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The Volkswagen Bus:

Driving Exploration, Encounter, and Exchange.

Pope M. Kanne

Junior Division

Historical Paper

2,412 Words

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What do following the Grateful Dead, taking the family to different racetracks

every weekend1, going around the world2, and going on a 13,000 mile pilgrimage to

see the pope3 all have in common? They were all journeys of exploration or

encounter made possible by the Volkswagen bus, the ultimate everyman’s

adventure vehicle. The affordable and reliable Volkswagen bus brought freedom to

the individual, and, as a result, enabled these individuals to form communities of

journeyers, united by the independence they sought. The influence of the VW bus

can be broken down into three main areas beginning with the arrival of the bus in

America and its popularity as a camping vehicle, moving through the hippie era, and

ending with the use of the VW bus as a vehicle for world travel. In each of these

areas of exploration, a community formed by fellow travelers enriched the

experience.

Historically, exploration was only for the rich and powerful because of the

costs associated with it. Christopher Columbus needed the support of a monarchy

to fund his voyage. The Lewis and Clark expedition cost nearly half a million dollars

in today’s money.4 Pioneer families heading west had to sell most of what they

owned to pay for their wagons and could not return easily. Ernest Shackleton 1 Jeffrey Galvin, Telephone interview by the author, November 27, 2015. 2 Ryan Lee Price, "Around The World In A Volkswagen Microbus," Truck Trend Network, http://www.trucktrend.com/features/travel/1402-around-the-world-in-a-volkswagen-microbus/. 3 Kathy Matheson, "Argentine family of 6 completes pilgrimage," Wisconsin State Journal (Madison), September 25, 2015, A7; Antonio Olivo, "Pope Francis tells family that drove 13,000 miles to see him: ‘You are crazy’," The Washington Post, last modified September 27, 2015, accessed January 2, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2015/09/27/pope-francis-tells-family-that-drove-13000-miles-to-see-him-you-must-be-crazy/. 4 "A Timeline of the Trip," pbs.org/lewisandclarck, accessed December 8, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark/archive/idx_time.html.

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needed money from government and wealthy backers to pay for his Antarctic

expeditions.5 Since then, exploration has become a lot more affordable.

Camping: Exploration For the Individual

Exploration became more accessible to the individual when the Ford Model T

was introduced. Motorized camping was popularized in 1915-1924 by the camping

trips taken by Henry Ford, Thomas Edison, John Burroughs, and Harvey Firestone.6

The trips were vacations for the men, but film crews and photographers followed to

make advertisements for the Ford Motor Company.7 The trips were not really

camping as we think of it today. Edison brought an electric generator and the 1919

trip had a fifty-car caravan. Nevertheless, they helped popularize motorized

camping. Soon after, the Great Depression and rationed gasoline during World War

II slowed down the camping boom.

After World War II, camping was on the rise again. It provided an

inexpensive vacation for families.8 The automobile industry encouraged the spread

of camping. A pamphlet published by the United Auto Workers said that “[j]ust

5 "Nimrod Expedition," Wikipedia, accessed January 4, 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrod_Expedition#CITEREFRiffenburgh. 6 Donald F. Wood, RVs & campers: 1900 through 2000, An illustrated history (Hudson: Iconografix, n.d.). 7 "The Vagabonds," The Henry Ford, accessed December 8, 2015, https://www.thehenryford.org/research/vagabonds.aspx.; Christopher Klein, "Ford and Edison’s Excellent Camping Adventures," History.com, accessed July 30, 2013, http://www.history.com/news/ford-and-edisons-excellent-camping-adventures. 8 Ah. Wilderness?," Time, July 14, 1961.

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about everybody is going camping,” and “[t]hey are as ‘at home’ in their

recreational vehicles as they are in the homes they leave behind.”9

The Volkswagen bus, first built in 1950,10 arrived in the U.S. in the early

1950s, and it made camping an affordable and easy way to explore.11 Because the

idea behind Volkswagen was “a German car that can be bought by anyone who can

afford a motorcycle,” VW has always built affordable cars.12 Volkswagen repairs

were relatively easy, and fuel economy was above 20 miles per gallon.13 Popular

Mechanics was impressed with the bus’s dependability and wrote, “Volkswagen

sales are impressing everyone except persons who have driven the homely German

vehicle.”14

In addition to being affordable, the bus was practical and roomy, an ideal

camping vehicle.15 A series of Volkswagen ads from 1970 shows a bus in a desert,

in a forest, on plains, and next to a lake, stating, “It can provide what any good house

can provide.”16 Another ad said, “Climb into a Volkswagen Campmobile, turn the

key, and you have the entire country at your disposal.”17 Lots of Volkswagen ads

promised things like this, and the campers delivered. Its boxy shape optimizes

available space and makes it easy to get to the back of the bus without getting out, 9 Ginny Ade, A guide to the wonderful world of camping: for the outdoor family (Detroit: United Auto Workers, 1970), 5. 10 See appendix A 11 See appendix B 12 Paul Ingrassia, Engines of Change: A History of the American Dream in Fifteen Cars (New York: Simon, 2012), 86. 13 Marcantonio, Abbott, and O'Driscoll, Remember Those Great Volkswagen Ads?, 249. 14 "Happy Campers; From the looks of these early RVs, roughing it has apparently never really been in style," Popular Mechanics, May 1, 2005. 15 Galvin, telephone interview by the author. 16 Marcantonio, Abbott, and O'Driscoll, Remember Those Great Volkswagen, 246. 17 Ibid., 248.

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which is important when camping.18 They offered a stove, refrigerator, a table, lots

of storage, and sleeping for four.19 Some owners added ovens or even completely

changed the interior layout.20

Because the bus had an interior that provided homelike conveniences, people

were able to explore longer. Families with young children were able to take lots of

trips all over the U.S. 21 Dr. Jeffrey Galvin, a bus owner who regularly traveled with

his family to race tracks around the Midwest, appreciated these conveniences. He

said that being able to cook your own food and bring everything you need made

traveling easier and less expensive. 22 Many people agree that the Volkswagen is

amazingly versatile.23 With the purchase of a VW bus, what one got was

independence and opportunities for exploration.

When it is easy to stay on the road, the result is a more relaxed travel style.

One owner said, “We always try to enjoy the ride … whether stopping to shop, eat at

an interesting local haunt, or just plain picnic at a scenic overlook along the way.”24

18 "classic vw bus commercial," video file, YouTube, posted by Beetlejuice150, October 4, 2007, accessed December 17, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fcwIWxASw-E&feature=em-share_video_user. ; Galvin, telephone interview by the author. 19 David Eccles, VW Camper - Inspirational Interiors: Bespoke and Custom Interior Designs (Ramsbury: Crowood Press, 2008); See appendix C. 20 Ibid. 21 Galvin, telephone interview by the author; Edward Shepard, “ “A fabulous way to grow up” – Stories of family adventure via VW Westfalia," parent.co, accessed December 5, 2015, http://www.parent.co/stories-of-family-adventure-in-a-vw-westfalia-a-fabulous-way-to-grow-up/. 22 Galvin, telephone interview by the author. 23 Benedict Brogan, "Carry on camping in a classic VW," The Telegraph, last modified June 15, 2012, accessed January 3, 2016, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/classiccars/9331292/Carry-on-camping-in-a-classic-VW.html. 24 Shepard, "“A fabulous way to grow," parent.co.

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Another bus owner explained that, “part of the experience when traveling in one of

these VW vans is the traveling itself.”25 Galvin agrees that, “the most interesting

thing [during the traveling] was something you never anticipated.”26 Volkswagen

owners are at home in their vans, but they say, “what’s outside each morning is a

new and beautiful world.”27 While each individual or family is on its own adventure,

they share a common attitude toward traveling: slowing down and enjoying the

journey.

There are large communities of Volkswagen owners all over the world who

exchange support and ideas. As one Volkswagen owner says, “There are VW

camping clubs all over the country. Find an event you want to attend, show up, and

be prepared to meet awesome folks.”28 Volkswagen meet-ups are not only at

organized shows, but also online. Thesamba.com is the most popular Volkswagen

forum for exchange of ideas.29 Stewart S., a Volkswagen mechanic and bus owner

from Washington who has traveled with other bus owners he met on

Thesamba.com, says the bus community is “like a big, huge, messed up family.”30

Volkswagen owners also make friends when they travel to other places. “Everyone

smiles at you! … Strangers come up and want to see your van. You hear so many

25 The Bus Movie, directed by Damon Ristau (2012; n.p.: Firewater Film Company, n.d.), DVD. 26 Galvin, telephone interview by the author. 27 Katie Arnold, "The Ultimate Family Adventure Van: Why you should hit the road in a Volkswagen pop-top.," outsideonline.com, last modified November 6, 2013, http://www.outsideonline.com/1920121/ultimate-family-adventure-van. 28 Ibid; See also appendix D. 29 "Thesamba.com," thesamba.com, last modified 1996, accessed December 18, 2015, http://thesamba.com. 30 Stewart S., telephone interview by the author, January 9, 2016.

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stories of how people had one or knew someone who had one.”31 With a

Volkswagen bus, “you’re making instant friends no matter where you go.” 32

The Hippies: A Movement of Exploration

Throughout many of the change movements of the 1960s and the 1970s, the

Volkswagen bus is in the background, playing a supporting role. In addition to

hippie culture, the VW bus was present in the civil rights movement and the anti-

war movement during the Vietnam era. A civil rights narrative casually refers to

two people using a bus to move with the cause.33 Likewise, a Vietnam War objector

describes living in a VW bus as he tried to separate himself from the Army. The

number of Volkswagen campers sold increased dramatically around 1970. The

Volkswagen Camper Story states, “in 1969, Westfalia celebrated the construction of

its 50,000th camper, while only three years later it had completed its 100,000th.”34

The ubiquity and affordability of the bus made it a choice vehicle for those with less

power and money, exactly the kind of people involved with the change movements.

The increasing availability of used busses made them more accessible to

those on the fringes of mainstream society. The bus’s practicality and low cost

made it a perfect match for the hippies’ carefree nomadic lifestyle.35 It can be

argued that the hippie culture grew on the base planted by pre-hippie bus 31 Ibid. 32 The Bus movie. 33 Chuck Fager, Eating Dr. King's Dinner: A Memoir of the Movement, 1963-1966 (Fayetteville, NC: Kimo Press, 2014). 34 Giles Chapman, The VW Camper Story (Stroud: The History Press, 2011), 65. 35 Ingrassia, Engines of Change: A History, 82.

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travelers.36 All of the bus’s qualities that made it a home on wheels for the first

group of bus travellers allowed the hippies to turn it into permanent home. As one

Ph.D. dropout from Northern California said in 1971, “I can go where my head wants

me to go.”37 This allowed the hippies to separate themselves from mainstream

society and form communities wherever and whenever they wanted to. Even when

hippies traveled independently, they were in a way united by the independence the

bus gave them.

The bus culture is strongly linked with music of the era. Both musicians and

fans had Volkswagens. Fans lived in the busses while attending music festivals or

even following bands in a lifestyle of musical encounter and exchange.38 David

Crosby from Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young said that he “had a Volkswagen bus, in

the classic manner,” speaking as if everyone owned a bus at that time.39 The bus has

become an unofficial symbol of the Grateful Dead, and other musicians have

featured it in album art.40

Because of its association with drugs and the hippie culture, the Volkswagen

bus attracted additional scrutiny from authorities in the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia

Francis, who spent many months traveling in a VW bus in the 1960s, said that her

husband was pulled over for a drug search in Mexico, possibly because of the bus’s

36 David Dyer Burnett, "From Hitler to Hippies: The Volkswagen Bus in America" (master's thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, 2002), 56. 37 "Modern Living: Making the Van Go," Time, September/October 1971. 38 Peter Obranovich, Sound Storm Camping Area, April 23, 1970, photograph, 66482, UW Madison, Madison, WI. See appendix F. 39 Dave Zimmer, ed., Four Way Street: The Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young Reader (Cambridge, MA: Da Kapo Press, 2004). 40 Noah Rayman, "Iconic VW 'Bus' Going Out of Production," Time, September 23, 2013; See appendix E.

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involvement with the hippie culture.41 Michael Kirby, a former justice of the

Australian High Court, was asked to smuggle drugs from Afghanistan to London

during his yearlong journey in a VW bus in the 1970s.42 When he reached the

Iranian border, the guards went right to where the drugs would have been if he had

accepted the lucrative offer.43 The bus marked its owners as outsiders, forcing its

owners to identify themselves as part of the bus community as they were marked

separate from mainstream society.

World Travelers: Individual Exploration Goes Global

For people who wanted to take the itinerant lifestyle to the next level, the

Volkswagen proved to be the ultimate vehicle again. It may be hard to believe, but

the VW bus is very capable off road. It can ford a river or drive through deep mud

with relative ease. 44 Bus owner Stewart S. says that is very enjoyable to drive a bus

on dirt roads.45 Volkswagens are also extremely easy to repair if something should

happen during these excursions. One writer refers to fixing the accelerator cable on

a Volkswagen with a 12-pound test fishing line.46 Because the bus is durable and

easy to repair, the people who travel with it are spiritual first cousins to the

41 Virginia Francis, interview by the author, Middleton, WI, December 18, 2015. 42 "The Journey," Qantas Spirit of Australia, October 2015, 62. 43 Ibid. 44 "VW Bus Backroad Shenanigans - Shasta Snow Trip 2003 - River Crossing," video file, YouTube, posted by Gene Cornelius, March 4, 2012, accessed December 17, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6eMxf-ztxH4. 45 S., telephone interview by the author. 1/9/16 46 Ben Cosgrove, "Inside Volkswagen: How to Mass-Produce an Automotive Icon," Life, May 27, 2013.

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pioneers.47 The pioneers had to drive on muddy and rocky wagon trails and had to

put their wagons on rafts or turn them into boats to cross rivers. Many people who

have traveled around the world in VW busses have had to do similar things, such as

climb very steep hills, cross a desert, drive through jungles, and navigate cliff edge

roads.48

One famous journey follows one of the biggest exploration trips of all time.

In his book Out West, Dayton Duncan uses a VW bus to retrace the path Lewis and

Clark took. 49 He often camped in the same places they did but finds that the modern

world has made exploration extremely easy. “Lewis and Clark took six weeks to

cover the distance I just did in a day, about 430 miles.”50 The modern road system

allows modern-day explorers to retrace large expeditions like this in the relative

comfort of the Volkswagen bus. This direct comparison with an earlier journey of

exploration clearly demonstrates how exploration has become easily available to

the individual and how the VW bus can play an essential role in personal journeys of

exploration.

The third wave of Volkswagen explorers is made up of long-term travelers

who explore the world in ways that would have been impossible for individuals

even several decades ago. Brad and Sheena Van Orden circumnavigated the world

47 Michael Demarest, "In South Dakota: The Motorhomers Gather," Time, August 7, 1978. 48 Brad Van Orden and Sheena Van Orden, Drive, Nacho, Drive: A Journey from the American Dream to the End of the World (Lexington: Nacho Press, 2013); Brad Van Orden and Sheena Van Orden, 927 Days of Summer: Around the World in a VW Van (Lexington: Nacho Press, 2015). 49 Dayton Duncan, Out West: An American Journey (New York: Viking, 1987), 40-42. 50 Ibid, 34

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in a VW bus, and they wrote two books about it.51 They made many friends in South

America who were also going around the world. The Van Ordens also made local

connections. For example, they had to stay in Buddhist monasteries several times

because they were the only safe places to camp, enabling them to experience the

lifestyle of the monks.52 Ned Bacon and Kat Weichert bought a VW bus and wrote

about the adventures they had driving it from Connecticut to Utah.53 One family

traveling through South America in a VW bus met a religious pilgrim and ended up

attending a Catholic festival on a Peruvian glacier.54

These adventurers were assisted by fellow Volkswagen owners throughout

their travels. The VW Club in Thailand helped the Van Ordens put a Subaru engine

in their bus when the original engine failed.55 Kat Weichert and Ned Bacon received

a great deal of assistance from GoWesty.com, a website selling upgrade parts for VW

busses. The Van Ordens’ final conclusion, “In the end it wasn’t the places but the

people,” highlights the importance of the encounters and exchanges facilitated by

their Volkswagen bus.

Individual encounters like these may not seem to have much historical

impact. Collectively, however, they make the world seem much smaller because

more people have not just read about other cultures and places but have

51 Van Orden and Van Orden, Drive, Nacho, Drive: A Journey; Van Orden and Van Orden, 927 Days of Summer. 52 Ibid. 53 Kat Wiechert, Saving Charlotte: Fumbling Across America with a Reluctant VW Bus (Indianapolis: Dog Ear Publishing, 2012), 35. 54 Steven Kurutz, "Van Base With Fan Base," The New York Times, last modified October 30, 2013, accessed December 18, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/31/garden/van-base-with-fan-base.html?_r=0. 55 Van Orden and Van Orden, 927 Days of Summer, 141.

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experienced them first hand. Encounter and exchange on the individual level can be

a force for change on the group level. For instance, campers inspired by the natural

beauty of the earth may feel a greater responsibility to protect it. The hippie

movement infected society at large with a greater sense of freedom 56, and world

travelers and their books can be a force for greater understanding of other cultures

in the world.

Even today, people are still using the Volkswagen bus to take them on life-

changing journeys. A few months ago, newspapers around the U.S. ran stories about

an Argentine family who drove their VW bus from Buenos Aires to Philadelphia to

see the pope.57 A community sprang up both online and in person to support them

on their journey58. It is hard to imagine a community forming to support a family

traveling in a Chrysler Town & Country. The Volkswagen bus has a special pull on

people’s imaginations, linking travelers together into one big club. Pictures of the

family prominently feature their green and white Volkswagen bus, “Francesca”.59

The bus’s unique and instantly recognizable shape has changed little over the years.

The bus is not merely a vehicle, but a fellow adventurer on the journey.

The Volkswagen bus itself suggests wanderlust and freedom.60 It is a

favorite of many drivers because of what Ben Cosgrove, writing on how Volkswagen

mass-produced automotive icons, called its “rare combination of economy, ease of

56 Burnett, "From Hitler to Hippies," 93-94. 57 Matheson, "Argentine family of 6 completes," A7; Olivo, "Pope Francis tells family," The Washington Post. 58 Noël Zemborian, "América en Familia," América en Familia, last modified September 1, 2015, accessed January 30, 2016, http://americaenfamilia.com/. 59 See appendix G. 60 Arnold, "The Ultimate Family Adventure," outsideonline.com.

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maintenance… and, most importantly, personality that so many other mass-

produced automobiles [lack].”61 Historically, the bus is associated with a lifestyle of

freedom on an individual level. This freedom gave bus owners independence from

mainstream society, but strong connections with other bus owners. The

Volkswagen bus is not only the ultimate tool for exploration, encounter, and

exchange but also has become itself a symbol for exploration, encounters, and free-

thinking.

61 Cosgrove, "Inside Volkswagen: How to Mass-Produce”.

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Appendix A

This the original VW bus concept sketch from the late 1940s. It shows the basic boxy

shape of the bus.

https://i.imgur.com/QOlP1A9.jpg. Accessed 2/4/16.

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Appendix B

Popular Mechanics’ July 1955 review of a Volkswagen camper includes a diagram

showing the convenient interior layout. The inclusion of a VW bus just five years

after its introduction shows how it was becoming a preferred vehicle for camping.

"Camping in a Volkswagen," Popular Mechanics, July 1955.

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Appendix C

This image of a 1970s Westfalia interior shows the convenient arrangement of the

cooking facilities, swing-out table, and storage cabinets. It is indeed a home away

from home.

http://nlavw.com/1037/westfalia-berlin-table-whole-set.jpg. Accessed 2/4/16.

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Appendix D

This is a picture of a Bus Fest meet. It shows Volkswagen owners forming their own

community. Bus Fest is the world’s largest VW bus show, and over 8,000 vehicles

attend.

Busfest,org. Accessed 2/4/16.

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Appendix E

This is the album cover from Bob Dylan’s “The Freewheelin’ “, released in 1963. It shows how the VW bus was literally in the background of popular culture then. https://img.washingtonpost.com/rw/2010-

2019/WashingtonPost/2011/03/02/Obituaries/Images/OB-

ROTOLO_1299106260.jpg. Accessed 2/4/16.

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Appendix F

This is a photograph of the camping area at the Sound Storm music festival in

Poynette, Wisconsin in 1970. It shows how fans used the VW bus to follow

musicians.

Pulling, Robert. Sound Storm Camping Area. Digital image. Wisconsin Historical Society. April 23, 1970.

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Appendix G

This is a picture of the Walker family, who traveled for six months across two

continents in their VW bus, “Francesca”, to see the pope. Most pictures of the family

feature the bus, showing how it is treated as a fellow adventurer.

http://d1udmfvw0p7cd2.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/f-family-a-

20150929.jpg. Accessed 2/4/16.

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Bibliography

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United Auto Workers, 1970. This pamphlet shows how the United Auto Workers was encouraging camping. It

was useful because it provided historical context.

"Ah. Wilderness?" Time, July 14, 1961. This is an article about the booming in camping. It specifically mentions the VW

bus.

Camper Van: The Story of The Legendary Bus. Directed by Louise Clarke. Produced by

Jason Fenwick. 2012. N.p.: Demand Media, 2012. DVD. This is a history of the VW bus. It says why the bus was used for travel and

exploration.

"Camping in a Volkswagen." Popular Mechanics, July 1955, 84-85. This article provides a basic description of an early VW camper.

"classic vw bus commercial." Video file. YouTube. Posted by Beetlejuice150, October 4,

2007. Accessed December 17, 2015.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fcwIWxASw-E&feature=em-

share_video_user. This is a classic VW commercial that describes the bus's boxy shape.

Demarest, Michael. "In South Dakota: The Motorhomers Gather." Time, August 7, 1978. This article compares motorhomers to the original pioneers.

Duncan, Dayton. Out West: An American Journey. New York: Viking, 1987. Dayton Duncan uses a VW camper to retrace the path of the Lewis and Clark

expedition.

Francis, Virginia. Interview by the author. Middleton, WI. December 18, 2015. This interview helped me understand what it was like to travel with a VW bus

during the 1960s.

Marcantonio, Alfredo, David Abbott, and John O'Driscoll. Remember Those Great

Volkswagen Ads? Revised ed. London: Merrell, 2014. This is a collection of old Volkswagen ads. It shows what VW thought about their

cars

"Modern Living: Making the Van Go." Time, September 6, 1971. This article discusses the advantages and disadvantages of living in a van. It

specifically mentions the VW bus.

22

Obranovich, Peter. Sound Storm Camping Area. April 23, 1970. Photograph. 66482. UW

Madison, Madison, WI. This is a picture of VW busses in a camping area at a music festival. It illustrates

one of the many ways the bus was used for exploration, encounter, and exchange.

S., Stewart. Telephone interview by the author. January 9, 2016. This interview helped me understand what it is like to travel off road and for

longer periods of time in a VW bus.

Galvin, Jeffrey. Telephone interview by the author. November 27, 2015. This interview helped me understand what it is like to travel with a family in a

Volkswagen bus.

Van Orden, Brad, and Sheena Van Orden. Drive, Nacho, Drive: A Journey from the

American Dream to the End of the World. Lexington: Nacho Press, 2013. This is is a book about traveling around the the world in a Volkswagen bus. It

highlight the importance of encounter and exchange.

———. 927 Days of Summer: Around the World in a VW Van. Lexington: Nacho Press,

2015. This is the sequel to Drive Nacho Drive, and it continues the stories of

exploration, encounter, and exchange.

"VW Bus Backroad Shenanigans - Shasta Snow Trip 2003 - River Crossing." Video file.

YouTube. Posted by Gene Cornelius, March 4, 2012. Accessed December 17,

2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6eMxf-ztxH4. This video shows VW busses off roading and fording a river. It is important

because it shows that they can go pretty much anywhere.

Wiechert, Kat. Saving Charlotte: Fumbling Across America with a Reluctant VW Bus.

Indianapolis: Dog Ear Publishing, 2012. This is a story about driving an unlicensed and damaged VW bus from

Connecticut to Arizona.

Zemborian, Noël. "América en Familia." América en Familia. Last modified September

1, 2015. Accessed January 30, 2016. http://americaenfamilia.com/. This blog gives details of the family's journey and allowed them to communicate

with their supporters.

Zimmer, Dave, ed. Four Way Street: The Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young Reader.

Cambridge, MA: Da Kapo Press, 2004. The interview in this article with David Crosby shows how the bus was popular in

music culture.

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Secondary Sources

Arnold, Katie. "The Ultimate Family Adventure Van: Why you should hit the road in a

Volkswagen pop-top." outsideonline.com. Last modified November 6, 2013.

http://www.outsideonline.com/1920121/ultimate-family-adventure-van. This article discusses the versatility of the Volkswagen.

Brogan, Benedict. "Carry on camping in a classic VW." The Telegraph. Last modified

June 15, 2012. Accessed January 3, 2016.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/classiccars/9331292/Carry-on-camping-in-

a-classic-VW.html.

This article says that the Brazilian VW bus, which was produced until 2013, was simple and durable like the German original.

Burnett, David Dyer. "From Hitler to Hippies: The Volkswagen Bus in America."

Master's thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, 2002. This thesis is an in depth study of the VW bus in America, including its use in

exploration, encounter, and exchange.

The Bus Movie. Directed by Damon Ristau. 2012. N.p.: Firewater Film Company, n.d.

DVD. This is a documentary about the history and cultural impact of the VW bus.

Chapman, Giles. The VW Camper Story. Stroud: The History Press, 2011. This book provides a history of the Volkswagen bus.

Cosgrove, Ben. "Inside Volkswagen: How to Mass-Produce an Automotive Icon." Life,

May` 27, 2013. This says that air-cooled VWs offered economy and easy maintenance.

Eccles, David. VW Camper - Inspirational Interiors: Bespoke and Custom Interior

Designs. Ramsbury: Crowood Press, 2008. This is a book of custom VW bus interiors. It was useful to me because it shows

how bus interiors can be customized for better convenience.

Fager, Chuck. Eating Dr. King's Dinner: A Memoir of the Movement, 1963-1966.

Fayetteville, NC: Kimo Press, 2014. This is one of many sources showing how the VW bus was omnipresent in the

1960s.

Foxx, Jeffrey Jay. "Archaeology: Delicate Subjects." Archaeology 41, no. 2 (March/April

1988): 66-67. Photographer uses VW Camper to explore South America

Giogilo, Gerald R., ed. Days of Decision: An Oral History of Conscientious Objectors in

the Military During the Vietnam War. Lavallette, NJ: Broken Rifle Press, n.d.

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This book mentions how a Vietnam War objector lived in his bus to avoid living

on the army base.

Hajt, Jörg. The VW Bus: History of a Passion. Translated by Edward Force. Atglen:

Schiffer, 2012. This is a long history of the VW bus with lots of pictures showing that it was used

for all kind of jobs.

"Happy Campers; From the looks of these early RVs, roughing it has apparently never

really been in style." Popular Mechanics, May 1, 2005, 24. This collection of early RVs compares an early VW camper to large bus-like RVs.

The Henry Ford. "The Vagabonds." The Henry Ford. Accessed December 8, 2015.

https://www.thehenryford.org/research/vagabonds.aspx. This is a short history of the camping trips taken by Henry Ford, Thomas Edison,

Harvey Firestone, and John Burroughs.

Ingrassia, Paul. Engines of Change: A History of the American Dream in Fifteen Cars.

New York: Simon, 2012. This book is about cars that were very important to America. The chapter on the

beetle also talks about the bus and why it was important.

"The Journey." Qantas Spirit of Australia, October 2015. This article discusses a 1970 journey overland through India. Pakistan, and

Afghanistan up to Europe.

Klein, Christopher. "Ford and Edison’s Excellent Camping Adventures." History.com.

Accessed July 30, 2013. http://www.history.com/news/ford-and-edisons-

excellent-camping-adventures. This is an article about the famous camping trips taken by Henry Ford, Thomas

Edison, Harvey Firestone, and John Burroughs.

Kurutz, Steven. "Van Base With Fan Base." The New York Times. Last modified

October 30, 2013. Accessed December 18, 2015.

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/31/garden/van-base-with-fan-base.html?_r=0. This is an article about a family traveling through South America in a VW bus.

Matheson, Kathy. "Argentine family of 6 completes pilgrimage." Wisconsin State

Journal (Madison), September 25, 2015, A7. This is the Wisconsin State Journals article on the Argentinian family who

traveled in a VW bus to see the pope.

Morrison, Jim. "Commemorating 100 Years of the RV." smithsonianmag.com. Last

modified August 24, 2010. Accessed December 5, 2015.

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/commemorating-100-years-of-the-rv-

56915006/?no-ist.

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This article provides a brief historical overview and a brief anecdote about

modern explorers. It does not specifically address the Volkswagen, but it lists

reasons for exploring.

Nelson, Walter Henry. Small Wonder. Revised ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Company,

n.d. This is a history of the Volkswagen beetle and bus. It has charts of bus sales and

U.S. registrations.

Olivo, Antonio. "Pope Francis tells family that drove 13,000 miles to see him: ‘You are

crazy’." The Washington Post. Last modified September 27, 2015. Accessed

January 2, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-

faith/wp/2015/09/27/pope-francis-tells-family-that-drove-13000-miles-to-see-

him-you-must-be-crazy/. This article says that an Argentinian family drove all the way to Philadelphia in a

VW bus to see the Pope.

PBS. "A Timeline of the Trip." pbs.org/lewisandclarck. Accessed December 8, 2015.

http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark/archive/idx_time.html. This is a timeline of the Lewis and Clark expedition.

Price, Ryan Lee. "Around The World In A Volkswagen Microbus." Truck Trend

Network. Last modified January 3, 2014. Accessed January 4, 2016.

http://www.trucktrend.com/features/travel/1402-around-the-world-in-a-

volkswagen-microbus/. This article is about a couple from France who went around the world in a VW

bus.

Rayman, Noah. "Iconic VW 'Bus' Going Out of Production." Time, September 23, 2013. This is an article about the VW bus going out of production, with quotes from

Damon Ristau, director of The Bus Movie

Shepard, Edward. "“A fabulous way to grow up” – Stories of family adventure via VW

Westfalia." parent.co. Accessed December 5, 2015. http://www.parent.co/stories-

of-family-adventure-in-a-vw-westfalia-a-fabulous-way-to-grow-up/. This article says why the VW bus is great for family camping.

"Thesamba.com." thesamba.com. Last modified 1996. Accessed December 18, 2015.

http://thesamba.com. Thesamba.com is the biggest forum for aircooled Volkswagens.

Wikimedia Foundation. "Nimrod Expedition." Wikipedia. Accessed January 4, 2016.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrod_Expedition#CITEREFRiffenburgh. This is the Wikipedia page on Ernest Shackleton's Nimrod expedition.

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Wood, Donald F. RVs & campers: 1900 through 2000, An illustrated history. Hudson:

Iconografix, n.d. This book provides a history of RVs. It was useful for putting the Volkswagen in

context with other RVs and campers.