bananas into 5est 'frica and, in the early *th century,8ortuguese sailors, while e ploring the 'frican coastline, discoveredthe tropical fruit and started banana plantations in the <anary lslands(http6OOwww.banana.co"O ).

Folio vFull %"age

F olio v, 9oneysuckles or 5oodbines (Conicera pericly"enu"), are

vines or shrubs native to the :orthern 9e"isphere. $he plant hassi"ple, opposite, oval leaves and sweetly&scented, bell&shapedflowers. $he s"aller, %talian honeysuckle of Mid and #outhern Europe

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is used as a skin tonic, and the seeds as a diuretic. Aioscorides(ca.07127 'A) who wrote Ae Materia Medica, the precursor of the"odern phar"acopeias, wrote that =a syrup "ade of the flowers isgood to be drunk against diseases of the lungs and spleen.>

Folio 0rFull %"age

F olio 0r, Black #alsify or Viper+s grass (#cor onera), is a native of

#outhern Europe, where it was cultivated as a root vegetable around*77 'A. %t has spear&shaped leaves, yellow ray flowers, and a thinblack taproot that grows up to one "eter long and up to ! c" india"eter. $he roots were foraged by the ancient ;reeks and ?o"ans.Auring the Middle 'ges, the plant was used as a tonic and a cure forsnakebites, hence the co""on na"e =viper+s grass.>

Folio 0vFull %"age

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F olio 0v, 5ood Betony, 9eal&all, #elf&heal, or 5oundwort (#tachys

"onnieri), is a large, upright, perennial herb found in the grasslands of Europe, 5estern 'sia, and :orth 'frica. %t is a creeping, self&rootingplant with large, lance&shaped, serrated leaves growing on short stalksin opposite pairs at the base of the upright ste"s. $he flowers growfro" a clublike, whirled cluster at the end of the stalk. 'ntonius Musa,chief physician to the E"peror 'ugustus, clai"ed that it cured 0diseases and was effective against sorcery. %t was planted ingraveyards to prevent activity of ghosts.

Folio *rFull %"age

F olio *r, #ow $histles (#onchus oleraceus), are co""on roadside

plants native to Eurasia. $he ancient ;reek na"e for these plants was#onchus. %t is taprooted, has irregularly lobed leaves that clasp theste", and yellow flowers of the ray type. $he ste" contains a "ilkylate . $he plants were fed to lactating sows in the belief thattheir "ilk production would increase.

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Folio *vFull %"age

F olio *v, 9erb 8aris (8aris Luadrifolia), occurs in cool areas

throughout Europe and 'sia. $his unusual plant has fleshy roots, and asingle upright ste", with four pointed leaves near its top. Fro" thecenter of the leaves, a single, green&white flower arises with greenish,filifor" petals and green, petaloid sepals. $he black, berry fruit ispoisonous. $he plant is also known as =true love> and was once usedas an aphrodisiac. $he seeds and berries have narcotic properties.

Folio rFull %"age

F olio r, <annabis, is indigenous to <entral 'sia around the

<aspian #ea. %t was introduced into 5estern 'sia and 'frica, andsubseLuently, Europe in !,777I ,777 B<. <ultivation in Europe

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beca"e widespread in about *77 'A. <annabis is one of the worldsoldest crops and provides a nu"ber of useful products6 fiber fro" theste"s, therapeutic agents and narcotics fro" the flowers and leaves,and oil fro" the seeds ( 8rota Aatabase ). %t is best known as the illegal

drug "ari/uana.

Folio vFull %"age

F olio v, <hrysanthe"u" plants, are native to 'sia and

:ortheastern Europe. $he photograph shown in Figure v was takenin %taly and is probably of a cultivated plant. % a" showing it because %was struck by how closely it rese"bles the red flowers in Folio v. %have no idea of the identity of the blue flower. Folio v could also be

Kred+ yarrow, as shown in this 5ikipedia photo .

Folio rFull %"age

F olio r, <upid+s dart (<atananche caerulea), is a "e"ber of the

daisy fa"ily and native to the Mediterranean region. $he plant growsin clu"ps. $he ste"s are thin and wiry the gray&green leaves areshaped like spears and ray flowers are blue. $he ancient ;reeks and

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?o"ans used this plant as ingredient in a love potion, so it "ay havebeen the =date rape> drug of ancient ti"es.

Folio vFull %"age

F olio v, Da"s (Aioscorea), are tubers fro" a perennial,

herbaceous vine, first cultivated in 'frica and 'sia, and are a staplepart of the diet of the people of 5est 'frica. $he na"e ya" co"esfro" the 8ortuguese =inha"e> which was derived fro" the 5olof word

=nya".> Auring the 0th century, the 8ortuguese, under the directionof 9enry the :avigator, began e ploring the 'frican coastline, and it"ay have been at this ti"e that ya"s were introduced into theMediterranean region, along with 'frican slaves. $he 5.8. 'r"strong5eb site shows a photograph of a ya" leaf with =wings> si"ilar tothose on the leaves of the vine in folio v.

Folio 3rFull %"age

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F olio 3r, 'ster ('ster alpinus), is native to both Eurasia and :orth

'"erica. $he na"e is derived fro" the ;reek word "eaning star. $hisperennial plant is to feet tall, branching occasionally. $he alternateleaves are lanceolate and beco"e s"aller as they ascend up the ste".$he flower has nu"erous s"all disk florets that are surrounded byabout 3 to ! ray florets. $he base of "ature plants can develop shortrhi o"es that facilitate the for"ation of colonies.

Folio 3vFull %"age

F olio 3v, Fluted pu"pkin ($elfairia), is a large, perennial vine found

in the forest ones of 5est 'frica. %t has co"pound leaves of to *leaflets. $he root first develops as a taproot that spreads intonu"erous fleshy au iliary roots. $he fruit is a large poisonous gourd,but the leaves and i""ature seeds fro" the gourd are cooked andeaten as a vegetable. ( 8rota Aatabase )

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Folio 2rFull %"age

F olio 2r, ;reek Valerian (8ole"oniu" coeruleu"), is native to

da"p, te"perate areas of Europe. %t is not a Valerian, but a "e"berof the phlo fa"ily. %ts slender roots support nu"erous ste"s fro" 3inches to feet high with clusters of deep blue flowers at the end ofthe stalk. $he pinnate leaves have individual leaflets O! to inch inlength. 'n infusion of the root was used to treat coughs, colds, and alllung co"plaints.

Folio 2vFull %"age

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F olio 2v, :ailwort (Araba nivalis), is a tiny European plant that

grows in early #pring. $he leaves are clustered in whorls around theplant base and the &! inch long ste" ends in white flowers withdeeply notched petals. $he plant "ay have been used "edically forinfla""ations of the fingernails.

Folio !7rFull %"age

F olio !7r, Milk vetch ('stragalus hypoglottis), is a large species of

herbs belonging to the Cegu"e fa"ily, and native to te"perate regionsof the :orthern 9e"isphere. %t has pinnately&co"pound leaves with 2

to !7 leaflets and a nu"ber of closely&packed, purple, pea&shapedflowers on stalks growing out of leaf a ils. :ote, in Folio !7r, theflowers appear to be at the end of the co"pound leaf. $his plant hasbeen used for !,777 years in <hina as a kidney and liver tonic.

Folio !7vFull %"age

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F olio !7v, <ardoon (<ynara cardunculus), is an artichoke thistle and

a native of the Mediterranean where it was do"esticated in ancientti"es. $he blue flowers can be eaten like a cultivated artichoke andwere popular as a vegetable in "edieval ti"es. $he thin, spear&shapedleaves are in pairs along the ste"s of the plant and are covered withnearly invisible spines like those shown in Folio !7v.

Folio ! rFull %"age

F olio ! r, 8i"pernel ('nagallis arvensis), is found in te"perate

regions throughout the world. $his creeper has either blue or redflowers and the sessile or ste"&less leaves are arranged in pairs along

a ! inch ste". $he ;reeks used this herb for diseases of the eye. $heflowers are useful for treating epilepsy.

Folio ! vFull %"age

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F olio ! v, Burning bush, False Aittany, 5hite Aittany or ;as&plant

(Aicta"nus albus), is a native of #outhern Europe. $his perennial hasa fibrous root syste" and s"ooth, oval, opposite pinnately&co"poundleaves. 5hite or pale&red stalked flowers grow off the end of the "ainste". Auring the su""er, the whole plant is covered with a gluey,volatile substance, which "ay cause the plant, in very hot weather, toignite spontaneouslyNhence the na"e burning bush. %n E odus,

=Burning Bush> is the location of the place where ;od instructed Mosesto lead the ews out of Egypt into 8alestine. $he root of this plant wasonce used as a re"edy for epilepsies and other diseases of the head,opening obstructions of the wo"b, and procuring the discharges of theuterus.

Folio !!rFull %"age

F olio !!r, <o""on Vervain or 9oly 9erb (Verbena officinalis), unlike

"ost verbenas, is a perennial herb, native to Europe. %ts leaves areopposite, lobed, and toothed its s"all "auve flowers are arranged indelicate spikes. $he na"e Verbena was the classical ?o"an na"e for

=altar&plants.> $he holy attributes of this herb "ay be due to thelegend that it was found on the Mount of <alvary, where it was used tostaunch the wounds of the crucified #aviour.

•

PP

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Folio !!vFull %"age

F olio !!v, $ulips, are native to southern Europe, :orth 'frica, and

'sia. $hey are perennial bulbs and new bulbs are often produced onthe ends of stolons and covered with hairy papery coverings. $ulipshave fro" ! to oblong fleshy leaves, alternately arranged, and largeflowers that are produced on ste"s nor"ally lacking bracts. $here arevariegated varieties caused by a viral infection. $he virus weakens theplants and has therefore been nearly eradicated fro" the fields whereit is grown.

Folio ! rFull %"age

F olio ! r, 8asLue flower (8ulsatilla vulgaris), is found in short

clu"ps in the "eadows of Eurasia. %t has finely&dissected leavespurple, bell&shaped flowers and a woody, rhi o"ous root. %t is one ofthe first flowers to bloo" in the spring, hence the na"e 8asLue"eaning Easter (8assover). 's a "e"ber of the ?anunculaceae fa"ily,

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the plant is very to ic, producing cardiogenic to ins and o yto inswhich slow the heart in hu"ans. $he flower is useful to treat eyediseases such as cataracts.

Folio ! v

Full %"age

F olio ! v, Borage or star flower (Borago officinalis C.), is an annual

herb that originated in #yria but has naturali ed in the Mediterraneanand :orth 'frica. $he plant is covered with stiff, white, prickly hairs.$he si"ple leaves are alternate and the flowers are s"all, blue, orpink, with five, narrow, triangular&pointed petals. $he young leaves areeaten in salads. Medically it is used for its anti&infla""atoryproperties.

Folio !0rFull %"age

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F olio !0r, <ucu"ber (<ucu"is sativus), originated in %ndia but has

been cultivated for at least ,777 years in 5estern 'sia and wasprobably introduced to other parts of Europe by the ?o"ans. $hiscreeping vine grows up trellises or other supporting fra"es, wrappingaround ribbing with thin, spiraling tendrils. $he plant has large leavesthat for" a canopy over the roughly cylindrical fruit. $he ?o"ans arereported to have used cucu"bers to treat scorpion bites, bad eyesight,and to scare away "ice.

Folio !0vFull %"age

F olio !0v, #acred Fig or Bo&$ree (Ficus religiosa), is a native tree of

%ndia. $he leaves are cordate in shape with a distinctive e tended tipand the fruit is a s"all purple fig. $he leaves fro" this tree are theonly "atch we have found for the leaves illustrated in Folio !0v. $histree is considered sacred by the followers of Buddhis" and the founderof this religion, #iddhartha ;auta"a, was sitting under it when he wasspiritually awakened.

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Folio !*rFull %"age

F olio !*r, 5ild $hy"e, is a s"all, aro"atic, perennial shrub nativeto the Mediterranean. %ts leaves are arranged in pairs along the stalk.$he flowers, not shown in the folio, are pink to lilac clusters, and theseedpods contain tiny nutlets. $he leaves are used as flavoring incooking. $hy"ol, the oil distilled fro" thy"e, has "any "edical uses.$he ?o"ans used thy"e as a re"edy for depression .

Folio !*vFull %"age

F olio !*v, 5oad (%satis tinctoria), is a flowering plant of the

<abbage fa"ily. %t has been cultivated throughout Europe, especially in5estern and #outhern Europe, since ancient ti"es and was the onlysource for blue dye available until the end of the si teenth century. %nMedieval ti"es, $uscany in %taly was one of the centers of woad

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cultivation. $he dye was used to dye te tiles, and the illustrator of theVM "ay have used a woad&based pig"ent for blue paint.

Folio ! rFull %"age

F olio ! r, #elf&heal (8runella vulgaris), is a low growing plant native

to Europe. %t is a "e"ber of the "int fa"ily. $he oblong leaves growon short stalks in pairs down the ste". $hey are rough and their"argins are fringed with tiny hairs. 't the end of the ste" is a spike of blue flowers, arranged in regular whorls. %t has a nor"al spreadingroot. #elf&heal got its na"e fro" its antiseptic and antibacterialproperties, and was found to be useful in cases of food poisoning. $hephotograph of self&heal was taken by Cachlan <ranswick

Folio ! vFull %"age

F olio ! v, Centil (Cens culinaris), originated in the :ear East, and

was one of the first crops to be do"esticated in :eolithic ti"es. %t is a

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bushy plant of the legu"e fa"ily grown for its seeds which are high inprotein. By ,777 B< legu"es beca"e a staple in the hu"an diet asa supple"ent for protein where there was not enough "eat. Folio ! vcould also represent a chickpea plant, another "e"ber of the legu"e

fa"ily.

Folio ! rFull %"age

F olio ! r, #pinach (#pinacia oleracea), is thought to have originated

in 8ersia. $he Moors introduced it into Europe around the *th century.Aishes containing spinach are referred to as =Florentine> because it

was the favorite vegetable of <atherine de Medici. #pinach hasalternate, si"ple, ovate to triangular&based leaves inconspicuous,yellow&green flowers and a nor"al spreading root syste". $hebenefits of eating spinach are well known due to the songs of 8opeyeand #hirley $e"ple. $he vegetable is rich in iron.

Folio ! vFull %"age

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Folio !3vFull %"age

F olio !3v, ?hododendrons, are widely distributed throughout the

:orthern 9e"isphere. $he na"e co"es fro" the ;reek6 rhodos"eaning =rose>, and dendron, =tree.> $he leaves are spirally arrangedaround clusters of large, pink, red, or white flowers. $he ;reek soldierQenophon (0 to ** B<), a conte"porary of #ocrates, noted thatso"e of his soldiers beca"e ill after eating honey "ade fro" thenectar of rhododendron flowers. $hese plants produce a to in that isfatal for horses and has a slightly hallucinogenic and la ative effect on

hu"ans.

Folio !2rFull %"age

F olio !2r, ?o"aine or cos lettuce (Cactuca sativa C. var. longifolia),

apparently originated on the ;reek island of <os and reached the 5estvia ?o"e, hence the na"e =ro"aine.> %t has a long head with sturdy

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leaves. 5hen a lettuce plant begins to flower its ste" lengthens andbranches and it produces flower heads si"ilar to a dandelion onlys"aller. Folio !2r shows this plant /ust starting to flower. $hephotograph of ?o"aine lettuce in flower co"es fro"6 earlysnowdrop

blog site . Cettuce secretes a "ilky fluid fro" the base of its ste"s,known as lettuce opiu" . $his fluid is also secreted by wild lettuce. %t isconsidered to have sedative and analgesic properties and was used bythe 'ncient Egyptians.

Folio !2vFull %"age

F olio !2v, ?o"an coriander (:igella sativa), is an annual plant in

the ranunculus fa"ily, native to #outhern Europe, :orth 'frica, and#outhwest 'sia . %t has finely divided, linear leaves and pale blue orwhite flowers with * to 7 petals. $he fruit is a balloon&like capsulecontaining nu"erous seeds. $he seeds are freLuently referred to asblack cu"in and are used in 'sian and Middle Eastern cooking.

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Folio 7rFull %"age

Folio 7r, 9ealall (8runella vulgaris), is a co""on herb found in

pastures throughout Europe. $he ste"s of the linear leaves areattached in pairs down the "ain ste". $he cylindrical flower spike,unlike "ost flower spikes, "aintains its shape as it grows in length.$he plant propagates fro" a creeping ste", that sends out roots whena new flower spike for"s. 'ncient herbalists used to wash wounds andulcers with an infusion of healall. %t is currently being investigated as apossible treat"ent for herpes.

Folio 7vFull %"age

F olio 7v, Aodder (<uscuta europaea), is a leafless, rootless,

parasitic weed, of which four species are found in :orthern Europe. %t

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obtains water and nutrients by attaching itself to a suitable host, whichin the case of the two drawings shown here appears to be a "intplant. $he s"all white, pink, or yellow flowers occur in tight balls alongthe thread&like ste". Aodder+s selection of a host appears to be based

on the s"ell of the volatile che"icals the host plant e"its.

Folio rFull %"age

F olio r, Fleabane (Erigeron acris), has a cos"opolitain distribution

with the highest diversity of species in :orth '"erica. %t is closelyrelated to the plant in Folio ! v, both being "e"bers of the asterfa"ily. %t has an erect ste", alternate leaves shaped like a narrow

spoon, and white ray flowers with yellow discs. %t has a taproot so theplant spreads by re&seeding and often for"s loose colonies. $he leaveswere used as a cooked or raw vegetable. 8eople in the "iddle agesbelieved that the dried plant could repel fleas.

Folio vFull %"age

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F olio v, Valerian , is native to Europe and :orthern 'sia. $he roots

"erge into an erect rhi o"e, the leaves are arranged in pairs, eachleaf consisting of a series of lance&shaped seg"ents, and the flowersare s"all, white, and sweetly scented. $his herb has been used for itssedative properties since the days of ancient ;reece and ?o"e.

Folio !rFull %"age

F olio !r, #peedwell (Veronica triphyllos), belongs to a species of

herbs native to te"perate regions of the :orthern 9e"isphere. %t has

a fibrous root syste" and si"ple, opposite leaves. %ts blue flowers areadapted for cross&fertili ation, the sta"ens and style pro/ecting fro"the flower and for"ing a place for insects to land. $he astringentleaves were once used to treat wounds and skin diseases.

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Folio !vFull %"age

F olio !v, 9arebell (<a"panula rotundifolia), is a co""onrhi o"atous perennial found in Europe. $he root leaves are dark&green, roundish, and usually slightly toothed. $he long, thin stalkshave thin&stalked, linear leaves and single or loose clusters of blue,bell&shaped flowers at their ends. $he petal lobes are short and curveoutwards. $his plant is related to ?a"pion, Folio 0v.

Folio rFull %"age

F olio r, Bladder <a"pion (#ilene vulgaris), is a co""on herb

throughout Europe. $he flowers are white with a balloon&shaped caly .%ts leaves are lanceolate and occur in pairs along the ste". $his plant"ay be reproduced by seed or by rooting the short undergroundbranches that slant outwards fro" the crown. Bladder ca"pion is usedas an e"ollient and its /uice is used for treating con/unctivitis.

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Folio vFull %"age

F olio v, Feverfew ($anacetu" partheniu"), is a s"all shrub about

3 inches in height, originally native to the Balkan "ountains ofEastern Europe, and now grown throughout Europe. $his Folio is theVM =sunflower,> however the "odern sunflower lacks "any of thecharacteristics of the VM drawing. Feverfew has "any daisy&likeflowers that consist of an outer white ray and a disc of yellowish floretsabout inch across, held in a dense cory"b, si"ilar to the flowershown in Folio v. $he leaves are lobed or deeply toothed but notwhorled. $he plant spreads rapidly and will cover a wide area after afew years. Feverfew has been used for centuries in European folk"edicine as a re"edy for fevers, headaches, sto"achaches, andtoothaches. %t is currently considered for the treat"entof arthritis and "igraine headaches .

Folio 0rFull %"age

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F olio 0r. $he identity of the co"parison plant is unknown but "ay

be 'ne"one hortensis, a species native to %taly. $his rhi o"atousplant has daisy&like flowers that occur in all shades between white andpurple. %t is distinguished by a rosette of three lobed divided leavesthat grow at the base of the plant and another about half way up theste". 'ne"ones are no longer used as herbs but in the past variousparts of the plant were reco""ended as cures for headaches andrheu"atic gout.

Folio 0vFull %"age

F olio 0v, 9onesty or Money plant (Cunaria annua), is a hairy&

ste""ed plant found throughout Europe. %t is a "e"ber of the"ustard fa"ily with a creeping rhy o"e, erect ste", purple flowerswith four petals, and pointed, coarsely serrated, oval leaves. $he plantdevelops flat, round seed pods that turn a silvery, paper&like te ture inthe autu"n hence the co""on na"e "oney plant.

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Folio *rFull %"age

F olio *r, ?adicchio (<ichoriu" intybus, 'steraceae), "ay rese"blea ro"aine lettuce, but it is a "e"ber of the chicory fa"ily. $hecultivated plant has red leaves with white veins, a shallow root syste"and blue, daisy&like flowers. <ultivation of the plant began in %taly inthe fifteenth century and the deep&red variety of today was engineeredin 3 7. ?adicchio has been eaten as a vegetable since ancient ti"es.8liny the Elder clai"ed it was useful as a blood purifier and an aidagainst inso"nia.

Folio *vFull %"age

F olio *v, Blackcurrant (?ibes nigru"), is native to <entral and

:orthern Europe and is known in France as <assis. %t is a low growing

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shrub with alternate, pal"ately five&lobed leaves with serrated"argins. $he clusters of s"all, greenish&brown flowers produce edible,black, berry fruit in the fall that "ay be used to "ake /a"s and /ellies.Blackcurrants are rich in vita"in < and are the basis of the children+s

drink ?ibena.

Folio rFull %"age

F olio r, Aelphiniu" (Aelphiniu" staphisagria), a "e"ber of the

buttercup fa"ily, is native throughout the :orthern 9e"isphere. $heplant has a fibrous root syste", and deeply lobed leaves with to toothed, polinted lobes. $he flowering ste" is erect, topped with "any

purple, blue, red, yellow, or white five&petal flowers. 'll parts of theplant are poisonous, however the seeds have been used to treatparasites such as lice and nits in the hair.

Folio vFull %"age

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F olio v, 9enbit or Aeadnettle (Ca"iu" a"ple icaule), is classified

as a no ious weed. %ts flowers appear in the early spring in war"areas like the Mediterranean countries. $his annual has sLuare hairyste"s, opposite rounded leaves with lobed "argins and pink to purpleflowers. %t closely rese"bles a stinging nettle but without the sting.$he early shoots and leaves can be cooked and used as a greenvegetable.

Folio rFull %"age

F olio r, Mint (Mentha longifolia), is found throughout Europe. %t is

a perennial plant that propagates through spreading rhi o"es. $helance&shaped leaves are in opposite pairs along the erect branchedste" that ter"inates in a spike "ade up of clusters of white to purpleflowers. Mint leaves are used for teas, /ellies, candy etc. Mint tea wasgiven during the "iddle ages for sto"ach and chest pains.

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Folio vFull %"age

F olio v, $assel flower (E"ilia fosbergii), is probably native to'frica and 'sia. %t is an annual herb with a branched taproot and large,ovate, toothed lower leaves and s"aller, alternate upper leavers thatclasp the weakly erect ste". $he ste" ter"inates in purple, scarlet,red, pink, orange, or white thistle&like flowers. $he young leaves areeaten and the seeds are used as a cereal.

Folio 3vFull %"age

F olio 3v, Myrtle #purge or Aonkey tail (Euphorbia "yrsinites), is a

fleshy herbaceous plant, a native of #outheastern Europe. $he blueish&green leaves are spirally arranged around the sprawling ste".

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%nconspicuous yellow (not blue) flowers in yellow bracts are producedin the #pring. 9andling this plant "ay cause a skin irritation oran allergic reaction .

Folio 07rFull %"age

F olio 07r, #tork+s bill (Erodiu" "alacoides), is a "e"ber of thegeraniu" fa"ily found in the Mediterranean region. $he leaves aredeeply lobed and the loose clusters of blue, pink, or white flowers havefive petals with purplish veins. 'n infusion "ade fro" the root of thisplant was used as "outh wash or to sooth a throat infection.

Folio 07vFull %"age

F olio 07v, <rocus (<rocus vernus), is native to central and southern

Europe. %t grows fro" cor"s, the leaves are grass&like in appearance,and the cone&shaped flowers occur in white, yellow, blue, and purple.$he blue crocus, (<rocus sativus), bloo"s in the autu"n and the spicesaffron is obtained fro" its stig"as. $uscany is one of the places used

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for saffron production and it was co""only used to flavor foods eatenby wealthy "edieval households.

Folio 0 rFull %"age

F olio 0 r, 5ild Mar/ora" (-riganu" vulgare), is a Mediterranean

herb that is widely used in ;reek and %talian cuisines. %t has creepingroots that send up woody ste"s with opposite, hairy, petiolate leaves.$he individual flower stalks are "ade up of clusters of pale purpleflowers that grow upward fro" various points on the "ain ste" toappro i"ately the sa"e height. Aue to its antio idant andanti"icrobial properties, the ;reeks found Mar/ora" useful forpoultices. %t was the custo" for both the ;reeks and ?o"ans to crownyoung couples with Mar/ora".

Folio 0 v

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Full %"age

F olio 0 v, <oriander or <ilantro (<oriandru" sativu"), is native to

'sia and :orth 'frica. %ts seeds were found in the to"b of

$utankha"un. $he plant was cultivated by the ;reeks in the second"illenniu" B< and the ?o"ans introduced the herb into Britain.<oriander has a taproot and the leaves at the base of the plant arebroadly lobed beco"ing "ore feathery higher up, with u"bels of whiteto pale pink flowers at the top of the ste". <oriander seed and leafwere very widely used in "edieval cuisine.

Folio 0!vFull %"age

F olio 0!v, European colu"bine, <ulverwort or ;rannyRs nightcap

('Luilegia vulgaris), is a species of colu"bine native to Europe. %t hasa fibrous root syste". ' tuft of large long dark green leaves grows atthe base of the plant higher up the ste" they beco"e s"aller and aregrouped in leaflets of three. $he slender, erect branched flower ste"send in drooping purple, so"eti"es white, flowers whose five petalsend in a hornlike spur. <olu"bines are a "e"ber of the

?anunculaceae fa"ily and are therefore poisonous. $he flower issacred to Venus and it was believed that carrying a posy of the flowerswould arouse the affections of a loved one.

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Folio 0 rFull %"age

F olio 0 r, <hickweed (#tellaria "edia), is an annual plant native to

Europe. %t ger"inates in the fall or late winter, rapidly for"ing large"ats of foliage. $he s"ooth, pale&green leaves are egg&shaped andthe single, s"all, white flowers sprout fro" the a ils of the upper

leaves. $he petals are narrow and deeply cleft. $he fresh leaves wereused to "ake a poultice to treat infla""ation and ulcers. $he seedsare eaten by chickens, hence the na"e chickweed.

Folio 0 vFull %"age

F olio 0 v, <ouch grass (Elytrigia repens), is a grass co""on to

"ost of Europe and 'sia. %t is an invasive grass due to a creepingrhi o"e root. $he leaves are long and linear and the long flower spike

has spikelets with three to eight florets. $he ;reeks used couch grassas a herbal re"edy . %n "edieval ti"es it was used to treat bladder andurinary tract infections. #ick dogs will dig up and eat the roots.

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Folio 00rFull %"age

F olio 00r, Mandrake (Mandragora officinaru"), is a plant fro"

#outhern Europe and around the Mediterranean #ea. %t is a long&leafed, dark&green plant with greenish&yellow, bell&shaped flowers thatgrow on stalks to produce orange berries known as =#atan+s apples.> %nthe Middle 'ges the people believed that the forked, parsnip&liketaproot, rese"bling a hu"an for", gave the plant "agical powers.$he aphrodisiac properties of the "andrake are referred to in ;enesis.

$he ?o"ans gave the root to patients during operations for ananesthetic.

Folio 00vFull %"age

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F olio 00v, <elery ('piu" graveolens), has been cultivated around

the Mediterranean for centuries. %t is grown for its crisp stalk, fleshytaproot, and seeds which are used for flavoring. <elery leaves andflowers were part of the garlands found in the to"b of $utankha"un, apharaoh of ancient Egypt. $he root is an effective diuretic and hasbeen used to treat urinary stones and gravel. $he seeds were used by'ulus <ornelius <elsus in around 7 'A to relieve pain. ' photographof a celery flower can be seen at the 5eed %A O Manage"ent 5eb site .

Folio 0*rFull %"age

F olio 0*r, -rach or #altbush ('triple hortensis), grows around

Europe and the Mediterranean region and is considered to be one ofthe oldest cultivated plants. $he leaves are arrow shaped the angular,furrowed ste"s are *& feet high and the s"all green or red flowersoccur in profusion at the top of the plant. -rach was "entioned in thebook of ob as a food eaten by outcasts fro" society. %t "ay be eatenas a substitute for spinach.

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Folio 0*vFull %"age

F olio 0*v, Cavender (Cavandula angustifolia), is a low growing

shrub, native to the Mediterranean and :orth 'frican <ountries.-pposite, linear leaves grow along its "any&branched, woody ste"s.Doung shoots fro" these ste"s end in blunt spikes of lavender blueflowers. ?o"ans used the flowers as a perfu"e for their baths. Auringthe Middle 'ges gloves were i"pregnated with lavender to ward off theplague. Fleas, carriers of the plague, dislike the odor.

Folio 0 rFull %"age

F olio 0 r, $he - eye Aaisy (Ceucanthe"u" vulgare), is found all

over Europe. %t is also known as the Cawn or English Aaisy. $hisherbaceous plant produces additional plants fro" short creepingrhi o"es. $he s"all, rounded or spoon&shaped leaves grow close toground. $he flowers, at the end of a leafless stalk, consist of white rayflorets surrounding a yellow disc. $he daisy was an ingredient of an

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oint"ent used in the fourteenth century to treat wounds and gout. $heleaves "ay be eaten raw in a salad .

Folio 0 vFull %"age

F olio 0 v, 8lough"an+s #pikenard or ;reat Fleabane (%nula cony a),

is native to Europe, 'sia, and 'frica. $he na"e %nula dates back to the?o"ans. $his is a tall, rather plain plant, with a biennial root, ovalleaves rese"bling those of a fo glove, and clusters of ray&less, dull,yellow flowers. ' decoction of 8lough"an+s #pikenard was freLuentlyused for bruises, ruptures, and internal wounds the /uice fro" theplant was used to soothe itchy skin. $he leaves were burnt as aninsecticide to destroy fleas.

Folio 0 rFull %"age

F olio 0 r, 9ouseleek (#e"pervivu" tectoru"), is a s"all, succulent

plant native to Europe and :orthern 'frica. %t has rosettes of leaveswhich grow close to the ground. 9ouseleek propagates by seed andalso by splitting off lateral rosettes, called Shen and chicks.S Each plant

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grows for several years before flowering after which it dies. %t is a veryold "edicinal and witch&plant. $he ?o"ans grew it in vases in front oftheir houses and <harle"agne ordered it to be planted upon the roofof every house to protect the ho"e fro" fire and lightening.

Folio 0 vFull %"age

F olio 0 v, Cungwort (8ul"onaria officinalis), a "e"ber of the

borage fa"ily is native to Europe and 5estern 'sia. $he scientificna"e 8ul"onaria is derived fro" Catin =pul"o> for lung. $he speckled,alternate, oval leaves rese"ble a diseased or ulcerated lung, and thisplant was therefore used to treat pul"onary infections. Cungworts areperennial herbs that for" clu"ps as a result of their slowly creepingrhi o"es. $he blue, funnel&shaped flowers have five (rarely "ore)shallow lobes.

Folio 03rFull %"age

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F olio 03r, False 9ellebore or #weet Vernal ('donis Vernalis), is found

in the drier regions of #outhern Europe. $he flowers of this plant areyellow. $he author of the VM appears at ti"es to be li"ited or withoutdifferent colored paints this "ay be one e a"ple. False 9ellebore hasproperties si"ilar to digitalis for sti"ulating the heart, but its action isstronger and is said not to be cu"ulative.

Folio 03vFull %"age

F olio 03v, ?ue or 9erb of ;race (?uta graveolens), is a hardy

evergreen shrub, native to southern Europe, with a reputation as a"edicinal herbal and for protection against plagues, pestilence andwitchcraft. $he woody ste" has alternate, bluish&green pinnate leavesand ter"inates with bunches of s"all, greenish&yellow flowers. 'partfro" being the herb for re"e"brance, rue has been used to treatsto"ach, intestinal and "enstrual cra"ps and to induce abortions.Michelangelo and Ceonardo Aa Vinci ate the leaves of this plant toi"prove their eyesight and creativity.

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Folio 02rFull %"age

F olio 02r, Blue :ile Cotus (:y"phaea caerulea), the sacred narcotic

flower of ancient Egypt, is actually a water lily. $he plantRs tuberousroots e"bed in "ud at the botto" of ponds , the leaves float on thesurface of the water, and the blue flowers rise above the water. $heflower rises above the surface of the water in the "orning, opens andcloses, and then sinks again in the evenings. $he ancientEgyptians eLuated the behaviour of this plant, with their sun god, %sis.'ccording to the -dyssey, the Cotus Eaters were a happy, indolentpeople as a result of eating the lotus for its soporific and psychedeliceffects. 5hen -dysseus landed a"ong the", so"e of his "en atetheir food. $hey forgot their friends and ho"e and had to be draggedback to the ships. ( $he Cotus #hop )

Folio *7rFull %"age

F olio *7r, Masterwort ('strantia "a/or), is a native of the Eastern

Mediterranean and 5est 'sia. $he shiny, dark&green, pal"ately&lobed,and coarsely&toothed leaves are arranged in a rosette at the base ofthe plant. $he flowers are white, pinkish, or greenish and clustered insi"ple u"bels, which are surrounded by a conspicuous white orreddish whorl of petal&like bracts. $he root is a black, woody rhi o"e.(8robert Encyclopedia ) 'ccording to the th century English physicianand herbalist, <ulpepper, the root is hotter than pepper, and useful fortreating colds and diseases of the sto"ach and body.

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Folio *7vFull %"age

F olio *7v, #tiff ;entain (;entiana frigida), is a "e"ber of the

gentain fa"ily of plants that originated in the te"perate regions ofEurope and 'sia. ;entians have opposite leaves that are so"eti"esarranged in a basal rosette, and tru"pet&shaped flowers that areusually deep blue or a ure, but "ay vary fro" white, crea"&colored,and yellow to red. $he picture of the white gentian was the only publicdo"ain photograph available. ;entian was "entioned in the works ofthe first century ?o"an physicians 8liny and Aioscorides. Auring theMiddle 'ges, ;entian was co""only e"ployed as an antidote topoison. $he long, thick root is a rhi o"e and has been used forcenturies in Europe as a digestive aid.

Folio * rFull %"age

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Folio *!rFull %"age

F olio *!r, 8oppy 'ne"one ('ne"one coronaria), is is native to the

Mediteranean. $his tuberous&rooted plant with deeply cut leaves has

large, showy, white, red, or blue poppy&like blosso"s with an involucreof three leaflets below each flower . $he plant propogates fro"underground rootstock. %t has been grown for centuries by the ;reeksand ?o"ans and was na"ed 'ne"one, as was the daughter of windsin ;reek "ythology.

Folio *!vFull %"age

F olio *!v, Fern. $he photograph shows 8olystichu" setiferu"

unfolding a frond. 's none of the fronds have unfolded in Folio *!v, itis not possible to identify this fern.

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Folio * rFull %"age

F olio * r, #nee ewort ('chillea 8tar"ica), is a European herbaceous

plant with a strong, pungent s"ell, related to yarrow. %t for"s densespreading "ats fro" rhi o"es that creep beneath the ground surface.$he leaves are long, grey&green, sharply toothed, and when dried areused to "ake a snee ing powder. %t has loose heads of button&shaped,white flowers. $he genus was na"ed after 'chilles, and according tothe %liad, his soldiers used this plant to treat wounds.

Folio * v

Full %"age

F olio * v, 9awkweed (9ieraciu" aurantiacu"), is found all over the

world. %t rese"bles a dandelion with a cluster of yellow or orange rayflowers growing at the end of a long fu y stalk. $he leaves are lance&shaped and bristly. 8liny the Elder clai"ed that hawks ate the plant to

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i"prove their vision, therefore it was used as a herb to help visionproble"s.

Folio *0rFull %"age

F olio *0r, <abbage thistle (<irsiu" oleraceu"), is native to <entral

Europe where it grows in boggy areas. %t is an herbaceous perennialplant the leaves are broad and ovoid with a weak, spiny "argin and

the flower head is a dense cluster of sessile flowers so"eti"es tingedpink. $he young leaves are cooked and used as a vegetable.

Folio *0v

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Full %"age

F olio *0v, ?ussian #age (8erovskia atriplicifolia), is a s"all upright

'sian shrub of the "int fa"ily. %t has grayish white ste"s and deeply

notched, lobed, silvery&grey leaves that s"ell like sage when crushed.%n the late su""er it produces spikes of s"all lavender flowers. $heplant grows in clu"ps with new spouts co"ing up fro" the roots. %t isa favorite of the honey bee.

Folio **rFull %"age

F olio **r, Fu"itory (Fu"aria officinalis), is a to ic, annual herb

native to te"perate regions of Europe and 'sia. %t "ay be either erector trailing and has a taproot. $he oval leaves are deeply seg"entedand the s"all, pink flowers are tubular. %t was used e ternally in anantiseptic and anti&infla""atory lotion for acne and e e"a, and alsoto fade freckles.

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Folio **vFull %"age

F olio **v, <auliflower or Broccoli, two vegetables that closelyrese"ble each other and were probably developed in ?o"an ti"esfro" wild or pri"itive for"s of cabbage, a native of the EasternMediterranean region. Both broccoli and cauliflower have large, fleshyflower heads, sprouting fro" a thick edible stalk. $he large "ass offlower heads are surrounded by leaves. 8liny, the Elder, wrote about avegetable that fits the description of broccoli.

Folio * rFull %"age

F olio * r, #undews (Arosera species), are carnivorous plants, nativeto all continents e cept 'ntartica. VM folio * r was identified as beinga #undew species by Aenis Barthel ( 5ikipedia ). $hese plants captureand digest insects using stalked, "ucilaginous glands that cover theirleaf surface. $heir leaves are arranged in a rosette, generally flat onthe ground, and the flower spike has white flowers (outlined with blue

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in folio * r) that usually open one at a ti"e. #undews were used as"edicinal herbs as early as the !th century, when an %talian doctor,Matthaeus 8latearius, described the plant as an herbal re"edy forcoughs under the na"e Sherba sole.S ' good drawing of the plant can

be found at the 'ittakorpi school 5eb site.

Folio * vFull %"age

F olio * v, #ago 8al" (<ycas revoluta), is native to the -ld 5orld

tropics. 9owever, fossils of this pal" have been found on al"ost everycontinent on the planet. %t is an ancient plant that is either "ale or

fe"ale. Folio * v probably represents a "ale sago pal" with a cone.$his pal" is very slow growing and the trunk can branch "ultipleti"es, thus producing "ultiple heads of leaves. <hina is reputed tohave a ,777&year&old sago pal".

Folio * rFull %"age

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F olio * r, Blue Field Madder (#herardia arve"sis), is an annual,

"at&for"ing herb that is native to Europe. $he lanceolate leaves arewhorled with 0 to at each node. $he flowers occur in clusters at theends of the ste"s. ' red dye can be obtained fro" blue field "adderand its sweet scent "akes it useful in potpourris. Blue field "adder isvery si"ilar to woodruff (;aliu" odoratu"), e cept that the latter hasa white flower.

Folio *rFull %"age

F olio *r, Cadies Mantle ('lche"illa vulgaris), is native to coolte"perate regions of Europe. %t is an herbaceous perennial with leaveslike rounded fans, covered with fine hairs. #prays of s"all, yellowflowers without petals bloo" in the late spring. :icholas <ulpeperclai"ed that the /uice of this plant could fir" up sagging breasts, andpillows stuffed with its leaves could bring on a good sleep.

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Folio *vFull %"age

F olio *v, <ornflower (<entaurea cyanus), is native to Europe. %t is

a tall, slender, branched plant with narrow, lancet&shaped, alternateleaves covered with white hairs. $he flowers have pale purple discflorets surrounded by bright blue ray florets that for" the conspicouspart of the flower. $he pig"ent e tracted fro" the flowers is "i edwith alu"&water to create an ink. $he English herbalist, <ulpepper,considered that the seeds or leaves taken in wine would ward off theplague and all infectious diseases.

Folio vFull %"age

F olio v, 5inter #avory (#ature/a "ontana), is a perennial, low&

growing, aro"atic shrub that is native to the Mediterranean region.$he woody ste"s are branched the leaves oblong and linear and thepale purple flowers for" whorls on the ste"s. #avory plays ani"portant part in %talian cuisine, and is used with bean cooking and"ade into a ="int sauce> with vinegar . 8liny used the old Catin na"e#atureia describe the plant.

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Folio 3 rFull %"age

F olio 3 r, #u""er savory (#ature/a hortensis), is a native of the

Mediterranean regions and is generally used in %talian cuisine to flavorbean dishes. Bunches of linear oblong leaves are attached directly tothe slender erect ste"s and the pale lilac flowers with a green&tubedcaly , are attached by short ste"s, often in groups of three, to the"ain ste". 8etrus <rescentius, the thirteenth century %talian authorwho wrote a treatise on far"ing and gardening, reco""ended savoryas a re"edy for liver and lung co"plaints.

Folio 3 vleftFull %"age

F olio 3 v left, 8ri"rose (8ri"ula vulgaris), is a co""on #pring

flower native to <entral and #outhern Europe. %ts co""on na"e isderived fro" the Medieval Catin, =pri"a rosa,> "eaning =first rose.>

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$he plant has knotty roots with branched rootlets the leaves are egg&shaped and oblong each flower is on a separate stalk having a green&tubed caly and the pale yellow, tube&shaped corolla ends in fivese"i&fused petals. 8liny regarded the pri"rose as an i"portant

re"edy for "uscular rheu"atis", paralysis, and gout and pri"roseleaves were used as potherbs during the "iddle ages.

•

PP

Folio 3 vFull %"age

F olio 3 v, Cousewort or 5ood Betony (8edicularis fla""ea), is

found throughout the :orthern 9e"isphere. %ts e tensive root syste"is se"i&parasitic on the roots of other plants. $he leaves are alternateand bipinnate the bilaterally sy""etrical flowers grow in race"es.$he na"e lousewort co"es fro" the belief that when cattle ate thisplant they beca"e infested with lice.

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white flowers. $he plant has a slight aro"atic odor which is said todestroy fleas.

Folio 27vFull %"age

F olio 27v, 'rugula or ?ocket (Eruca vesicaria), a "e"ber of the

cabbage fa"ily, has been grown in the Mediterranean area since?o"an ti"es. %t has a slender taproot stiff, erect, pubescent ste"coarsely toothed or lobed leaves and crea"y white, four&petal flowerswith purple veins. $he plant is considered to be an e cellent sti"ulantand aphrodisiac and was used in a "i ed salad by the early ?o"ans.$his folio illustrates the VM author+s prankish nature when herepresented the roots of this plant as a headless cat.

Folio 2 rFull %"age

F olio 2 r, 'rtichoke (<ynara cardunculus), was cultivated by the

;reeks and ?o"ans over two thousand years ago. %t is a perennial

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thistle with a tuberous root and a blue thistle flower at the end of a tallerect stalk with alternate thistle leaves. 'lthough the flower of folio 2 rrese"bles that of an artichoke, the leaves and the root do not.Eleca"pane or 9orse&heal (%nula 9eleniu") is a sunflower&like plant

found growing wild throughout Europe, particularly #outhern Europe.%t grows to a height of fro" to * feet the leaves are large, the lowerones stalked, the rest e"brace the ste". $he "any yellow ray flowersare two inches in dia"eter and the root is thick and branching. $heancients used the root as both a "edicine and a condi"ent. $his plantrepresents the plant in folio 2 r "uch better than a globe artichoke.

Folio 2 vFull %"age

F olio 2 v, Cupin (Cupinus), we have used a $e as Bluebonnet as an

e a"ple of a wild lupin. Cupins are found in the Mediterranean and'frica. $heir leaves are usually pal"ate and the "any&colored, pea&shaped flowers for" open whorls at the end of an erect spike. $heplant is sy"biotic with nodule bacteria which fi nitrogen and arefound in rhi oids associated with the plant root structure. $he ?o"anscultivated lupins for food . 8liny observed6 =:o kind of fodder is "ore

wholeso"e and light of digestion than the 5hite Cupine, when eatendry. %f taken co""only at "eals, it will contribute a fresh colour and acheerful countenance.> ( ;rieve, M., )

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Folio 20rFull %"age

F olio 20r, Moonwort or Moonfern (Botrychiu" lunaria), is found incold and te"perate ones all over the world. %t is a s"all fern withfleshy roots. %ts fronds are pinnate with to 3 pairs of rounded leavesand a fertile spike that is co"pletely covered with brown spore caseswhen it is ripe. $his plant is on the endangered species list. Cegendsclai" it can raise the dead, open locks, and unshoe horses that treadon it. $his folio was identified by Aana #cott.

Folio 20vleftFull %"age

F olio 20v left, <orncockle or ?ed <a"pion ('groste""a ;ithago), is

a weed widely distributed in the cornfields of Europe. $he plant+s long,narrow, lance&shaped, ste"less leaves are produced in pairs theslender ste"s end in a single "agenta flower. $he flower+s leaf&like

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caly is very long and narrow with five strong ridges and five longgreen teeth that are longer than the "agenta petals. <orncockle wasonce considered a cure for dropsy and /aundice.

Folio 20v"iddleFull %"age

F olio 20v "iddle, CiLuorice (;lycyrrhi a glabra), a native

herbaceous perennial of #outhern Europe, is a "e"ber of the legu"efa"ily. $he pinnate leaves have 2& leaflets and the pale purpleflowers are produced in loose bunches. CiLuorice is popular in %taly and#pain where the plant+s root is chewed as "outh&freshener. CiLuoricee tract for "aking candies, is produced by boiling liLuorice root andsubseLuantly concentrating the e tract.

Folio 20vrightFull %"age

F olio 20v right, ?ibwort, 8lantain, or @e"ps (8lantago lanceolata), is

a perennial European herb with long lance&shaped basal leaves thathave &* strong parallel veins. $he flower stalks are often "ore than !feet long, ter"inating in blunt cylindrical, spikes. Auring "ediaeval

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ti"es children used these flower spikes to play a ga"e called ke"ps.$he ga"e involved striking one stalk head against another until a stalkbroke. @e"ps (ce"pa) was the 'nglo&#a on word for soldier. ?ibwortis used in tisanes and other beverages .

Folio 2*rFull %"age

F olio 95r, Elderberry (Sambucus nigra), is a small deciduous tree native to most of

the Northern hemisphere. In the summer the tree has masses of flat topped!hite flo!er heads. "he leaves are arranged in opposite pairs of five to seven odd pinnateleaflets !ith serrated edges. #rooping clusters of blac$ berries ripen in the late fall. ("he

berries sho!n in %olio 95r are colorless, this may be due to the author having, onoccasion, an inade&uate supply of different colored 'paints. ) "he berries are used toma$e ams and !ine. Italian peasants still construct a simple !ind instrument from thehollo! branches. *liny the Elder (+ - 9) !rote that boys made pop guns and !histlesfrom the branches of this tree.

Folio 2*vFull %"age

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F olio 95v, /ollyhoc$ (0lthaea 1osea), is a member of the mallo! family that !as

imported into Europe from 2hina. It is a biennial often found gro!ing in clumps. "heroots are thic$ (tuberous), long, and tapering3 the leaves are broad and palmate3 and the

purple, red, pin$, or yello! flo!ers are used to ma$e dyes. "hey may also be used in s$inmoisturi4ers .

Folio 2 rFull %"age

F olio 9 r, 6arden 0ngelica (0ngelica archangelica), is a large European plant !ith

thic$, fleshy, spindle shaped roots. Its hollo! stems are 7 feet in height and its brightgreen leaves are made up of numerous small leaflets. 8i$e other members of the carrotfamily, the small yello!ish flo!ers are grouped in large umbrels, that produce paleyello! oblong fruit !hen ripe. 0ccording to one legend, an angel revealed in a dream that

0ngelica could cure the plague. "he plant !as held in such esteem that it !as called '"he1oot of the /oly 6host. "oday 0ngelica is gro!n mainly for its stems that are candiedand used to decorate ca$es and confections.

Folio 2 v

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Full %"age

F olio 9 v, lac$ ryony ("amus communis), is an herbaceous vine native to Europe

and North!estern 0frica. "he heart shaped, pointed leaves are spirally arranged along thet!ining stem. "he vine has separate male and female plants, both !ith small, greenishyello! flo!ers, the latter being succeeded by red berries !hen ripe. It is very similar to ayam !ith a large fleshy blac$ tuberous root. "he vine, including the root, is

poisonous. :uice from the root has been used !ith great care as a diuretic. "he berries actas an emetic !hen eaten.