THE VASCULUM.

Vol. XI. No. 1. October, 1924.

THE COMMON FROG (RANA TEMPORARIA).

THE LATE C. ROBSON.

'Tis the 8th of March. Since the 4th inclusive, until to-day, real March

winds have prevailed-winds westerly, strong and boisterous. This morning it was fair,

very cool, and quiet, the wind having entirely gone down. Now, however, early in the

forenoon, the wind has again risen and blows stiffly from the north-west, rendering

the day very cold. Dark heavy clouds scud across the sky, from which is shaken dry

lumpy snow that on touching the ground breaks, and is carried along the roadway

commingled with the dust which March winds have in a great measure brought to

light.

Intent on obtaining frog spawn, and anticipating that the continuous fine

mild springlike weather which has prevailed since the middle of February will have

aroused at least this of our batrachians from its winter sleep, I set out for a pond

where considerable numbers of the common frog (Rana tcmporaria) annually repair

to propagate. On reaching it, however, not a frog is to be seen or heard over the entire

extent of its ruffled surface, beneath which flourishes luxuriantly the now widely-

spread North American water-weed, Elodea canadensis, and the curled pondweed

(Potamogeton crispum), the latter with its crisp wavy foliage forcibly reminding one

of sea-weed. As I walk around the pond, young sticklebacks scuttle away from its

margin and find concealment in the dense forest of aquatic growth; and, presently, the

sound of a splash comes from the further side. Probably a frog taking a "header."

Shortly, however, and a moor or water hen (Gallinula chloropus) rises from the

shelter of a clump of willows growing in the water, and flying low over the hedge

alights in a near ditch of the field adjoining.

Is it too early? Must the conventional "middle of March" arrive ere the

nuptials of the frog are consummated, notwithstanding that Spring has already thrown

her influences so strongly around? The whin is in bloom, its golden yellow blossoms

shedding abroad their lucious sweets; the

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blossoming coltsfoot gives a golden glow to rubbish heap waste places and waysides;

whilst daisies, not a few, bedeck meadow and pasture land. By waysides, in the

shelter of hedges and walls with a southern aspect, the chickweed and groundsel are

freely blossoming, as are also the red and the white archangel or deadnettle, and,

somewhat more sparingly the dandelion and shepherd's purse. Here and there in the

hedgerows the hawthorn is growing green, and the honey suckle and the elder or

bourtree are still further advanced. Wild rose and bramble too, are leafing; and, in the

hedgbanks, the foliage of the Germander speedwell and greater stitchwort is pretty

evident, that of the latter somewhat glaucous in colour and pinklike in form; while

from dry sunny hedgebank and bankside not infrequently peep out the pretty small

white blossoms of the barren strawberry (Potentilla fragariastrum), one of Spring’s

first harbingers. In wood and copse the hazel catkins are fully blown; willow "palms"

of silvery hue and brightness are large and beauti ul ; and, in snug favoured nooks,

the ever-welcome primrose and lesser celandine or pilewort (Ranunculus ficaria)

have spread their corollas to the sun. In gardens, the snowdrop, crocus, and the red-

flowered Daphne mezereum have been i full blossom for some time past, as has also a

yellow-flowered jasmine on the house fronts; and now the daffodil, hepatica,

polyanthus, wallflower, double daisy and pansy blossom, as does also the sweet

scented violet (Viola odorata). Most of our resident birds are in full voice and song;

and the rooks, " having connubial leagues agreed," are busily engaged with the usual

noise and bustle in repairing and rebuilding their nests, and may be heard and seen

breaking off twigs from the trees for that purpose! Insect-life, too, is abroad, more

especially observable being the large groups of the winter gnat or tipula (Trichocera

hyemalis)-a diminutive form of daddy longlegs=-which sport and gyrate in dene ,

gullies, by the sides of shrubberies, in lanes, and other quiet spots.

No; here in the shallows at the south-west corner of the pond, and

sheltered by high land from the rough westerly and south-westerly winds that have

blown, the frogs have spawned. I should think there are altogether many stones of the

spawn, which is for the most part closely packed and occupying a space of fully six

feet in length by three feet in width. Most of the masses of spawn have risen to the

level of the surface of the water, though obviously only so by virtue of its

shallowness; for some detached masses further out in deeper water are beneath the

surface. Though in great part soiled, in all probability from having been deposited on

the muddy bottom of the pond, much of the spawn is quite clean

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in its upper parts at least, and appears to have been only recently extruded. Fishing

out a couple of masses which are entirely free from all extraneous deposit, I fetch

them home; and, on arrival find that segmentation of the yolk has already

commenced, the yolks, or germs, having somewhat the appearance of minute

bramble-berries more or less numerously carpelled. On putting one entire mass of the

spawn into bell-glass aquarium, plump down to the bottom it goes, and there remains.

It is the same with detached portions put to smaller vessels for close observation; they

immediately sink to the bottom, but lie lightly thereon, the individual ova, or eggs,

being springy and moderately buoyant. In some instances, where an extensive

evolution of minute air bubbles occurs owing to the large amount of air with which

our tap-water is not infrequently impregnated, these smaller portions of the spawn are

buoyed up to the surface of the water by their attachment thereto, but sink again

immediately on their dissipation.

The day remains windy, cloudy, and cold; at night the wind settles, and

the cold greatly increases, the thermometer falling to 22° Fahrenheit; and, on the

following morning, the ponds and pools are covered with ice. For a week the weather

continues dull and cold, with northerly winds. One 16th, in the afternoon, I again visit

the pond, and remark that the spawn has not yet been disturbed, and that a few fresh

batches have been deposited beside the old. One of these, which is clean and

compact, I take out and find it exceptional, inasmuch as many of the ova, or eggs, are

imperfectly individualized, there being series of the yolks or germs enclosed in

somewhat string like portions of the nearly colourless gelatinous mass; moreover, the

yolks or germs themselves are .exceptionally small: this, possibly, is a first lot of ova,

deposited by a not yet fully-matured female. The frogs are invisible and mute, the day

being dull and cold, but still. The sticklebacks dart hither and thither on an approach,

seeking concealment among the aquatic plants, the foliage of which is now

abundantly studded with the oblong, more or less curving gelatinous masses of spawn

of the wandering mud-snail (Limnaea peregra), ranging in length from a quarter of an

inch to nearly an inch. Troops of the dancing tipulae (Trichocera) are going through

their aerial evolutions in sheltered situations; and joined to the songs of the thrush,

blackbird, skylark, chaffinch, redbreast, hedge sparrow, yellow hammer and greater

titmouse, is the loud cawing of the rooks at the rookery where nest-building

operations are still actively going forward, the cawing increasing with every fresh

arrival of one or more of the

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colony, most of whom carry twigs though the burthens of some is material which is

shorter and more bulky, undoubtedly being tufts of dry grass or bundles of fibrous

roots, hay or straw, to line the nests. Busily engaged in feeding, too, are the rooks on

the newly-sown fields, as are also many other of our smaller birds.

Again, in a subsequent year, about the middle of March, I visit a large well-sheltered

pond-a disused, water-logged old quarry-in which the frogs spawn every Spring. The

day is fine, bright and sunny, the air being very cool notwithstanding, as the wind is

from the east, a direction. as the old saying hath it, that" is neither good for man nor

beast." Nevertheless, numbers of frogs are on the spawning grounds, coupled, and

uttering their peculiar churring noise and monotonous croaking. On a near approach

the din ceases and the frogs duck down out of sight, to reappear shortly, however, on

my retreating to a little distance and keeping quite still and quiet; and comical it is,

too, to see pair after pair of heads slowly rise in part above the surface of the water,

and exhibiting the large goggle eyes of their disturbed owners. There is plenty of

spawn already deposited, some dirty and older, and some quite clean and not yet fully

expanded, being obviously only very recently extruded. The spawning grounds here

are the shallows on the west side of the pond towards its edge; and they are choked

with a luxuriant growth of some aquatic or semi-aquatic grass, while commingled

with it are the water mint, water crowfoot and hairy willow-herb, which are putting

forth their new foliage beneath the water, altogether forming a matted mass of

vegetation of considerable extent, amongst which the startled frogs are soon lost to

view.

Securing a few couples of frogs, I find that the male, which differs considerably in

colour and appearance from the female, has in some few instances grasped his partner

in no gentle embrace around the neck just in advance of the fore-limbs or arms,

constricting her throat to such a degree that it appears as though his arms would cut

through the tissues. Goldsmith, in his "Animated Nature," tells us that the males only

of the frogs croak; and, at this season of the year-the season in which they exert to the

full their singular vocal powers-who can wonder that the female frog in this instance

should be silent, though she is gifted with voice as well as is her partner, and,

undoubtedly, is inclined to use it! It will be, I imagine, a somewhat difficult matter to

respire even, and the effort required to perform that very necessary function will

leave the female frog with little

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enough energy to use her voice-to croak. In general, however, the male frog has his

arms passed around the body of the female immediately behind the insertion of her

fore limbs or arms; and his hands meet and the fingers more or less cross each other

and interlace beneath in the median line of the body, the bark of the hands and the

harsh caruncles developed thereon being firmly pressed into the tissues of the breast

and constricting them. On forcibly disengaging the male (and the force required is

great), I find that on the inner side of each hand there is developed the huge jet-black

irregular caruncle, whose function is that of holding the female in a more strict

embrace; a special development for a special reason in which great powers of

prehension in the anterior pair of his limbs are obviously requisite. This caruncle is

formed by a temporary enlargement of the first finger and the little tubercle at its base

on the inner side of the hand, from which there issues a very close and complex series

of minute black harsh points: the outgrowth may be said to be from the upper and

inner side of the fore-finger and the whole of the tubercle, the two outgrowths being

in close juxtaposition and forming one large caruncle, though there is a distinct line

of demarcation between. The fore limbs or arms, too, of the male are larger and much

more muscular than are those of the female; and in the latter there is no seasonal

enlargement and outgrowth of harsh points on the hands as in the male.

Bringing home a few pairs of frogs, I put them into a large aquarium.

During the day, the males hoarsely croak under disturbance; and, during the night,

they croak similarly without being disturbed. The female frog, too, hoarsely croaks,

beneath the surface of the water; and I note that when thus croaking the throat is

much inflated: she croaks vigorously, too, on being roughly handled. Nevertheless, I

cannot realize that the continuous din-the hoarse purring or churring noise-heard on

the breeding grounds is made up of a multiplicity of such croaks; though I expect that

it must be so. Somewhat later in the season, when the toads have joined the frogs on

the common spawning grounds, the distinct and much more musical croaking which

then arises therefrom, and which rises clear above the frog din, emanates from these

duskier and more terrestrial batrachians.

The male frog is much darker in colour than is his partner, being dark

olive brown and black-spotted above, and without any tinge of the yellow or

greenish-yellow which is present in the coloration of the female. The ova-full females

are stout and firm, whereas the males are flabby and

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flaccid; but after the deposition of the ova or spawn and the separation of the sexes,

the females are in a flabbier and more flaccid condition than the males.

The ova or eggs on their extrusion are comparatively small, and consist of

a yolk and condensed gelatinous and, externally, very adhesive envelope of a

thickness not greater than one-half the diameter of the yolk or germ which it

surrounds and protects; in fact, they are not unlike the newly-extruded ova of the

common smooth newt (Molge vulgaris), only larger of course. In the extrusion and

fall of these ova they become attached to each other at their several point of contact,

the entire mass thus extruded not exceeding in size a medium-sized hen-egg; and,

from frequently repeated observations, I find that batches of ova of two or even more

female frogs deposited on the same spot at or about the same time, or even at longer

intervals, may and frequently do become attached to each other by the tenaciously

adhesive outer portion of the envelopes and constitute one larger mass of spawn.

When fully expanded by the absorption of water, the ova are spherical, from 0.24

inch to 0.30 inch in diameter, and connected; the whole constituting those large jelly-

like masses full of the small shot-like yolks or germs designated spawn and" pad red"

The yolk which occupies the centre of each ovum is round, about 0.06 inch in

diameter, and is of a black colour in the upper and larger portion and ashen-grey in

the under and smaller portion; whilst the globe of jelly or gelatine enclosing it is

toughish, springy, and not altogether transparent, there existing a slightly-opaque,

faint, milk-white zone to the width of 0.06 inch about midway between the yolk and

the outside of the ovum, intensifying with age, and being very noticeable when the

vessel containing ova is held between the eye and the light. As the spawn ages, and

the development of the germs advances, the gradually softening jelly of the mass is

very frequently more or less flattened out and buoyed up to the surface of the water

by the plentiful entanglement of bubbles of gas of varying size which are continually

rising up from the depths of pond or ditch, and which are evolved from plants and

animals living and dead that are found therein; and thus it happens that the spawn of

the frog which at first lies submerged at the bottom of the pond or ditch or amongst

the aquatic growth therein, is subsequently found floating at the surface.

In Northumberland the frog is emphatically the " Paddock" nor have I ever

heard or known the toad (Bufo vulgaris) so designated; whilst in many rural districts

the

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large masses of ova or spawn are " pad-red," and the tadpoles "po-heads": in

Norfolk, or at least in some parts of it, the tadpoles are called "pot-spoons." In both

these instances he name is indicative of the general form of the tadpole or larva ; in

the latter, the somewhat depressed, elliptical body suggested a resemblance to the

head or bowl of the wooden spoon, while the long tail represents the handle; in the

former, "po" is synonymous with pot, a special kind of pot occupying a lowly

position amongst the household goods, tow hich the assimilated head and body are

supposed to bear a reesemblance, the tadpole of the frog as well as that of the toad

being, to children (whose names for it these are), a sort of "Tommy Noddy, all head

and no body."

MINERALS OF THE NORTH COUNTRY.

SULPHIDES.

J. A. SMYTHE.

The most important sulphide-mineral, galena, has already been considered

in some detail (Vol. IX., Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 89, 106); this article deals with the other

sulphides which occur locally, namely, those of zinc, iron and copper and the rare

double sulphide of nickel and antimony.

Zinc Sulphide, ZnS, the Black Jack of the miner, is generally known as

Zinc Blende. It is a dark, lustrous mineral, frequently associated with galena, from

which it is readily distinguished by its brownish streak. The region in which it occurs

in quantity is more restricted than that of lead. Thus it is practically absent from

Weardale, not very common in Allendale, but is present in abundance around

Nenthead. West of this it dies out, so that, according to W. Wallace (The Laws which

regulate the Deposition of Lead Ores in Veins, 1861), the same veins which are rich

in blende at Nenthead are free from the mineral at Garrigill. It was recognized by

Westgarth Forster, more than a century ago, that the great Burtreeford fault has a

determining effect on its distribution, as it has on that of barytes.

The vertical range of blende is also more limited than that of lead ore, for

it is practically confined to the beds between the Great and the Little limestones

(Wallace, op. cit. 117). Quartz is the gangue material commonly associated with

blende, but chalybite (FeCO3) occurs with it in considerable quantity in the Little

Limestone at Nenthead. These facts of distribution and association are necessarily of

great practical importance; they must also be harmonized with any theory of

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the origin of these mineral veins. In the dressing process used at Nenthead, blende

and chalybite are only partly separated from each other; the finely-divided mixture of

the two from the washing floors is therefore thoroughly dried and submitted to the

influence of a revolving magnet, whereby the more magnetic iron-mineral is removed

and a good concentration of the blende effected.

Outside of this area, blende is not often encountered. I have found small

pockets of it, mixed with calcite, in the 4-Fathom limestone at Little Mill, just under

the Whin Sill, and also undoubted evidence of zinc (though whether as sulphide or

not is as yet undetermined) in a thin streak of dowk-like material, lining a fault-plane,

at the junction of the Thinhope and Faugh Cleugh burns, on the east side of Cold Fell.

The near presence of the Whin Sill adds interest to these two observations. Small

quantities of zinc (and also of lead) are disseminated through the country-rock of the

mining districts. J. M. Finlayson (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1910, 66, 281, 299) has

devoted much attention to these and cognate studies and has found 0.0005 per cent. of

zinc in the Whin Sill at Rotherhope and 0.001 per cent. in limestone at Alston.

Analyses made of limestone rider in a vein at Nenthead and of the Great limestone

which the vein intersects, at various distances up to 70 feet from it, have shown the

zinc to vary irregularly from 0.001 to 0.04 per cent. For the relation of these facts to

the complex phenomena attending the formation of mineral veins, the reader is

referred to the two very interesting papers by Finlayson quoted above.

Blende was first recovered at Nenthead by Richard Grey in 1794 and large

amounts of it have been raised from the mines at Guddamgill and Brownley Hill,

which at one time was smelted at Langley. The London Lead Co. smelted the

Nenthead blende at Tindale, about 1 mile east of the tarn, where the ruins of a large

smelting mill may still be seen. In more recent times the ore was shipped for smelting

to Belgium.

Sulphides of Iron.-The disulphide of iron, FeS2, constitutes the brass-

coloured mineral (so commonly mistaken by the hoi polloi for gold) known as Iron

Pyrites; another form of the same, lighter in colour and, differing in crystalline build

is Marcasite. These are among the most widely distributed of the sulphide-minerals.

Pyrites, in crystalline masses, is very common in the mineral veins;

isolated cubes of it may often be seen in limestones and nodular lumps or irregularly-

shaped masses in shales

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and limestones. At times, the pyritic mineral is concentrated, in shales and

limestones, in bands, and a good example of this occurs near the foot of the High

Force in Teesdale, Coal seams and their associated shales are particularly rich in

pyrites, the lumps of which are known to the pitmen as Brasses or Coal Brasses.

Pyrites has economic value as one of the most important sources of sulphur, the

mineral, in the pure state, containing 54 per cent. of that element. When roasted, that

is, heated with free access of air, the sulphur is burnt to oxide, which can be readily

converted into sulphuric acid, the basis of so many chemical industries; the iron is

left, after roasting, in the form of oxide. In the days before the extensive importation

of foreign pyrites, the local brasses were utilized industrially in the Tyne chemical

manufactures. The method devised by Dr. Richardson and used by the Jarrow

Chemical Co., in the fifties of last century, consisted in crushing the brasses, washing

away the lighter coal and shale and briquetting the residue with a little clay. This

product, containing 45-48 per cent. of sulphur was roasted for the manufacture of

sulphuric acid and the residues are said to have been successfully smelted for Iron

(Industrial Resources of the Tyne, Wear and Tees, 1864, 56).

When exposed to air, pyrites (and especially marcasite), are readily

oxidized with the production of sulphuric acid and ferrous sulphate. The acid is

strongly corrosive and can enter into reaction with many of the constituents of the

surrounding rocks. An example of its attack on clay was given in the last article (p.

103). Another, of technical interest, is the old method of manufacturing alum at

Whitby. The "Alum Shales" used in this process were shales impregnated with

pyrites. When broken and spread out in heaps, oxidation of the pyrites took place, the

resulting sulphuric acid attacked the aluminium silicates of the shale, forming

aluminium sulphate and the ferrous salt was oxidized to the ferric condition. After a

time, the heaps were leached with water and the solution worked for alum in one of

two ways: the ferric salt was reduced by metallic iron back to the ferrous salt and the

latter removed by allowing it to crystallize; to the remaining liquor potassium

sulphate was added in calculated amount when, on standing the double sulphate of

potassium and aluminium, potash alum, crystallized. The other method was to add the

necessary potash to the leaching liquors as potassium chloride; on allowing to

crystallize, potash alum was deposited and the iron remained in solution as the

soluble ferric chloride.

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By these ingenious devices the simultaneous crystallization of ferric alum

and ordinary (potash) alum was obviated. These old methods have passed into disuse,

partly owing to the employment of the Dorset ball-clays, which are relatively free

from iron and which, after gently heating, yield up their alumina to sulphuric acid, the

solution requiring only the addition of the correct quantity of potassium sulphate to

furnish the alum pure.

The production of ferrous sulphate (iron Vitriol, Copperas or Melanterite)

from pyrites has also been the object of large-scale operations in the past. According

to John -Wallis (Nat. Hist. and Antiq. Nbd., 1769) the industry existed in his day at

Hartley and at Dent's Hole, Newcastle, the brasses from Plessey and Newbiggin

being the raw material. It may be added that it is possible, in dry weather, to gather

considerable quantities of efforescent copperas from the outcrops of coal-seams and

the old waste heaps adjoining them. It is often encountered, too, in coal mines.

The formation of iron pyrites is undoubtedly, in favourable circumstances,

going on continuously around us, though it is perhaps seldom that direct evidence of

this can be obtained. Some years ago, however, this was made possible by the

discovery, near St. Mary's Island, of a ferruginous conglomerate, which could be

proved to be only about 18 years old. The cementing material of this conglomerate

contained some perfect cubes of iron pyrites and the conditions leading to the

formation of the mineral were obviously a reducing medium (iron bolts, sea-weed,

etc.), in contact with sea-water the iron of the mineral being derived from the bolts

and the sulphur, either from the sulphates in the water, or from decomposing organic

matter, or possibly from both sources. This conglomerate was described by the late

Dr. Woolacott in the Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1908, Vol. III., Pt. 2.

It may be of interest to record here some observations made on a glacial

boulder of pyritized sandstone, which I found (1908) in the Nun Burn, north-west of

Morpeth. On examination of this rock, the sandstone was found to be composed of

well-rounded grains, the interspaces being apparently completely filled with pyrites.

Now, the importance of the study of grain-packing and the related interspacial

volumes of rocks had been urged by Sorby (Quart. Journ: Geol . Soc., 1908, LXIV.,

200) who, by the method of saturation with water, had determined the interspacial

volumes in a number of rocks and artificial aggregates, the

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values being (to quote only a few examples), 40.2 per cent. for Oolitic limestone, 40

per cent. for millstone grit sand and 40 per cent. for lead shot, the last two being well

shaken.

It appeared, therefore, of interest to determine the volume between the

sand grains in the specimen under consideration, as this could be simply derived from

the knowledge of the composition and the specific gravityof the constituents. The

necessary data are:=

Composition (p.c.). S.G. Volumes (p.c.) Sand 43.5 2.65 59.4

Pyrites 56.5 5.04 40.6

The volume occupied by the pyrites (40.6 per cent.) is thus in close

agreement with the values quoted from Sorby's work and the conclusion to be drawn

is that the specimen was originally a sandstone, composed of nearly spherical grains,

laid down under conditions which produced packing comparable to that of shaking

and that subsequent infiltration of pyrites completely filled the interspaces between

the sand grains. The past history of the rock can thus be inferred with some degree of

probability and it must be regarded as a misfortune that the rock was not in place but

was an ice-borne boulder, possibly far-travelled, and of unknown origin.

The monosulphide of iron, FeS, though hardly to be regarded as a definite

mineral (it exists as such in meteorites) is undoubtedly present, finely disseminated,

in many of the dark-coloured limestones of Bernician age and it is probable that the

colour of these is to he referred, in part at any rate, to the presence of this compound.

The cementing material of the recent conglomerate, mentioned above, contained

notable quantities of ferrous sulphide and it is not unlikely that this compound

marked the first stage in the synthesis of the iron pyrites.

The crystalline, well-characterized mineral, pyrrhotite, contains sulphur

slightly in excess of the simple ratio, its formula being usually written, FenSn+l, when

n has some value between 5 and 16. The occurrence of this mineral has been recorded

in the Great Sulphur vein (v. infra) where it was said to be accompanied by small

amounts of nickel and cobalt. I have encountered small plates of the bronnze -

coloured mineral, forming a kind of shell to some small inclusions in the Whin Sill at

Snook

12

Point, north or Dunstanburgh (Geol. Mag., 1914, 244). As these inclusions invariably

contain vescicles, filled with secondary quartz and calcite, it is not unlikely that the

gaseous bubble, the cavity of which these secondary minerals occupy, contained

hydrogen sulphide and that the pyrrhotite has been produced by reaction of that gas

with magnetite, or some other iron mineral.

Copper Pyrites or Chalcopyrite, CuFeS2, is the chief ore of copper which

occurs in our province; it is sometimes associated with more or less malachite, which

is the basic carbonate of copper produced by weathering of the sulphide. In the lead-

mining district, copper is usually found at a greater depth than lead, the productive

range being the Copper Hazles. which lie between the Scar and the Tyne Bottom

limestones. Though fair quantities of copper ore have been raised at different times

from the Stow Crag and Lee House Well mines, and from Crossgill Burn and

Dryburn, the industry has never attained anything but modest dimensions.

The most promising lode is the Great Sulphur Vein, called by the miners

the Backbone of the Earth. It can be traced from Hartside in a south-easterly direction

to Yad Moss, running parallel to and a little north of the Cleveland Dyke. This great

vein is a striking feature in many parts of its course standing out as a thick rib of bare

quartz, often in peat-clad country and forming the scarred top of the N oonstones hill;

the width in Crossgill is 300 feet. The vein occupies a fault-fissure, the fault having a

downthrow on the north side of 80-120 feet. One result of this is that the Whin Sill,

exposed by denudation in many of the headwaters of the South Tyne, is sharply cut

off by the vein along its southern edge.

The vein is composed of quartz and is rich in places both in iron pyrites

and copper pyrites. In some places, the casts of crystals of these minerals, which have

weathered out, can be seen in great abundance. At the head of the Aglionby Beck, the

pyrites is extensively weathered but the iron remains as oxide and the rock is so rich

in this, that it has been wrought as an iron ore, the old tram-road along which it was

borne to the Hartside road being still visible. Incidentally, the whin sill in contact

with the vein at this place is very greatly decomposed and it is not improbable that

sulphuric acid, resulting from the oxidation of the pyrites, has been a strong factor in

the destruction of the igneous rock.

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According to Finlayson, chalcopyrite is the first mineral, in the veins on

Alston Moor, to be deposited, the others coming in the order : -fluorspar, blende and

galena (or barytes in place of these), iron pyrites, arsenical pyrites.

Outside of the Alston area, there are sporadic occurrences of copper ore.

On the escarpment, it was wrought, high up on Raven Beck, the vein running close

and parallel to a basaltic dyke; specimens of chalcopyr ite and malachite can be found

in this neighbourhood. About a mile south of this, in Loo Gill, malachite can be seen

encrusting a much weathered limestone, which was worked at one time for umber.

Small specimens of copper pyrites are also found in many coal pits. One of these,

from the Hutton Coal Seam, in Seaton Colliery, was analysed by Claphan and

Daglish (Industrial Resources, etc., op. cit.) and found to contain:Cu=33.2; Fe=28.3;

S=37.0; Coal, etc.,=1.6 per cent. which corresponds fairly closely with the formula

CuFeS2. Copper is also not unknown in the magnesian limestone of Permian age,

both chalcopyrite and malachite having been recorded from a fault vein at Raceby

Hill quarries.

According to Wallis (op. cit.) copper scoriae occur at the Ridlees on the

Coquet and malachite is frequent in the gravels of the Coquet and Breamish. The

latter statement has been often copied, or independently made, but there can be little

or no doubt that it is inaccurate, the green glauconitic minerals, common in the

porphyrites, being mistaken for malachite (Lebour, Trans, Min. Inst., 1882).

Many samples of iron pyrites are well known to contain a little copper. I

have confirmed this by the chemical examination of numerous specimens found in

the field or got from coal mines. Small quantities of arsenic, too, are not uncommon

in pyrites. One result of the prevalence of copper bearing pyrites in coal is the green

flame which is produced when common salt is sprinkled on a bright coal or coke fire.

This flame, examined spectroscopically by J. H. Gladstone in 1862 and surmised to

be due to copper, was definitely identified, by the same means, with the flame of

copper chloride (Salet., Compt.rend., 1890, 110, 282; see also Smithells, Nature,

1922., 745). What is perhaps more surprising than the green copper flame in these

circumstances is the complete suppression of the yellow flame so characteristic of the

sodium compounds.

Ullmannite.-The discovery of this mineral, the sulph-antimonide of nickel,

NiSbS, along with the rare mineral alstonite, in the great barytes-witherite vein of the

New

14

Brancepeth Colliery, near Durham, was the rich fruit of the careful examination of

the vein made by L. J. Spencer (Mineralog. Mag., 1910, XV., 302). Two types of

crystals were found, cubic and octahedral. In appearance, the mineral resembles

galena and, on casual inspection, might easily be mistaken for it; but it differs

somewhat in colour, being steel grey, does not show such good cleavage and is much

harder (H=51/2) than galena (H=21.2).

This species is new to the British Isles and, as Spencer remarks, "hitherto,

the two types have been found only at separate localities, so that their association

together adds another point of interest to the New Brancepeth occurrence."

ENGLISH PLACE-NAME SOCIETY.

J. E. HULL.

The first publications* of the English Place-name Society have now

appeared, consisting of one (annual) volume in two parts. The first of these consists

of a series of nine papers which taken together indicate the wide range of knowledge

which must be acquired by the student who would deal adequately with the formation

and meaning of English place-names. It is dedicated to the memory of "Henry

Bradley, greatest of English Place-name Scholars." Dr. Bradley had promised a

"General Introduction," but did not live to fulfil his promise. The Preface includes a

warm appreciation of the man and his work.

The opening paper, by Professor Sedgwick, treats of methods, and

incidentally shows that certain things have been learnt since the study was more or

less systematically taken in hand about the beginning of the present century.

For.instance, it is now fully recognized that the meaning of some common elements

in place-names is to be determined by their use in place-names and not by their

literary use. In this direction much has been gained by the diligent study of the Old

English charters whereby the vocabulary of Old English has been very considerably

enriched. Northumberland and Durham are unfortunately placed in this respect, being

without such charters; nor were they included in the Domesday survey.

Emphasis is very properly laid on the necessity of an accurate knowledge

of topography. It is one of the weakest spots in the equipment of many of the

professional students.

*VoI. I., Part I. : Introduction to the Survey of English Place-name,. Edited by A.

Mawer and F. M. Stenton. Part II.: The Chief Elements used in English Place-names.

Edited by AIlen Mawer. (Cambridge University Press; n. p. )

15

It would prevent, for example, the literal interpretation of Ferryfield in

Upper Weardale, where a ferry is an impossibility. There are other pitfalls of like

character for the student too much absorbed in the philological side of his

investigations. From that point of view Gatherick in North Northumberland might

very well be referred to O. E. "gaiter," dogwood; but the botanist would Very

naturally demur, since the dogwood is certainly not a native of the neighbourhood of

Gatherick. Again, one would be quite content to take "shaw" in its ordinary familiar

sense (as set forth in this present work, Part II.) if one were not aware that it occurs in

many places where there is no wood-places where it is extremely unlikely that a

wood ever existed, but which agree with one another in general character.

I am inclined to the opinion that Professor Sedgwick has overstressed the

importance of phonologv as a help to the interpretation of place-names. He says it is

one of the most potent instruments for arriving at the earliest form of a name. By the

"earliest form" I should understand the earliest documented form; anything prior to

that must be more or less conjectural. The laws of phonology will not enable anybody

to reconstruct a definitely an earlier form from which a name of given date is derived.

They are, however, a most salutary check on arbitrary conjecture; they are

indispensable as the scientific test of any proposed solution. Consequently one is

obliged to say that a very great deal at the phonological discussion contained in place-

name books has no bearing whatever on the elucidation of the meanings of names,

though no doubt it is of absorbing interest to philologists. In fact, as the footnote on

page 6 reminds us, it is by the collation of such discussions that the formulatiob of the

"laws" becomes possible.

This brings phonetics to my mind. As a Northumbrian, reasonably proud

of the native burr, which certainly ought to prevent the confusion of "law" with "lore"

(who hath. ears to hear, let him hear I), I am amazed to find the difference ignored in

a system of phonetics promulgated ex cathedrâ, so to speak. With all deference, when

I am invited to pronounce the first syllable of Berkshire, whether spelled with a or e,

as "bak" (a as in father), I respectfully lodge a plea of non possumus. And what is to

be made of the statement on p. 9, concerning the shortening of a long vowel even

before a single consonant when the following (added) syllable contains an r? The

examples given for comparison are south, southern ; heath, heather. But according to

this phonetic system the r exists only on paper: compare the phonetic version of over,

given a few lines below on the same page. However,

16

it is to be presumed that the r was really pronounced in old and middle English.

Professor Ekwall deals with the Celtic element-the most neglected branch

of the study. Hitherto it has been too hastily assumed that the Britons were entirely

swept away before the influx of the Teutons. Now it is being recognized that this

view must be considerably modified. The writer of this chapter looks forward to

much enlightenment on this matter when the Celtic element in English place-names

has been more adequately studied.

I think he under-estimates the Celtic element in Northumberland, and

perhaps Durham also. But his examples are drawn from Mawer, who was rather

inclined to reduce everything to Old English. Besides the Celtic or partly Celtic

names are largely excluded if nothing is admitted which is not on record before the

sixteenth century.

It is odd that Ekwall should take the stream name Browney as obviously

English. The case of the Wansbeck should have been a warning against such an

assumption. It is perhaps quite as obviously Celtic. Again, I think he is probably

mistaken about Derwent. It is to be remembered that in form it does not stand alone;

we have both Alwent and Bolwent (now Beaumont) with which to compare it.

Similarly, though it seems so natural to connect Cambois with camus, a bay, it is not

to be forgotten that Cambus in Berwickshire is probably a doublet; and it is an inland

place.

The same author deals with the Scandinavian element. He remarks that the

Norwegians of the west reached the "western parts of Durham and perhaps

Northumberland." Any one acquainted with our West Tyne dialect would certainly

omit that "perhaps." Moreover the Northumbrian "shield" is manifestly identical with

the Cumbrian "scale" though it has taken an Anglian form. And what could Angles

know about such a system of " summering" as the word" shield" stands for? It is quite

true that in Northumberland "gill " is almost entirely superseded by "cleugh," 'which

Mawer claims for O.E.-on what grounds I do not know. It is pretty certain that the

Angles did not bring the word with them. The word is in every day use in West

Northumberland, and no native of Allendale would ever pronounce it kluf or klau (as

given in Part II., p. 17). The word is invariably klyuf-a vocalization which is distinctly

Scandinavian.

The rest of the papers are so packed with just the information which is

necessary for the student of place-names, that I cannot deal with detail, especially as

there is little of local

17

reference. In the interests of topographical accuracy, however, it may be remarked

that there are certain errors on p. 147 (Pt. 1.). The camp at Outchester is not

curvilinear, but definitely quadrangular, though it is not Roman-perhaps Danish, or

even Anglian. And Chesterholm (same page) dates only from 1829! The vernacular

name for Vindolanda was Bowers.

Part II. claims our interest for the author's sake, for it is the personal work

of the editor and director of the survey Professor Mawor. It gives a list of the chief

elements used in English place-names, and it need hardly be said that it is

comprehensive and excellent-even if a little too much is claimed for O.E. Very

naturally, a good many of his illustrations are drawn from Northumberland and

Durham. I will confine myself to one or two remarks only. Under grene O.E., graenn

O.N., he says " the substantival use of this word .... is of late origin." In the senses

given this is true, but as pasture it is to be found in Hexham charters of the 13th

century. This accounts for its use in Greenhead. Hlith O.N., (a slope; p. 37) becomes

lee in West Northumberland. "Lee," generally spelled "lea," is a live word in

Allendale in this sense. O.E., ora is given on p. 48, but not Celtic or, which means

pretty much the same thing. It occurs in South Tynedale, Teesdale, and abundantly in

Westmorland. Perhaps the most serious omission is, I think, vollr, O.N. It is admitted

only in the compound thing-vollr, which in Lancashire and Cheshire has become

Thingwall. Yet it is frequent as a terminal (-wall, well; often -walls) in

Northumberland.

The whole work is a splendid foundation for the comprehensive survey of

English place-names which the Society was formed to make. Manifestly when the

whole survey is completed, the broadening of the field, the increase of evidence, and

the multiplying of analogies will greatly facilitate the labours of future students. Still,

even then, much will remain to be done. Our own local area, for example, would reap

but little advantage: so far as we are concerned a general survey of the Scottish

lowlands would be much more to the purpose. Our area has more in common with the

adjacent part of Scotland than with any part of England which remains to be

surveyed.

Also there is the outstanding question of the Celtic element. If Celtic

scholars, familiar with old Welsh, could be found to undertake the investigation of

place-names in Wales I feel sure that much light would be thrown upon

Northumbrian problems, especially of that part of the county which fell within the

ancient kingdom of Strathclyde.

18

The death of David Woolacott creates a gap among north country

geologists which will not soon be filled, for during the last twenty-five years he has

laboured faithfully and successfully to record and interpret the phenomena of the

rocks in this district, and he has done yeoman-service in presenting the fruits of his

own enquiries, and the broad principles of his science, to a wide circle, both by his

lectures and his writings.

The facts of his life are soon told for, like many of his kind, his life was his work. He

was born in Sunderland on July 1st, 1872, and lost his father when only a year old.

19

His mother, who pre-deceased him, at a ripe old age, by only a few years,

was of Scottish origin, with the respect for knowledge and enthusiasm tor education

common to many of that race. She undoubtedly exercised considerable influence on

her son and fostered his early leanings towards educational pursuits; her devotion and

self-sacrifice were, in later years, repaid by his affection and esteem and by the

knowledge that he had obtained a worthy position in the science which he cultivated.

He entered Armstrong college, as a student in the Day Training

department in 1891, and graduated in 1895 with distinction in Geology. Whilst there,

he came in contact with the late Prof. Lebour, than whom none was more fitted to

inspire the youthful enthusiast in Geology. On leaving College, he was appointed

Science Master at the Valley Road School, Sunderland. In his spare time he pursued

his Geological studies and in 1899, when Lebour was incapacitated for field work,

owing to an accident to his foot, Woolacott was appointed Demonstrator in Geology

at Armstrong College, a post which required him to conduct the field-work on

Saturdays and during the Easter vacation. Later, in 1905, he was transferred to the

full-time teaching staff and continued in that office until the last, rising to be Lecturer

and finally Reader in Geology. He obtained the degree of D.Sc. in 1904, chiefly on

the merits of his investigations in Glacial Geology, and the Geological Society of

London awarded him the Murchison Fund in 1920.

His death, at the comparatively early age of 52, came as a great shock to

his friends, for he looked his usual self a few days before the end. He was operated on

about a year ago for some internal complaint and seemed to recover satisfactorily, but

a recrudescence of the same trouble, when on holiday at Oxford, was found to be

incapable of surgical treatment and he sank rapidly and died on August 4th.

Woolacott was a born field-geologist. Even a brief survey of his published

work would convince one of the enormous amount of close and accurate observation

which he contrived to fit in with his official duties. This does not, however, represent

all, for he travelled extensively in most European countries, and even so far afield as

Jamaica and Canada, in order to broaden his knowledge of his subject and to get fresh

light on problems, upon which he was working at home. On the personal side, his

cheerful disposition made him popular with his colleagues and with a wide circle of

acquaintances, both in Newcastle and Sunderland. He was well liked

20

and admired by his students and was always willing to place his time and knowledge

at their disposal. He gave freely of these, too, to the Natural History Societies in his

native town and elsewhere and, thereby, did much to popularize the study of Natural

History in this district.

Woolacott's original scientific work was closely connected with his place

of residence. Living in Sunderland, his attention was naturally drawn to the Permian

formation, upon which the town is built; to the Carboniferous beds which crop out to

the west and north, and to the Glacial Drift which covers large tracts of both

formations.

His earliest-published observations (1900) were on the most recent beds in

the district, namely, the sands and gravels at the 100 and 140 foot levels, which are

exposed at Fulwell and on the Cleadon Hills. His interest in these never abated and,

nearly 20 years later, he discovered and described similar deposits at Easington,

which were particularly characterized by the abundance of their shell remains. These

beds, universally described at first as Raised Beaches, were afterwards regarded by

some geologists as of fluvio-glacial or interglacial origin. The last word on this

subject has not yet been uttered, but in his latest papers Woolacott maintained that

they are true raised beaches.

The problem of the contour of the pre-glacial surface of the country was

attacked at an early stage. in a very thorough manner, by the study of the numerous

borings and sinkings which have been made in search of coal and which give the data

necessary for such work, namely, the thickness of drift passed through in the shafts or

bore-holes and the height at which the old rock-surface is encountered. The laborious

work of mapping and collating this information was undertaken by Woolacott and the

chief results published in the Journal of the Geological Society, where they became

known to a wide scientific public. As a result of this work, we know, in some detail,

the courses of many of the old streams (Tyne, Wear, Wansbeck, etc.), as they existed

before the coming of the ice and we can trace the changes of drainage which have

happened as the result of the fortuitous deposition of iceborne material.

Later studies in this field enabled the thalweg of the Wash, or pre-glacial

Wear, to be mapped with accuracy and proved that the slope of the old valley was 20

feet per mile, that of the present valley being only 8 feet per mile. The interest

awakened in borings by this work continued and

21

several notes on new borings were published, whereby valuable information

concerning the strata was put on record, which would probably otherwise have passed

into oblivion. A side line to these glacial studies were the attempts to trace the various

cycles of river-development in Northumberland and Durham and to utilize

fundamental geological knowledge to explain geographical problems.

Woolacott’s work on the Permian was perhaps the best known. It dates

from the early days of his geological investigations and the first paper dealing with it

was on the famous section at Claxheugh on the Wear. The disappearance of the Marl

Slate in that section had been accounted for in terms of local unconformity, but

Woolacott ascribed it to erosion, subsequent to deposition of the upper beds, and the

accompanying disturbances as resulting from the collapse of a cavern. This view was

afterwards modified to bring it into line with similar phenomena elsewhere, which

were held to be due to thrusting.

The recognition of thrusting in the Permian beds was the outcome of much

keen observational work and it gave the clue to many of the complicated sections on

the Durham coast and inland. In the course of this work, he revised the classification

of the Permian rocks, studied their tectonics in detail and threw much new light on

the interesting and exceedingly puzzling structures which the limestones display.

Regarded as a whole these investigations stamp the man as an acute observer and

assure his position as a field-geologist of the first rank.

In addition to his original work, Woolacott did much to stimulate interest

in his subject by lecturing to outside bodies and by writing general accounts of local

geology. In the latter connexion may be mentioned a series of articles in The

Sunderland Weekly Echo, entitled "The Rocks Around Us." These were afterwards

(1897) published in book form as "The Geology of North-East Durham." Publications

of a similar nature, appealing more to the serious geologist, were those issued in

connexion with a visit of the Geologists' Association and published in their

Proceedings. Readers of The Vasculum will recall an interesting article from his pen

on the Physiography and Geology of Penshaw Hill, which appeared in 1919 (vo1. v.,

Nos. 1 and 2).

Notices of the Easington Raised Reach of the boring at Roddymoor are to

be found also in our Journal, vol. viii., No. 4, 1922; and vol , ix., No. 3, 1923.

22

Appended is a list of Woolacott's chief publications

The following contractions are used:

N.H.T. Transactions of the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham and

Newcastle-upon_ Tyne.

U.D.P.S. Proceedings of the University of Durham Philosophical Society.

Q.J.G.S. Quarterly Journal of the London Geological Society.

G.M. The Geological Magazine.

P.G.A. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association.

G. J. The Geographical Journal.

On a Portion of a Raised Beach on the Fulwell Hills, near Sunderland. -N.H.T., 1900,

vol. 13; Pt. 2; 165.

On the Boulder Clay, Raised Beaches and Associated Phenomena of the East of

Durham. U.D.P.S., 1900, vol. 1; Pt. 4; 247.

An Explanation of the Claxheugh Section, Co. Durham. N.H.T., 1903, vol. 14; Pt. 2;

213.

The Geological History of the Tyne, Wear and Associated Streams. U.D.P.S., 1903,

vol. 2; Pt. 3; 121.

On Sections in the Lower Permian Rocks at Claxheugh and Down Hill, Co. Durham.

N.H.T., New Series, vol. 5; Pt. 1.

The Landslip at Claxheugh, Co. Durham, September, 1905. N.H.T., New Series, vol.

1; Pt. 3. Superficial Deposits and Pre-Glacial Valleys of the Northumberland and

Durham Coal Field. Q.T.G.S., 1905, vol. 61.

The Pre-Glacial Wash of the Northumberland and Durham Coal Field. U.D.P.S.,

1906, vol. 2; 205.

The Origin and Influence of the Chief Physical Features of Northumberland and

Durham. G.J., 1907, 36.

An Exposure of the 100-foot Raised Reach at Cleadon, 1905-6. U.D.P.S., 1907, vol.

2; Pt. 6; 243.

A Case of Thrust and Crush Brecciation in the Magnesian Limestone, Co. Durham.

Memoir No. 1, U.D.P.S., 1909.

On Borings at Derwenthaugh and Dunston. U.D.P.S., 1909, vol. 3; Pt. 3; 153.

Note on the Structure and Surface Features of a Portion of the Rocky Mountains.

U.D.P.S., 1910, vol. 3: Pt. 5; 327.

The Stratigraphy and Tectonics of the Permian of Durham (Northern Area). U.D.P.S.,

1912, vol. 4; Pt. 5.

Geology of North-East Durham and South East Northumberland. P.G.A., 1912.

The Magnesian Limestone of Durham. G.M., 1919, Dec. 6; vol. 6; 452, 485.

23

Borings at Cotefield Close and Sheraton. G.M., 1919, Dec. 6; vol. 6; 163.

The Highest Coal Measures in the Durham Coalfield (with C.T. Trechmann). G.M.,

1919, Dec. 6; vol. 6,; 203.

Exposure of Sands and Gravels containing Marine Shells at Easington. G.M., 1920,

vol. 57; No. 672; 307.

The Interglacial Problem and the Glacial and Pre-Glacial Sequence in

Northumberland and Durham. G.M., 1921, vol. 58; No. 680; 21, 60.

On the 60-foot Raised Beach at Easington, Co. Durham. G.M., 1922, vol. 59; No.

692; 64.

A Boring at Roddymoor Colliery, near Crook, Co. Durham. G.M., 1923, vol. 60; No.

704; 50.

J. A. S.

CALCAREOUS RINGS IN GLACIAL CLAYS.

In 1895, Gunn and Clough, in their Geological Survey Memoir of the

portion of Northumberland about Wooler and Coldstream, mention the occurrence of

"curious ring-like concretions" in the clay at the Flodden tile works. Twenty five

years later, Mr. L. Hawkes, during one of his visits to Iceland, had his attention drawn

by a native to similar concretions, which are found on the alluvial flats at Hornafjord,

in S.E. Iceland.

Examination of these Icelandic rings and comparison with one from

Flodden, fortunately preserved in the Jermyn Street Museum, have disclosed their

great similarity and a probable identity in origin is indicated. Chemical analysis of

one ring shows the substance to be silt, to the extent of 30 per cent. bound together

with a calcareous cement and the suggestion is made that the deposition of the

cementing material has taken place round small pebbles which, warmed by the sun's

rays, have promoted the decomposition of bicarbonate of calcium, held in solution by

the ground-water. Presumably, removal of the cemented stone, by flood waters, from

a position favourable to the deposition of calcium carbonate would be accompanied

by dissolution of the carbonate and, when this has proceeded for a short time, the

stony nucleus would drop out of position, leaving only the cemented ring.

It is rather remarkable, if this be the explanation, that such rings are not

more frequently encountered, for the conditions must be such as occur in many

localities. No mention is made, in this connexion, of calcreted masses of pebbles

24

which, escaping the somewhat critical conditions necessary, ex hypothesi, for the

formation of the rings, should be found in great abundance.

The subject is probably one which will interest many readers of The Vasculum, and a

short account of it by Mr. Hawkes, illustrated with several excellent photographs, will

be found in the Proceedings of the Geologists' Association for August of this year.

COMMENT AND OPINION.

THE GREEK HAIRSTREAK

Dr. Harrison's record, in The Vasculum. (Antea, p. 107), of his first capture of this

butterfly in North Durham recalls to mind the circumstances under which my brother

and I first captured this butterfly in Yorkshire, which is about forty years ago, and

was a new record for the district. At the time of capture we were crossing a wide

stretch of moorland between Bolton Abbey and Burnsall (Burden Moor to be precise)

in Upper Wharfedale, and found but a single specimen and were surprised to find this

species so far from its then reputed food plant. Since then it has been extending its

range and quite recently has been found on Rombald's Moor and near Saltaire.

E. P. BUTTERFIELD.

LATITUDE AND ITS EFFECTS UPON SIZE OF CLUTCH.

Referring to Mr. Raw's communication (Antea, p. 114) relative to the greater fertility

of birds in their northern breeding haunts as compared with the same species breeding

in more southern latitudes. I have long held the belief that there is much evidence in

support of Mr. Raw's view.

Take one instance in this district. The meadow pipit's clutch is usually

four or five eggs, very seldom six; "Whilst on the Norwegian fells clutches of six, and

even seven, are by no means uncommon. It is, however, needless to add that much

more information is required before the point at issue can be definitely settled.

E. P. BUTTERFIELD,

CHANGES OF BIRD LIFE IN THIS COUNTRY.

Mr. Nicholson, in Cornhill for May, as quoted in Vasculum (Antea, p. 123), states that

the balance of nature is not easily upset, and finds that although we have lost 13 of

our nesting species we have gained no less than 12, and that 44 species have

increased and only 39 less abundant.

25

I fear that the changes in bird life in this district (Wilsden, W. Yorks.) for

the last fifty years hardly corroborate Mr. Nicholson's views. Whilst it may be stated

with certainty that a few birds, such as the starling and house sparrow, have

enormously increased, and the swift to a lesser extent, and a few have held their

ground, the loss has been more than the gain. The hawfinch and the redshank have

increased; but on the other hand the twite, ring ouzel, wheatear, corn bunting,

whinchat, and many others, which might be mentioned, have become decidedly

scarcer. The song thrush and missel thrush which were decimated in 1917 might after

all recover as they did after the winter of 1879-80.

E. P. BUTTERFlELD.

THE COMMON TOAD.

The reference on page 99 (2nd paragraph) of the July, 1924, number of

The Vasculum (Vol. X., No. 4) to the yellowish-white acrid fluid of the large parotoid

glands and pimples covering the body of the toad, reminds me of all occasion when

my fox terrior, scampering about the lawn, came across a toad squatting in the longer

grass at the foot of a cherry tree.

The dog examined it curiously and then evidently proceeded to take it up

in his mouth for he suddenly backed away vigorously shaking his head, and brushing

it on the lawn , the mouth becoming filled to overflowing with a white froth to an

almost alarming extent. When cleared of the froth, and after a drink of water, the dog

appeared none the worse for his experience and, being a very intelligent dog he

returned to the toad and carefully and more closely examined it, but without actually

touching it. Afterwards the dog would lightly and carefully lick the toad, searching

for it in the garden and glass house, and 1 am not at all sure that the toad did not

purposely plan itself where the dog would find it, for they each certainly appeared to

enjoy the licking process.

On once taking up a handful of spawn (1 don't know whether of frog or

toad) 1 noticed it to have a strong musky scent which, however, soon went off.

The dog-" Gem" by name-was an unusually intelligent dog. He always

accompanied me on my "hunting" expeditions, and when sweeping for insects he

would search for insects and bring to me live beetles, daddy long-legs, caterpillars,

wood lice, and even spiders, which he carried in his

26

lips without damage in any way. He would also dig out and bring live hedgehogs,

gripping the spines with his teeth, the lips being kept clear. He knew all my usual

ponds, but when we went into strange land, and I prepared to try for pond life, he

would go off in search of another pond, giving occasional short sharp barks, until I

went over to try it; and this was continued until he saw me packing up, which he

knew as the signal for home.

What a nuisance he was when I stopped by the road side to watch, or

examine some "Bug." His nose was there at once with a "Let me see-let me see,"

worse than any inquisitive child-but how I miss my little chum and companion.

ALFRED W. RYLAND, Lieut.-Col.

CURRENT HAPPENINGS

The new number of the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London

contains many interesting notes. "Protection" is considered in many places, and Professor Poulton

gives a valuable account of the terrifying appearance of the Laternaria flies of South America,

with a plate showing the extraordinary resemblance their large heads bear to those of young

alligators, even the teeth being mimicked. There is also a very interesting discussion of the

attraction of dummy and stuffed animals for tsetse flies, suggesting that the insects find their prey

by sight, and on approaching are attracted or repelled by the scent. Mr. C. B. Williams argues that

some human beings are blessed with an odour which repels mosquitoes and other insects.

Concerning this curious season, Mr. T. Smith of Kendal , writes, "I was at Arnside

on August 2nd, and was astonished to find icarus, astrarche and blandina flying together and all

in good condition, blandina right up to date, the other two a month behind time." A female of E.

autumnaria laid eggs at Hexham in the first week of September, 1923, but no moths are out yet,

in fact some larvae are still (24.IX.24) feeding, although they have been reared indoors.

The Entomologist is rightly concerned about the damage that is being done by

excessive collecting, but can suggest no cure save the development of public opinion. There is

certainly no excuse for the man who kills all he can catch regardless of condition or of the

numberless specimens he already possesses. The Northern Brown (E. aethiops) used to occur in

Durham, but a well-known entomologist now dead remarked, " It is strange; I used to go down

sure of taking 300 to 400 specimens in an afternoon, but now I have hard work to get a dozen "-

and now it is extinct!

The Excavation Committee detailed in our July number continued the investigation

of the Roman fortress at Rudchester (Vindobala) during part of the months of July, August and

September, 1924. Mr. Parker Brewis, F.S.A. being in charge. Three men were employed on the

work.

In July the H.Q. building was investigated and the chapel of the standards with the

treasure vault and the four attendant chambers were opened up. In August a great store-house or

granary some 120 feet long was traced on the west of the H.Q., and on the east of the H.Q.

27

a large and complex hypocausted building covering a large area was very superficially located. In

September fragments of the great west gate on the north side of the modern Newcastle-Carlisle

road were covered with some magnificent masonry, the line of the great Wall under the roadway

on the west of the fortress was located and the site of the small east gate was uncovered.

The smaller finds consist chiefly of pottery, coins, iron and bronze fragments. The

usual Samian ware was not very prevalent, possibly owing to the lower levels being left alone in

the interior of the fortress. The historical data relating to the 2nd century as revealed by the

excavations is of great importance, and a full report of the year's work will be printed in the Arch.

Aeliana for 1925.

The current Transactions of the Northumberland and Durham Natural History

Society have recently been issued, a symptom of returning vitality which gladdens one's eyes. The

outstanding feature is the paper of Dr. Harrison and Mr. W. Carter on Aricia medon and its many

forms. Professor Meek discusses at length the census of east coast crabs. Mr. G. Bolam

contributes a series of botanical notes, a summary of observations extending over some years,

chiefly in the Alston neighbour. The most important item is the record of Galium erectum as an

inhabitant of Northumberland, a very interesting addition to our local flora. Most of the notes

apply to the Cumberland side of the boundary line, but he reports that quite a number of montane

plants are brought down by the river from time to time and flourish, at least for a while, on

Northumbrian ground-including such a confirmed alpine as Saxifraga hynoides.

DARLINGTON AND TEESDALE NATURALISTS' FIELD CLUB.

This energetic society has prepared an attractive programme for the winter and a

lecture on some branch of Natural History will be delivered in the Club's room on the Friends'

School Premises, Skinnergate, at 8p.m. every Tuesday evening. The Club is gradually acquiring

very useful collections and a library, and should be of great value to every naturalist in the

district. The Hon. Sec. is Mr. J. E. Nowers, 6, East Mount Crescent, Darlington.

THE WALLlS CLUB.

July 14th.-Mr. Johnson exhibited pupae of the Holly Blue (C. argiolus) and gave an

account of its life-history.

Dr. Harrison exhibited various moths, Dr. Griffiths an abnormal specimen of

Canterbury Bell, and Mr. H. Sticks white specimens of Rest Harrow from Seaton Delaval.

September 8th.-Mr. Johnson exhibited a Death's Head Hawk-moth captured at

Wooler two years ago whilst endeavouring to enter a beehive, and also imagines of the Durham

Argus (A. medon, v. salmacis) taken near Black Hall Rocks on 4th August of this year. He pointed

out that, judging from observations of flies on the wing and the very numerous ova found on the

food-plants, the Durham Argus seemed to be surviving in that neighbourhood, despite adverse

industrial conditions. An interesting discussion followed.

Mr. Richardson exhibited abnormal specimens of leaves of Sweet Pea, showing a reversion to

leaflets in place of tendrils, and, in another case, an absence of leaflets, only tendrils being

produced.

28

FIELD MEETINGS

19th July.-Owing to the unfavourable transport facilities, the proposed outing to

Lanchester was abandoned. In its place a field meeting was held in the Ravensworth and Beamish

district.

6th September.-The sixth field meeting was held at Prestwick Carr under favourable

conditions, and proved very successful. Botanists we pleased to see that the Marsh Andromeda,

Andromeda polifolia, was still to be found at this place. Amongst birds observed were curlew

redstart, gold crested wren, great tit, blue tit, willow warbler and night-jar. The Small Copper

butterfly was plentiful and a rare form C. phlaeas , v. Schmidtii, was taken. Several larvae were

collected showing that from the lepidopterists point of view, the district is well worth visiting.

The list (supplied by Mr. G. Nicholson) is as follows :-

Notodonta dromedarius L. Iron Prominent. Prevalent.

Odontosia camelina L. Coxcomb Prominent. Prevalent.

Drimonia dictaeoides Esp. Lesser Swallow Prominent. Two

Drepana falcula Schiff. Pebble Hook-tip. Prevalent.

Selenia lunaria Schiff. Lunar Thorn. One only.

Amphydasis betularia L. Peppered Moth. Occasional; about in all.

Cymatophora duplaris L. Lesser Satin Moth. Prevalent.

Saturday, 27th September.-The Seventh Field Meeting, in the district of Budle Bay

and Bamburgh, held jointly with the Natural History Society of Northumberland and Durham was

a whole-day one, though, owing to the distance from Newcastle-on-Tyne, and the lateness of the

season, the actual time spent in field work was less than four hours. In spite of this, the delightful

district and the wonderful weather conditions made it, in many way, an ideal outing. On reaching

Budle Bay, the various sections separated, the ornithologists proceeding along the north shore, the

geologists hurrying towards the rocky part of the coast nearer Bamburgh, and the botanists

devoting their attention to the marshy foreshore near Waren Mill, and working from there along

the southern shore of the bay, round the point towards Bamburgh. The botanical section were

fortunate in having the expert assistance of an honorary member of the club, the Rev. J. E. Hull,

M.A., Vicar of Belford, and also of a member of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Field Club, who

accompanied them round the coast to Bamburgh and whose guidance was much appreciated. As

salt-marsh plant-life was quite new to some of the members present, the help given by these two

experts was of great value. In connection with this Field Meeting, it is worth while pointing out,

that the somewhat long return journey afforded an opportunity for members of the various

sections meeting together and exchanging experiences and results. This is quite in accordance

with the objects of the club, as one of the main objects is social intercourse among actual workers

in Natural History by means of meetings for informal discussion.

This seventh Field Meeting practically completes the summer programme of the club, though the

members, through the courtesy of the Natural History Society, are joining in a Fungus Foray at

Gibside on October 18th.

The members are looking forward to a prosperous winter season and, on behalf of the Committee,

I wish to state that visitors are most welcome at any of the indoor meetings of the club, the first of

which is to be held in the Church Institute, Newcastle-on-Tyne, on Monday, October 20th, at 7.30

p.m.

29

NOTES AND RECORDS.

ARACHNIDA.

ARANEAE. SPIDERS.

The spiders enumerated below were taken on Ross links on at afternoon in mid-

September, chiefly by the sifting of turf-clumps, which was done in the hope of taking

Cnephalocotes tncurvatus Cb. In this I failed, but the accompanying list is given because the

species starred have not hitherto been put on record for vice-county 68.-J. E. H.

*Mengia scopigera, Grube (M. warburtonii Cb.). 68

In clumps of rushes on Ross links; both sexes.

Prsosopotheca monoceros Wid. 68

On previous occasions (always earlier in the year) a few females generally turned up,

but now males were abundant and only a single female appeared.

*Pachygnatha listerii, Sund. 68

A single female on the site of a dried-up pool. The only other local records are for

the Derwent Valley and Hexham neighbourhood

*Pirata hygrophilus, Thorell. 68

This species appears to outnumber P. piraticus on Ross links, and females with egg-

cocoon were quite numerous in boggy depressions.

Lycosa barbipes, Sund. 68

A fine adult male on the sandhills. It occurs, however, all over the links in the dry

sandy places.

*Xysticus ulmi, Hahn. 68

A single female. The species is by no means common in our area.

*Xysticus pini, Hahn. 68

An adult female. Far from common locally, and apparently preferring the hill-

country or the coast region. Mr. H. Egglishaw, however, sent me specimens from Houghton-le-

Spring two or three years ago.

Oxyptila atomaria, Panz. 68

A fine adult pair were taken together. The beautiful cream coloured female is quite

as large as Xysticus ulmi, but the male is much the same size as the males of our other local

Oxyptilae. It is very different from the female in colour, the carapace being ruddy brown, and the

disk of the dorsum similar, contrasting strongly with the creamy-yellow sides of the abdomen.

The species occurs all along the Northumbrian coast-links; less frequently inland, chiefly on the

moors. It should be remarked that in spirit the usual dorsal markings become quite visible on the

male.

*Tegenaria silvestris, K. 68

A single female under a stone in the quarry at Belford Crag-a considerable northward

extension of the range of this species. Dr. Jackson's Tynedale record was until now its "farthest

north."

Porrhomma microphthalmum Cb. 68

Occurs under stones just above high water mark at Budle Bay. Also at Warkworth

and Newbiggin. The proper name of this species is most probably P. reticulatum, Westr.,

described by Westring in 1851 from examples found on the shores of the Baltic. In England

however, according to the localities enumerated by Dr. Jackson; it is very far from being

exclusively maritime.-J. E. H .

30

ACARI-Mites.

GAMASIDAE.

*Glyphopsis formicariae, Lubb. 68

*Trachyuropoda coccinea, Mich.

Belford; the former with Lasius flavus, the latter, as usual with Formica fusca. These

two, very much alike to the naked eye, are the usual red mite to be seen crawling in the passages

of the nests of the ants above-named. They are noted here because until now record for

Cheviotland were lacking.

*Urobovella obovata, C. and B. 68

Belford Moor; at 600 feet, with Formica fusca. Like the examples taken in West

Allendale, these were quite a third larger than the dimensions given by Dr. Berlese. First record

for 68.

*Gymnolealaps elegantulus, Berl. 68

Belford; with Lasius flavus, on Easington Crag. This is the first British record. It is

nearly allied to G. acutus, Mich. (found in Ireland with Myrmica scabrinodis) but easily

recognized by the strong spines on the tarsus of the fourth pair of legs. The size of the local

specimens is much the same as that given by Berlese.

Gamasus kempersii, Oud., et G. immanis, Berl. 68

Budle Bay; in drift weed. immanis is by far the largest of our British Gamasids. Both

species are already on record for the same coast region.

Gamasus anglicus, Hull. 68

For the second time, Mr. H. K. Donisthorpe has sent me examples of this species

taken from ants' nests-this time from a nest of Lasius brunneus, Windsor forest; on a previous

occasion from Woking, but I did not note what ant it was found with, as I had no reason to

suppose that it was anything but an accidental intruder. But the Windsor specimens were

apparently very much at home, for both nymphs and adults were taken.-J. E. H.

LEPIDOPTERA.

H. phlaeas var. Schmidtii. 68

One specimen was taken at Prestwick Carr on September 6th. It does not appear to

have been recorded for Northumberland since Miss Rosie took it at the same place some twenty

years ago.-J. R. JOHNSON.

A. medon var. Salmacis. 66

Abundant in the Durham denes on August 4th, 1924.-J. JOHNSON.

X. citrago. 67

This moth was recorded for Hexham in 1922, and one specimen was taken at the

same place in September, 1924.-F. C. GARRETT.

P. moneta. 67

One specimen at Hexham, August 4th, 1924.-F. C. G.

P. bractea, 68

This moth is so rare in Northumberland that it is worth while to record the capture of

a specimen at Warkworth in August, 1924.G. NICHOLSON.

A few appeared regularly in my garden at Ninebanks Vicarage. year after year, but were not

disturbed except in one season when I took half-a-dozen. J. E. H.] -

31

FLOWERING PLANTS.

Valerianella dentata, Roll. 68

A fine plant appeared in my garden (Belford) on a bank laid bare in excavating to

form a lawn.

Centaurea solstitialis, L. YELLOW STAR-THISTLE. 68

A healthy specimen of this species is also blooming at present in my garden, but this

was without doubt introduced with seeds of annuals.

Centunculus minimus. 68

Though aware that this species occurred on Ross links, I had not the luck to meet

with it until September 22nd in this year, when it was in full fruit.-J. E. H.

COLEOPTERA.-Continued from Vol. X., page 128.

Q. rufipes Gr. Derwent Valley (R.S.B.). 67

Ocypus fuscatus Gr. Rare, Jarrow. 66

Cryptobium glaberrimum Herbst. Tynedale and Whitley (R.S.B.). 67

Medon obsoletus Nord. Near Winlaton (R.S.B.). 67

Stenus carbonarius Gyll. Holy Island. 68

S. flavipes Steph. Gibside (R.S.B.), Corbridge (G.B.W.). 67

S. pubescens Steph. Ovingham, Barnard Castle.. 66, 67

Oxytelus complanatus Er. Jarrow. 66

Trogophloeus corticinus Gr. Winlaton (R.S.B.). 67

Geodromicus plagiatus Heer. ab. nigrita Müll. In a gulley in Chopwell Woods. 67

Lesteva monticola Kies. Winlaton Mill, Chopwell. 67

L. pubescens Mann. Winlaton Mill, Chopwell. 67

Coryphium angusticolle Steph. Ravensworth. 66

Phyllodrepa gracilicornis Fairm. Gibside (H. Donisthorpe). 67

Acrulia inflata Gyll. Birtley (W. C. Sharp), Chopwell, Ovingham (G.B.W.). 66, 67

Leptinus testaceus Müll. Four specimens in nest of field-mouse, Winlaton Mill. 67

Clambus pubescens Redt. Jarrow. 66

C. minutus Sturm. Jarrow. 66

Agathidium laevigatum Er. Derwent Valley (R.S.B.), Brampton (G.B.W.). 67

Blitophaga opaca Linn. Chester-le-Street. 66

Catops coracinus Kell. Hartlepool (J.G.). 66

Stenichnus scutellaris Miill. Rare, Corbridge, Chopwell. 67

S. exilis Er. Ravensworth, Lamesley. 66.

Euthia schaumi Kies. Chopwell Woods. 67

Pselaphus heisei Herbst. Hartlepool, one (J.G.), Gibside, one (R.S.B.). Ravensworth,

one (G.B.W.).

66, 67

Bythinus curtisi Denny. Blaydon (R.S.B.), Ravensworth, Barnard Castle (G.B.W.). 66, 67

Brachygluta fossulata Reich. Hartlepool (J.G.), Ravensworth (G.B.W.). 66

Bibloporus bicolor Denny. Winlaton (R.S.B.), Ravensworth, Whittle Dene (G.B.W.). 66, 67

Pteryx suturalis Heer. Warkworth (R.S.B.), Whittle Dene (G.B.W.). 67, 68

Ptenidium laevigatum Gyll. Gibside (R.S.B.). In numbers in moles' nests Ravensworth

(G.B.W.).

66, 67

Triplax aenea SchaI. Barnard Castle. 66

Cerylon fagi Bris, Ravensworth, Chopwell. 66, 67

Epuraea melina Er. Chopwell. 67

Meligethes aeneus Fabr. A black specimen of this species was swept at

Barnard Castle, August, 1916

66

32

M. serripes Gyll. Barnard Castle. 66

Tenebrioides mauritanicus Linn. In an old corn-mill, Barnard Castle. 66

M. longicollis Gyll. A single example from Winlaton Mill 67

Anommatus 12-striatus Müll. Corbridge (R.S.B.). 57

Cartodere ruficollis Marsh. Abundant in a stack near Gilsland. 67

Corticaria serrata Payk. Jarrow. 66

C. elongata Gyll. Penshaw (Dr. W. J. Fordham). 66

Laemophloeus ferrugineus Steph. Abundant in a corn-mill at Barnard Castle. 66

Henoticus serratus Gyll. One specimen on old sallow bloom, Lintz Ford. 67

Mycetophagus H-pustulatus Gyll. One specimen near Darlington 66

Morychus aeneus Fabr. One specimen, Winlaton Mill. 67

Riolus cupreus Müll. Barnard Castle. 66

Aphodius constans Dufts. Teesdale. 66

Aphodius borealis Gyll. On the moors near Gilsland. 67

Cantharis abdominalis Fabr. ab. cyanea Cust. Common at Westgate in Weardale. 66

Malthinus frontalis Marsh. Winlaton Mill. 67

Cis festivus Panz. Corbridge. 67

Saperda scalaris Linn. One sent to the Hancock Museum from the Tyne Valley near

Riding Mill.

67

C. hyperici Forst. One specimen in flood refuse, Winlaton Mill. 67

Phaedon armoraciae Linn. Not uncommon on Veronica beccabunga at Barnard Castle

in August.

66

L. melanocephalus De G. Barnard Castle. 66

Cassida flaveola Thunb. Brampton. 66

Orchesia micans Panz. Whittle Dene (R.S.B.), Bishop Auckland, Barnard Castle

(G.B.W.).

66,67

Hallomenus binotatus Quens. Warkworth (R.S.B.). 67

Otiorrhynchus sulcatus Fabr. Common in the parks at South Shields. 66

Pissodes pini Linn. Chopwell, Corbridge. 67

Anthonomus inversus Bed. Teesdale. 66

Cryptorrhynchus lapathi Linn. Waldridge Fell (J.W.H.H. G.B.W.). 66

Acalles ptinoides Marsh. Corbridge, in hills of Formica rufa and (R.S.B. and H.

Donisthorpe).

67

Rhinoncus castor Fabr. Winlaton Mill. 67

Eubrychius velatus Beck. Greatham (J.W.H.H.). 66

Litodactylus leucogaster Marsh. Greatham (J.W.H.H.). 66

Ips laricis Fabr. Chopwell (G.B.W.), Gibside (R.S.B.). 67

G. B. WALSH.

NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS.

Subscriptions to Vol. XI., which begins with the present number, are now due. Please do not wait

for a postal application, but send it now. It saves trouble; it saves expense; and the Business

Editor will be very grateful. His address is-Dr. F. C. Garrett, West Croft, Hexham.

THE VASCULUM.

Vol. XI. No. 2. January, 1925.

EDITORIAL.

The Business Editor desires to express his cordial thanks to the

subscribers who promptly acted upon the appeal in our last issue. May we ask those

who have forgotten to do so, to forward their subscriptions now and so save the

trouble and expense of postal reminders? Every little helps in these hard times!

Hearty congratulations to Dr. Blackburn! Her new dignity is well

deserved; and I suppose we are all as proud of her success in cytological research as

we are grateful for her many fresh and interesting botanical contributions to The

Vasculum, especially the valuable record of sexual abnormalities, continued in the

present issue.

I cannot refrain from commending to the attention of our readers the

important article which appears below, by Mr. W. G. Collingwood, on the coming of

the Teutons to Britain. What he has to say concerning the inter-relations of the

Germanic and Celtic races is of the greatest interest. The recent great development of

place-name study has shed no little light on the subject, and when a capable student

with an adequate knowledge of the Celtic element is forthcoming, it is fairly certain

that it will be made clear-at least so far as Northumbria is concerned-that the Britons

were by no means swept away before the Anglian immigration.

For place-name material in Northumberland and Durham, Mawer's book

is the only available reference at present, and in it the Celtic element is largely passed

over, partly because it does not appear much in medieval documents, and partly

because the author seems to assume that a name is Anglian until that assumption is

definitely disproved. Moreover, it should be remembered that there is evidence of the

survival of Celtic names for a while until they were superseded by Anglian

substitutes. Bamburgh is a familiar example. Eglingham and Edlingham received

their present Anglian

34

designations at a still later period, but their original names are not known. Also there

is the acknowledged fact that a vast number of Celtic names vanished, though the

only change they suffered was assimilation to Anglian speech. Rarely can an

individual case be demonstrated, but the fact remains. And all these things strengthen

the view taken by Mr. Collingwood.

I should fall short of my duty to my colleagues and the readers of The

Vasculum if I omitted to express our sympathy with Dr. Harrison in his serious

breakdown in health. It is a great satisfaction to report that his condition is very much

improved, and he actually managed to take his place at the annual meeting of the

Wallis Club.

As it is pretty certain that this present number of The Vasculum will make

a tardy appearance, I venture to ask the indulgence of our public. I feel sure that I

have only to say that the preparation was actually begun in hospital, and I shall be

forgiven.

THE FIRST ENGLISH IN NORTHUMBERLAND.

W. G. COLLINGWOOD, M.A., F.S.A.

The time when the Angles first came into Northumberland has been the

subject of speculation, but a few definite points can be fixed and there is no serious

difficulty in reconciling history with archaeology and philology.

While the Romans still ruled Britain they employed soldiers from the

farther side of the North Sea. Among their auxiliary troops were Batavians at

Carrawburgh and Frixagi, thought to be from Friesland, at Rudchester; a monument

to a Frisian has been found at Cirencester. There were Germanic Tungrians at

Housesteads ancI Castlesteads, Suevians at Lanchester, Dacians at Birdoswald; and

Dagvald, a Pannonian, is commemorated at Cawfields. All these were not Angles or

Saxons, but of kindred races. The way to Britain and what was to be found there was

perfectly well known in Holland and Flanders. Consequently, Saxons from Friesland

began to raid the coasts of Britain as early as A.D. 287 and by 300 it was necessary to

defend the "Saxon shore," the south and south-east coast of Britain. The new

defences were efficient for fifty years or so, but the Saxons took to raiding the coast

north of these forts, and their attacks on Yorkshire resulted in the forts created there

and in many cases destroyed late in the fourth century.

35

After Britain had been left to its fate by the Roman government and

ravaged by Picts and Scots there was little left to tempt raiders on the coasts of

Northumbria. But its defencelessness gave the Saxon pirates, still active, the

opportunity of using for example-Traprain Law as a resort. There, in the old British

hill fort at Dunpeledur, a party who had been plundering in Gaul dumped their

treasure of silver plate about the year 425, intending no doubt to return, possibly to

settle, which fate forbade. But this may perhaps explain legends such as that of Octa

and Ebissa who are said to have taken land in Pictish territory and sailed round

Scotland, in the earliest days of the Saxon settlement.

The first true Saxon settlements were made, according to Mr. Thurlow

Leeds in his Archaeology of the Anglo-Saxon settlements, about 450, by pushing

their boat up the rivers and seizing places favourable for farming. In this way they

went far up the Thames into what must have been unoccupied or very poorly

defended districts, for the settlements are scattered, as of immigrants who had not to

band together for their own defence against hostile natives. A similar process as

begun by the Angles in the Midlands and Yorkshire about 50 years later, as shown by

the evidence of interments dateable by comparative archaeology.

As to whence the Angles came, Bede was right in the main. Old Anglia

was Slesvik, where great cemeteries have been explored, revealing burial urns and

cruciform brooches of types corresponding with those found in Anglian cemeteries in

Britain. The types of the Slesvik cemeteries are a little older than those in the

Midlands and Yorkshire; there was a gap in the history of the development of

Anglian arts between their disappearance en masse on the Continent and their

reappearance en masse here. This gap Dr. Raakon Shetelig has proposed to fill by

suggesting a movement of the Angles about 450 to South Norway where the same

types occur, a little further advanced and bringing their development up to the date of

about 500 with forms similar to those found in England. In an age of migrations it is

not impossible that the Angles were pressed out of their Danish homes and crossed

the narrow sea to Norway; and that after a generation or so found it desirable to look

for homes elsewhere and took boat for Britain.

Then, again, they did not come to Yorkshire as an invading army. If that

had been so, we should find great groups of the earliest cemeteries on the coast for

they would have had to keep shoulder to shoulder to face the British

36

armies. But in fact there is no such evidence. The earliest Anglian remains are found

far up the rivers, widely scattered. They must be the traces of single, separate

boatloads of immigrants who found no opposition to their settlement wherever they

came to open land, that is to say gravel patches among the forested clay of the hills.

In a generation or two, when they had multiplied and coalesced, they formed political

unions and kingdom which they called Deira, having learnt the name from the Briton,

of whom there must have been some left though not enough to prevent this

widespread colonization.

This went on for half a century in Yorkshire before there were Anglians in

Northumberland. There is one Anglian cemetery near Darlington, perhaps an outlier

of the settlers in the vale of York. The land between Tees and Tyne was reputed to

have been all forest and inhabited by wild beasts; this tradition is recorded in the Life

of St. Oswald, and is partly true, at least to the extent that it offered no inducements

to these early farming colonists. And so far, up to the middle of the sixth century,

there are no traces of an Anglian foothold in Northumberland.

In 547 or thereabouts Ida is said to have seized the hill fort called by the

Britons Dinguardi or Dinguaroy in the land already known as Brenneich or Berneich,

the country of the Brigantes, and later Bernicia. One of Ida's successors called this

fort after his wife Bebbanburh, Bamburgh. On this point, as crystals form, Anglian

settlements grouped themselves. There is no reason, archaeologically, for dating these

foundations earlier than the second half of the sixth century; but if recent analysis of

the place-names holds good, many of them can hardly be much later than this period.

I am referring to Professor Ekwall’s study of place-names in -ing and -ingham, in

which he gives such forms an early date, although some instances may be as late as

600 or even a little later. Applying this principle we should suggest that Cleatlam

(Cletlinga) near Barnard Castle and Birling near Warkworth are of the earliest form;

the -inghams, three in County Durham, eleven in Northumberland, and three in

Lothian, represent important family settlements made per-haps in the days of Ida and

his immediate successors. And these are not of the primitive type found in Yorkshire,

but semi-military holdings, formed in face of an opposing power of Britons, and

placed more or less under cover of Bamburgh or with means of retreat to the sea.

Here history steps in to continue the tale. The History of the Britons,

attributed to Nennius and thought to have been

37

written about A.D. 800, tells the story from the British side, but it describes fifty

years of war between Ida and his successors on the one hand and the British king,

Urbgen, Riderch Hen, Guallauc and Morcant on the other. It admits varying success

and a want of cohesion on the part of the Britons, as ee should expect; but it claims

that on one occasion (the date is usually given as 572) Urbgen besieged Lindisfarne,

then called Medcaut, for three days; after which he was assassinated by Morcant out

of jealousy. Then Theodric and, his nephew AEthelfrith began to get the upper hand,

and the Celts, as Bede tells us, were finally discomfited at Degsastan (AD. 603) and

Anglian Northumberland was left free to develop.

Now as to the life of the earliest Angles we have as yet very little

information from Northumberland. A number of relics, from the cruciform brooches

of about 500 found at Corstopitum onwards, can be quoted, and the state of continued

war suggests that the settlements must have been more or less defensible. The list of

earth-works recently given by the Messrs. Hedley and some described by Mr.

Thomas Ball in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle- upon-

Tyne, may include some which conceal Anglian remains. But so far as the surface

indications show, they are of a later type than primitive Saxon villages known in the

south; and indeed they ought to be so, if they were founded a hundred years later. We

await skilled exploration. But in the meantime we may refer to the recent digging of a

Saxon village in Berkshire, described by Mr. Thurlow Leeds in the last Archaeologio.

A dozen little houses, set in a row; the rest either destroyed by previous

gravel-digging or not yet found. Each house less than 20 feet in length, roughly

oblong in plan, but very irregular. It seems that the builder began by digging for a

foot and a half to get a gravel floor; then set up a post at each end to carry the roof-

tree and sometimes posts to the side walls, which were built up of mud and straw (not

wattle and daub). The floors were sometimes flagged; in one flag there is the hole on

which the doorpost turned. The roofs are gone, but were no doubt thatched. In the

floor are sometimes pits for storing grain; sometimes the pits are outside. In one

house there is a small pit in a recess, used for cooking, and in most house are hearths,

though a cooking-pit is also to be seen out of doors. The cooking was done, partly at

least, by boiling up clay pots with hot stones; but on the hearths they also made pots

and carried on the work of smiths. A crucible and hones various tools and iron slag

were found in them. Beside their own pottery they used vessels carried off from

38

Roman sites; there are Roman villas not far away, and this suggests the early date.

But the date is more certainly fixed by an equal-armed brooch of A.D. 450 or earlier,

with the boss worn by long use, showing that these houses were inhabited in the

second half of the fifth century. The occupations of the inhabitants are shown also by

a cow-bell, spinning whorls and weaving tools. Remains of ivory bracelets and metal

brooches suggest their dress and ornaments. In some such way the earliest Angles in

Northumberland must have lived; not only by fighting, but as farmers, smiths,

weavers and rude backwoodsmen colonists-a rough kind of people.

Now the wonder of their history is that in no more than a hundred years

they developed from these primitive circumstances to a nation not only powerful in

war but able to produce men and women such as the early Anglian saints and clerics,

poets and writers, artists and artificers of the period of Wilfrid and onwards to Bede.

At the same time the kindred tribes, left on the continent, made no such progress, but

were still in barbarism when missions from Northumbria went across the sea to suffer

martyrdom in their efforts to Christianize and civilize them. The reason for this rapid

development is to be found, I suggest, in the cross-breeding of the Angles with

Britons.

By explorations (Ewe Close near Crosby ravensworth, Westmorland, and

Urswick Stone Walls, Furness) we know something of the life of the Britons where

they lived not in Romanized towns but in the distant country. Some of their

settlements certainly outlasted the Roman rule, for remains at places named Walton,

the Anglian Walatun, "Welsh- men's farm," show that Britons still occupied the sites

when the Angles came. In such sites we have found stone-built round houses, as

against the mud-built Saxon cottages; some houses up to 50 feet diameter, well

walled and floored with flags; all the signs of farming and other rural industry, and

remains of Roman pottery and ornaments. Even at their poorest the Britons appear to

have been somewhat superior in means of life to the Anglo-Saxon first-comers; and

though they had been brought low by invasion and continual attacks of barbarians,

they retained some of the culture they had learnt from the Romans. It is probable that

they were in a measure, Christian. They had added to their native, late Celtic arts the

power to carve passably in stone; for the Corstopitum Lion and the Carrawburgh

Goddesses are British, not Italo-Roman art. They failed in military power through

want of organization, but they retained the traditions of civilized life, for they had

been members of the Roman Empire.

39

It is obvious that they were not swept away by the Angles. Otherwise, how could the

Angles have adopted so large a proportion of British place-names? We know about

thirty names of streams and rivers; a number describing natural features; several

"chesters" keeping their pre-Anglian titles; a few inhabited places also with british

names suggesting that in Northumberland and Durham, as on the western side of

northern England, Britons were not exterminated but mixed with the Angles. And as

we find Walton, for example, in Cartmel, we find Wallington in Northumberland and

Walworth in County Durham, probably meaning villages where Welsh remained after

the Angles had settled round them.

If we ask whether Angles would intermarry with the natives, the answer is

at hand. King Oswiu had as first wife, Riemmelth, daughter of Royth, the son of

Rum, a British princess. His brother Eanfrith married a Pictish princess, whose Son

Talorgan became King of the Picts. What royalty did must have been done by the

people at large; and the intercourse must have been greatly favoured when Oswald

came back from Iona in 634 and introduced Celtic clergy. Everything points to a

fusion of the races in the first half of the seventh century, followed by the general

uplift of tile second half. It is true that Wilfrid and Benedict Biscop brought foreign

artificers and models for their great works, but the styles they introduced took root

and their work was carried on by the Angles. No teaching is of any use unless it is

met half way; and the receptivity of the Northumbrians shows that they were not the

rude folk who first came over, but a new race blended of Briton and Angle. They

were the English.

The centre and focus of all this movement was in the land between Tees

and Tyne-at Hexham, Jarrow and Monkwearmouth to begin with, and in many other

places later. That is precisely the district where the British element was strongest at

first; where the Angles did not settle for a generation after they seized the coast of

Northumberland and Lothian, but remembered in their tradition that wild beasts lived.

But among the wild beasts were British villages, more persistent in their survival than

was usual, North of the Tyne, more thickly dotted over the map, and still to this day

known by their British names. It is not to be thought that the Celts, left. alone, could

have produced the age of Bede; they did not do so in Wales; but neither could the

Teutons, who did not do so in Germany. Here nature found the right proportions for

the mixture which created the golden age of the earliest English history, in the land

between Tees and Tyne.

40

ALIEN PLANTS.

BENJAMIN MILLARD GRIFFTIHS, D.Sc., F.L.S.

Read before the Northern Naturalists' Union.

The subject of alien plants appears at first sight to be of little interest to

the field botanist, but nevertheless the study of these intruders into the native flora

leads to results which are of great significance in connection with the relationship of

plants to then habitats and the origin of present-day floras.

Some plants are alien in every sense, for instance the blooms of our hot-

houses, but other plants, such as the large majority of our garden flowers, are aliens

which can for the most part adapt themselves to our climate though they are incapable

of competing against the local flora outside the garden. Most of our familiar garden

blooms are complete strangers and have come from afar.

The hyacinth was brought from Aleppo to Holland about 1526, and was

cultivated in England about 1590. The tulip came from Persia to Constantinople

about 1550, and about 1679 was brought to Holland where its cultivation became a

craze. The chrysanthemum came from the Far East about 1764, the Fuchsia from

Chili in 1788, and the Dahlia from Mexico in 1789, while the ever-popular

"geranium"-really Pelagonium-came from the Cape in 1792. The wallflower,

narcissus and crocus all come from Southern Europe, and America supplies us with

the aster, sunflower and hollyhock. Our garden vegetables are also foreigners, the

potato is Peruvian, cabbage is probably from Southern Europe, and the latter region is

the home of sage, parsley, lettuce, onion, and leek. The carrot and parsnip do occur

native, but the cultivated varieties probably came from Southern Europe too. Apart

from the potato, which was brought to Europe about 1575 or so, our vegetables and

pot herbs are mostly gifts from Roman or pre-Roman civilisation, while it is probable

that many 'were introduced by the various orders of monks from the 11th century

onwards, and some may have been brought back by the Crusaders.

Wheat, barley, oats, bean and vetch were cultivated long before the dawn

of history and no one knows where they come from, or what may be their wild state.

Man gathered them from the wild, ages ago, they are man's creation, and like man

himself, their place of origin is not known and can only be surmised.

Some aliens, however, do not depend on man for their existence, but have

carved out a new homeland for themselves. The Canadian water-weed arrived in

Ireland it is

41

supposed about 1836. Some was sent to Cambridge in 1847, and from that centre

spread in every shallow waterway and pool in the country. The plant reached Kent in

1855, Baker and Tate record it for the Aln and a stream near Marsden in 1865, and in

1871 it was in Cornwall. It reached Belgium in 1860, Germany in 1865, and Austria

about 1880. At first it was a terrible pest, owing to its profuse growths choking up

shallow rivers and pools, but nowadays it is less vigorous. Curiously enough it

spreads exclusively by fragmentation and budding, because it is a monoecious plant

and only one sex occurs in this country.

The majority of our hedgerow plants are aliens, and so are most of the

familiar weeds of cornfield and garden. The poppies only grow really wild in dry and

hilly parts of Southern Europe. The white and purple deadnettles, like our own native

yellow deadnettle are plants of damp woods, their homes being in Spain, North

Africa, Asia Minor and the Himalayas. The corn buttercup with its spinous fruits, and

the penny cress, are both supposed to come from Central Asia, the white campion

from hilly woods in Southern Europe, and the corn spurrey from the sandy shores of

the Mediterranean. In this country not one of these familiar plants could exist outside

the purely artificial habitats of field, garden and hedgerow. They are the hangers-on

of agricultural civilisation, and they have followed agricultural man as he has drifted

westward from Asia. For that matter they have accompanied him round the globe and

are just as common in American and Australian fields. In fact some are entirely

unknown outside cultivated ground, for instance, shepherd's purse, charlock or runch,

goosefoot and sun spurge.

An exceedingly interesting group of plants is to be found among those

native plants which are very much commoner in artificial habitats than in their native

haunts. Chickweed is perhaps the commonest of all weeds of cultivated ground, but

its natural home is on the ground beside trees and springs where the trampling feet of

horses and cattle prevent the growth of anything but rapid growing, quick seeding

ephemerals. The groundsel too, occurs naturally only on broken ground such as the

sandy ground among the dunes at Cambois, or in landslips, but it fairly revels in

artificially broken ground and well deserves its ancient Anglo-Saxon name of

"ground swallower." Herb Robert swarms in hedge sides, but its natural home is on

screes or old shingle beaches , such as the one on the extreme south-east side of Holy

Island. Holy Island, too, shows us the sow thistle at home on the shifting sandy

ground just beside and beyond

42

the golf-course, though it is much more plentiful inland on every hedgeside.

This group of plants directs our attention to the fact that within any given

temperature range, the home of a plant is simply the particular kind of ground which

suits it. Geographically the Herb Robert may be an alien in hedges, but physically the

plant is quite at home there. The white deadnettle is an alien geographically, but

wherever it find a good rich soil, similar to that of its native haunts beneath the forest

edges of the south and east, it is physically at home, and shows it by its vigorous

growth. The wallflower, the snapdragon, the ivy-leaved toad flax and the house leek

all come from the rocky places of Southern Europe. It so happens that our rocky lands

are usually bleak mountain slopes, very chilly and forbidding compared with the

sunny south, so these plant colonise the nearest thing to their natural home, and grow

happily on sunny wall or sunny quarry faces. The wallflower grows wild on the old

walls of Holy Island and on the face of Marden Quarry near Cullercoats, and the

snapdragon is to be found on many a wall top around the Cathedral gardens at

Durham.

Plants therefore are native not only to a particular kind of climate but to a

particular kind of soil, and outside that range of temperature and rainfall or that

quality of ground, the plant is an alien in the physical sense. Thus in the physical

sense a butterwort is an alien in a cabbage patch, and so is a foxglove in a marsh,

however "native" they may be in the geographical sense. It appears therefore, that a

plant may become a physical alien by a change in the character of the soil in which it

is growing or the atmosphere in which it is bathed. As a rule these changes are slow,

particularly in the case of highly cultivated lands like our own, where stable soil

conditions are artificially maintained, but nevertheless these changes do occur. The

floras of Winch, and the later one of Baker and Tate, do not by any means show the

flora of to-day, and there is a great need for energetic field botanists to trace out the

changes which have occurred and to try and track down their causes. Some plants

which were once "native" in every sense, have become physically "alien" to their

changed habitat, and they have disappeared, while others perhaps have come in.

Almost any natural habitat shows a slow ebb and flow of plant life. Not

only may the habitat be changing but the vegetation itself, by its own natural growth,

may be changing the quality of the soil in which it flourishes, and may therefore be

inviting other plants to enter. Careful observations

43

and mapped records, extending over several years will demonstrate these changes.

Once the first detailed map has been made, the subsequent records need only be taken

at fairly long interval. Observations of this type yield very useful information from

the scientific point of view, and, what is more, they give to the patient observer a new

vision of the familiar countryside, and he sees that the Earth's green mantle is not still

but that it slowly ebbs and flows like the changeful sea.

A BASALTIC CRAG IN SPRING.

J. E, HULL.

Travellers by the North Road will know well the steep ascent (known to

natives as the North Bank) by which they leave Belford on the way to Berwick. The

gradient is something like 1 in 50; and possibly some motorist when changing gear

may wonder why there should be so sharp a rise in a comparatively fiat country. At

the very moment there lies, fifty yards or so to his left but quite out of sight, a quarry

which would speedily enlighten him if he chanced to know anything about the road-

material commonly used in the county, and whence it is obtained. The quarry is at

present occupied only by jackdaws, but there still remain large heaps of whinstone,

literally ready for the road.

When the traveller emerges into the open at the summit level of the road

(marked 278 feet on his road-map) he may, if taste constrain and leisure permit, halt

and admire one of the most striking scenes in Northumberland. He will find himself

pretty near the middle of what seems to be a continuous ridge sweeping round in a

crescent to Budle Point which limits his view both of sea and land away to the east.

Seen from this view-point one could easily imagine it to have been the ancient coast

of a noble bay until some upheaval of the land brought the flats of Fenham, Elwick,

Ross, and Holy Island above the level of the blue waters. But a birds-eye view such

as the airman get who travel this way would suggest something much nearer the truth.

To them it must appear like a broken roller on a gently shelving beach, suddenly

petrified, preceded to the north-west of Belford by two or three other lesser waves.

Petrefaction of what was once liquid it certainly is; for this is part of the great Whin

Sill. Further explanation in that direction I must leave to the geologists.

44

We leave our motorist and entering the pasture on the left ascend the gradual slope to

the crest of the crag-known in Belford as the "Crags," and much frequented on

Sunday afternoons. If we follow the hedge we shall presently find ourselves on the

brink of the quarry, at the oldest part of the workings, where the face of the rock is

draped with ivy and fringed above with broom. The angle here between the quarry

and the natural cliff face is still known by the ancient name of Groga-an old Celtic

name meaning the heathery place; but the heather is gone. Here until the end of the

18th century stood a private chapel, originally of Baron de Muschamp.

From this point the ridge swings eastward without out- crop, dipping all the way till it

reaches the level of the railway and stream at Cragmill. In the other direction it runs

north-west, rising very gradually to reach its highest point near its farthest extremity.

A few yards from our starting-point as we follow this crest, is the site of a British

camp, the outline of which is now hardly discernible. There is another, more easily

traceable, at the farther end of the ridge. As one paces the intervening space, the

outlook on either hand is most striking, On the left one gazes over the tree-tops to the

cultivated fields and green meadows some 130 feet below, and may follow with the

eye as they ascend for a couple of miles or so to the parallel sandstone ridge which

shuts out all beyond save the purple summits of Hedgehope and Cheviot. East-ward

the chord of our basalt arc is the blue horizon of the sea, and within the radiant

segment lies a territory as famous as any in the British Isles in the annals of Natural

History, seeing that it includes Fenham Flats, Ross Links, and Budle Bay, with Holy

Island and the Farnes beyond.

But, as every botanist knows, this basaltic crescent, the last section of the great Whin

Sill towards the North, has itself an honourable place in the history of local botany.

But it is the extremities-Kyloe Crags on the one hand, Bamburgh and Spindle stone

on the other-which figure in the records: the intervening crags at Middleton, Belford

and Easington, have no specialities and are usually passed over without remark. Yet

this absence of the exceptional makes them all the more typical; for which reason I

have ventured to put together these few notes on the aspect of one of them in the

freshness of its spring garb.

The Belford "bell "-in modern tongue "the Crags" -to an observer on its summit

appears like an ordinary "hog-back" ridge, masked as it is by woodland on its

precipitous side. The top is more or less flattened, but very

45

uneven, with bosses of rock peeping through the short sward in every direction, each

enclosed in a dry summer by a ring of brown sun-seared grass-" because it lacked

moisture" and "had no deepness of earth." But the rest remains wonderfully green,

because the hollows in the rock surface beneath hold a store of water. Where the

slope begins there are also alternations of dry and moist, the latter the oozy overflows

of the hidden waters above. The general result of these conditions is a dwarfed

herbage such as one finds on the coast links; indeed, at the first break of spring, the

earliest tiny blossoms which dot the sward with points of white are precisely the same

which lead the way in the water-logged hollows of Ross links, to wit, Montia fontana

and diminutive specimens of Cerastium triviale, neither of them an inch above the

surface of the soil. Before April is over, a touch of blue is added by Viola silvatica,

Veronica arvensis, and Myosotis collina, all reduced in size as on the coast-links or

on the chalk hills of Bedfordshire and elsewhere. Reds are represented by the

ubiquitous Geranium molle, and in the driest places, especially towards the edge of

the cliff, by Erodium cicutarium. Yellow is supplied in plenty by the ragged fringe of

gorse which follows the rim of the cliff, reinforced later (just below the rim!) by a

few odd patches of the paler broom. But on the sward there is none, till Trifolium

minus appears to make good the omission.

But it is May which brings the most characteristic and beautiful of our

whin-crag blooms-Saxifraga granulata. At first sight it is difficult to realize that it is

the same species one met with in the meadows and groves of Allendale and

elsewhere, for here the "single spies" are replaced by full battalions-of "bantams"; for

very rarely indeed does an individual plant exceed three inches in height.

Occasionally you may find platoons of skirmishers in extended order, but generally

they affect a close formation, making conspicuous white patches on the greensward.

Though thus reduced in size, the plant is by no means lacking in vitality; indeed it

seems more sturdy than the normal form, for the blooms are invariably quite upright,

never inclined or drooping. There is no doubt that they prefer moisture, and flourish

abundantly in the wettest of oozy places; yet prosperous colonies occur on the driest

of hummocks, along-with such things as Draba verna. The latter plant, in this region

where convention has slackened its hold, so far forsakes its regular habit, that it

accompanies the Saxifraga into the wettest of oozes; and on Easington Crag I have

seen it this wet spring growing happily in the oozy overflows with its rosette of

leaves covered by an inch or more of water.

46

Another most interesting companion of the Saxifraga is Moenchia erecta.

Being an annual, it also is more or less gregarious. But for that and its glaucous hue,

it might very easily be passed over, because the flowers when closed (which is their

usual state !) very closely simulate the flowering spike of certain dwarf grasses.

Wherever the rock shows itself above the sward,' the scanty soil upon it is

invariably claimed by Alchemilla arvensis, The only flowering plant which dares to

challenge it is the tiny Cerastium triviale, but the dwarfed rosettes of Polytrichum.

piliferum and P. juniperinum are seldom absent. Not so plentiful as any of these but

more characteristic is Sagina subulata, which prefers a crevice of the rock, if any

such thing is available. The more commonly distributed sister species-S. apetala and

S. procumbens- are more at home among the grass. These bare patches are also

invaded by certain ubiquitous species which seem to care little what the habitat may

be like-dry or moist, exposed or sheltered, sunny or shaded. Among these are Draba

verna, Sedum acre (not yet in bloom, of course), and Geranium molle.

In the drier areas, where yet the grass is not liable to be scorched, a gleam

or two of purple may catch the eye. It is the solitary bloom of the little Vicia

lathyroides, and the plant itself will be found interwoven with the grass. The lighter

purple of Sherardia arvensis also appears here and there, but it seems to prefer a little

more moisture, and therefore often keeps company with Saxifraga granulata on the

oozy slopes. Dotted about in the drier places, in little groups of two or three, is

Myosotis versicolor, usually with three tiny blooms open at a time, two having

attained the mature blue, the third and youngest still at the creamy- yellow stage. In

this, of course, it is quite normal, and so is its stature-perhaps because it finds the

physical conditions not so very unusual.

Here on this Belford Crag, most of the botanical interest is confined to the

crown of the ridge which we have been exploring. The fare of the cliff, shadowed by

tree-tops, hardly, shows a blossom below the fringe of gorse until a broom or two

breaks into yellow in May. Later, the foxgloves, heather (Erica cinerea), wood sage,

golden rod, and a few hawkweeds will appear; also, where the rock happens to be

more open to the sun, Senecio silvatica, Ivy is never wanting, and about the foot of

the cliff spindle-tree, holly, and elder find a congenial home. None of these have

much of a greeting- to offer in spring, but if the plants fail us for the time, this

47

particular region at the head of the talus, immediately adjacent to the foot of the cliff,

need not be a blank altogether. As a matter of fact. my first visit to the spot yielded

two very satisfactory finds, one a new record for the vice-county, the other a new

British record.

It was in April, 1923, and finding the rocks overhead a botanical blank, I

set to work on the loose stones at the foot. The first stone I lifted had a fine specimen

of the false scorpion Chernes dubius under it. Yet the capture was by no means

surprising, for the habitat was just of the very character that the animal prefers; the

surprise came afterwards, when stone after stone yielded additional examples in all

stages of growth. To come upon as many as half-a- dozen at one time would be quite

unusual; here there were scores.

Further search revealed nothing of any consequence, only the commonest

species of spiders and mites; but on another occasion, starting from the other end of

the cliff, I found under a stone in the pasture below "Groga" a still more interesting

creature. This was a mite of the Thrombidiid family, commonly called "scarlet

mites," as red of some shade or other is the predominating colour. My new find,

however, was altogether exceptional, being thickly clothed with feathery hairs of pure

white. The shape of the body indicated that it was a Trombicula-a genus previously

unknown in Britain-and on examination it turned out to be T. canestrinii Buffs.

However, so far as I know, there is no special relation between these

creatures or any of their zoological neighbours and the character of the underlying

(and overlying!) rock. Any such relation between insects and other beasts with the

basalt will no doubt be indirect, through the plant-hosts with which they are

associated. I merely mention these two instances because in my own mind they are

inseparably connected with the place.

In conclusion, it ought to be pointed out that the whole upper surface of

the crag (to which these notes chiefly apply) is a sheep pasture, well cropped. There

are also numberless rabbits and the closely trimmed furze is a clear indication that

their presence is not without its effect upon the herbage. One result is that the

common rock-rose (Helianthemum vulgare) can only maintain a very precarious

footing in one or two places. On other crags-as at Craggy Hall close by, and Swinhoe

Ponds a mile away-where sheep are excluded and rabbits less numerous, the rock-

rose flourishes luxuriantly.

48

SNOW IN SUMMER-THE LARCH "BLIGHT."

(The late) C. ROBSON.

While staying at Hexham during the month of June, 1868, which was

remarkably hot and dry, I was one day greatly surprised and interested on seeing a

number of larches, growing at the top of a wood that clothed a steep acclivity facing

northwards, covered with what, at a little distance, looked like snow-just as though a

smart shower had fallen overnight and yet remained, notwithstanding that overhead

was an unclouded sun from whose powerful rays the rambler was fain to seek shelter,

and the hedges around were all aglow with the blossoms of the wild rose and honey-

suckle, the fields beautiful and odorous with flowers of varied hue and smell whose

scent was sweetly mingled with the fragrance of new-mown hay: whilst insects

winged incessantly past-the bee with swift, direct and musical flight, the gaily

sporting butterfly, and, occasionally, the fluttering lacewing fly with its wonderfully

delicate gauzy wings and appearance so fragile that a cold breath would seemingly

chill to congealing the fluids circulating in its slender body and limbs;-all were

strikingly in contrast with this wintry-looking mantle presented to view. However, on

examining a few twigs plucked from the lower branches of some of these larches, this

snowy mantle resolved itself into a white downy substance clothing a host of aphides

or plant lice, small, wingless and almost black in colour. On disembodying them from

their snowy coverlet, I found many to have a drop of a pellucid viscid liquor attached

to the apex of their abdomen, and evidently exuding therefrom. The twigs and leaves

thus infested were also covered with a viscid substance, which I supposed would be

the natural resinous sap of the tree exuding from wounds made by the aphides and

also their emissions-the so-called "honey-dew," of which many insects are so fond.

Notwithstanding the excessive heat and drought existing during the

greater part of this month-and up to the 20th little or no dew formed on the grass, and

no rain fell, in the neighbourhood-the winds were quite cool. This state of the weather

is generally acknowledged to be highly favourable to the generating of aphides,

owing to the juices of trees and plants becoming more sacaharine, than they would

under greater moisture and a less unclouded sky, and thus supplying these insects

with a plentiful and, without doubt, an enjoyable repast, conducive to rapid growth

and copious reproduction. These hosts of aphides, too, in this

49

instance, would, I am inclined to think, have little to fear from carnivorous insects,

which would probably pay the penalty of affixation for life in their attempted forage

on these domains, by reason of the birdlime-like tenacity of the exudations and

emissions upon both the twigs and the leaves: and parent ladybirds and hoverer-flies,

as well as the lacewing flies, that should, in their instinctive desire of propagating

their species, attempt henceforth to lay their eggs upon these trees so that their young

might be born in the midst of their prey, would meet with a similar fate. Ants, too,

whose penchant for cultivating a close acquaintance with the aphis-tribe for benefits

received in the form of the sugary liquor (honeydew) they emit-and which has been

amusingly likened to the tending and milking of flocks and herds-is so remarkable,

would also find an almost insurmountable barrier to the desired intimacy, though

their perseverance and ingenuity are perhaps unequalled amongst insects, and even

should they succeed there still would remain the necessity of unclothing these

diminutive milk yielders. From these same causes insectivorous birds, too, would

probably to some extent, if not entirely, avoid them, so that, unlike many of their less

favoured congeners, they would be comparatively free from the numerous casualties

to which the whole tribe are subject under ordinary conditions.

But, say you, what i an Aphis or plant louse? Well, it is a homopterous

(similar-winged) insect; that is, an insect with four wings, the two upper of which,

though they may differ in texture from the two under ones, are yet uniform in their

structure throughout, and not as in the familiar plant bugs, which are heteropterous

(different-winged) insects, partly coriaceous and partly membranous. In the Aphis

they are wholly membranous, and in that respect similar to the two under ones.

Moreover, the various part of the mouth are developed into a stout rostrum or beak,

which the Aphis plunges into the tender tissues of the plants it infest and sucks up

their juices, frequently to the great injury or even the complete blighting of them; and

it is further very remarkable indeed uniqu. in its manner of reproduction. During the

Spring and Summer it, as a rule, brings forth its young alive, and this without any

pairing, generation succeeding generation and bringing forth in like manner. But, in

the autumn, there are developed perfect oviparous or egg-laying females with

corresponding males; these pair, and fertile eggs are deposited survive the Winter,

and hatch out in Spring, when the viviparous or young-bearing females again come

upon the stage and the cycle of existence goes on as

50

before. It is the detested "green fly" and" blight" of the gardener and horticulturist;

and, in the North of England, the winged forms are now sometimes known by the

popular name of cholera flies," having received this title from the fact that great

numbers were prevalent during at least one of the visitations to the north of that

terrible scourge, the Asatic cholera. And, no doubt, many will have noted the

circumstance that during the close sultry weather which sometimes prevails in the

autumn, when the atmosphere is murky and still, that it literally swarms with the

winged Aphides which, notwithstanding their ample organs of suspension, have a

very fatuous flight and prove especially annoying to the pedestrian by getting into his

eyes and blinding him. Such atmospheric conditions-when the air is murky, sultry and

still, when in fact, it is in a state of stagnation, and is heated and clogged with noxious

exhalations and vapours-are just the sort for the spreading of epidemics, keeping

down as they do near the ground those noxious effluvia and vapours which too

frequently carry with them the germs of disease and death.

There is little question that these Aphides were of the species Chermes caricis, the

Larch Aphis or Blight; since their ova were abundantly present beneath the snow-

white downy covering along with them, in groups of from twelve to sixteen in

number, each ovum or egg being fixed at the apex of a short slender stalk or pedical,

this species of Aphis being an exception to the rule that the spring and summer

broods bring forth their young alive as well as an illustration of the fad that there are

no hard and fast lines throughout Nature's domains.

BIRDS IN UPPER REDESDALE.

R. CRAIGS.

An article on "Birds in Upper Redesdale " appeared in April number of

the Vasculum, 1922, and having kept a stricter observation and given more careful

study to the subject since that time, I now make some corrections and give a few

additional notes. The species of duck referred to in the article as the "White-winged

Hugh," is the Tufted Duck and the Buzzards were Common Buzzards. The Wheatear,

Whinchat, Marsh Tit, Golden Plover, Reed Bunting and Snow Bunting were omitted.

Members of the Warbler family were not specified. The following I have seen in the

district: - Whitethroat, Lesser Whitethroat, Garden-Warbler, Blackcap, Grasshopper-

Warbler, Reed-Warbler

51

Sedge Warbler Aquatic-Warbler, Willow Wren, Chiff-Chaff and Wood Wren. The

Grasshopper-Warbler was here in the Summer of 1915, but I have not seen nor heard

it about the district again. I saw the Aquatic-Warbler in a garden at Byrness on the

26th August, 1923. When first seen at a distance I thought that it was a Sedge-

Warbler, but on approaching closer to it, I saw that the cheeks and eye stripe, were

buffer than those of the Sedge-Warbler, and that it had a central buff-streak on the

crown.

Siskins and Twite are occasional autumn visitors. During the latter half of

November and beginning of December, 1923, a Hawfinch (female) haunted the

woods and fed on the wild cherry seeds. Greenfinches are still very scarce about here.

A pair however, nested in the grounds and reared broods in 1920 and 1924. A pair of

Linnets also nested and reared a brood in 192l.

Early in 1922 a pair of Great Snipes frequented the marshes in Ramshope

and till the spring of that year a pair of Greenshanks haunted the river for a few days.

Of late years Oyster-catchers have been frequently seen and I have reason to believe

that a pair nested somewhere in the district last season. In the springtime members of

the Tern family sometime settle here for a few days.

Slavonian and Black-necked or eared Grebe have been taken here. I saw a

specimen of the latter in the river on 16th November, 1924, and from the 4th

December until the 8th a Great Crested Grebe settled on the reservoir. I am informed

by the boatman that a pair of Great Crested Grehe. nested in the reservoir some years

ago. The site of the nest was in a favourite fishing bay and owing no doubt to

frequent disturbance by the boats the birds deserted their nest containing three eggs.

The Merlin was omitted from the list of falcons and it may be of interest

to say that the Peregrine Falcons nested at Chattlehope Spout in May. 1920. but were

ill-fated.. Of Nocturnal birds we have the Barn Owl Tawny Owl Long-eared Owl and

Short-eared Owl.

Several Nightjars were observed in the district last season. The remnant of

natural forest in Deadwood in the habitat of the Great Spotted Woodpecker.

52

ROMAN STATIONS IN THE NORTH.

J. E. HULL. '

The publication in 1924 of a map of Roman Britain with the imprimatur of

the Ordnance Survey challenges some comment on the identification of North

country stations set forth so to speak, with official authority. There is good ground, of

course, for the nomenclature adopted-as is stated in the booklet attached to the map,

for it is based on the most recent papers (1923, 1924) of Haverfield and Collingwood.

But these acknowledged experts found their conclusions on the very fragmentary

circumstantial evidence which is available at present; so I think it is not amiss to

present another point of view. Investigation of the various sites is still proceeding, if

only very slowly, and as time goes on the fuller information thus obtained may be

expected to help to a final decision where at present there is a difference of opinion.

It is not possible to press the Celtic etymology of the names, since it is

usually conjectured; but occasionally it gives an indication which cannot be ignored.

Uxellodunum is a case in point. The first element, I think, must certainly be collated

with Welsh uchel , high. The medial guttural is quite naturally rendered by "x," where

the syllable happens to be accented. Moreover, the element reappears in Gaul where

this meaning is appropriate and where there is no stream. Consequently it is quite

impossible to accept the identification of Uxellodunum with Maryport to which place

it is allocated in the new map.

However, I have not set out to criticize in detail but rather to present

another view namely, the most probable conclusions the which can be drawn from the

available documentary evidence.

l. The Antonine Itineraries, which include three lines of communication

extending northward into the region of the wall.

2. The Ravenna geographer, who gives lists of names which seem to be

copied from a map of more or less pictorial form, so that the names may be taken as

given consecutively without being confined to' any particular road or other definite

connection.

53

3. The Notitia Dignitatum, an official list of camps, with their garrisons, as

they were during the later period of the Roman occupation.

4. The" Rudge Cup "-a piece of metal work bearing a series of five names

after the manner of an "itinerary" (as in the Antonine, but without the distances).

5. The names, with latitude and longitude, as contained in Ptolemy's

Geography.

The Notitia is the latest of these, and by far the most important, because its

official character inspires confidene and its accuracy has been confirmed-so far as

confimation is possible-by the inscriptions, etc., which, have been discovered at the

several camps. Indeed we may take it as practically established that the stations on

the "line of the wall" (per lineam valli) from Wallsend to Stanwix correspond exactly

to the list in the Notitia from Segedunum to Congavata. This it will be seen covers the

whole length of the wall as far as it lay north of the line of streams- Eden, Irthing,

Tyne-which seems to have determined its position.

The Ravenna geographer commences his catalogue of stations in the

"third part of Britain," with the first nine camps on the wall (beginning from the

eastern end) omitting Pons Aelii and substituting for Borcovicium an unknown

Volurtion. As he names Aesica next and then diverges to the line of older forts along

the Stanegate, it is quite possible that this Volurtion may designate the otherwise

nameless camp on the Stanegate near Caw Gap. The westward continuation is

interesting because it agrees with the exception of Amboglanna. which occurs in

another series- with the inscription of the Rudge Cup Banna, (Amboglanna),

Uxelodum, Avallava, Maiae. Under the "second part of Britain" the R. G. starts from

Lugubalum (Carlisle) and proceeds eastward along the line of the wall, but names

only Amboglanna and Magna and then diverges to Vindolanda on the Stanegate.

Next in order is Lineojugla which nobody has attempted to identify. It would seem

most natural that this unknown station should be somewhere on the continuation of

the Stanegate beyond Vindolanda eastward; only the line after Fourstones is not

definitely known. It is possible that there was a direct road to Corstopitum, it is

almost certain that there was a continuation from the neighbourhood of Fourstones to

meet the "trunk

54

line" of Watling Street near Bewclay. No camp is known on either route

which might be identified with Lineojugla. If however, the name as we have it may

be relied upon, it may be divided thus-Lineoj-ugla, which may be interpreted "the

upland place of lakes," corresponding to modern Welsh llyniog, place of lakes; uchel

, high.. Or the initial element might possibly be, llyn-gwg, lake view; so that the

whole would mean the high camp which overlooks the lakes. If this be accepted, it

would seem that our Lineojugla is the missing Borcovicium; perhaps an earlier name

of the same camp, or an older camp which was superseded by Borcovioium in the

later period.

Relying on the accuracy of the Notitia and assuming that the wall stations

are there named in order as we now know them, the camp at Stanwix is identified as

Congavata. As the British elements of this name appear to correspond with Welsh

congl , a river bend, and the local "bat" or " bass" (of British origin) applied to river

fiats, giving a combination which quite accurately describes the site, the identification

may be taken is sufficiently well established. The next name, however, is

Axelodunum, which is presumably the same as Uxelodum (Rudge Cup) and

Uxeludianum (R. G.). Its meaning is "high hill" (or possibly "high camp ") which can

hardly apply to any station on the Solway Flats. Consequently it appears that the

Notitia does not follow the line of the wall across the Eden beyond Congavata , and

we are at liberty to place Axelodunum in the region implied by its position in the lists

of the Rudge Cup and the Ravenna geographer, i.e., somewhere on the Stanegate

between Carlisle and Magna; more accurately, between Aballaba and Amboglanna,

and therefore very probably the station which stood on the hill at ether Denton, now

occupied by Church and rectory.

Assuming that the Notitia continues its system of naming a series in order,

the names which follow should designate stations immediately south of the wall

eastward of Axelodunum. One is evidently maritime-Tunnocelum-since the terminal

part of the name signifies a coast promontory, possibly "of the Tyne," more probably

"of the Don:" least likely "of the Eden" (Ityn). The last may be set aside altogether: it

is in the wrong direction, and there is no promontory on the Solway. We may quite

confidently therefore assign it to South Shields.

This identification leads directly to the conclusion that Gabrocentum and Gateshead

are one and the same-which

55

has often been suggested and as often set aside. However, the R. G. also associates

the two places Tunnocelum and Gabrocentum, a welcome corroboration, as it

indicates that the two places are directly connected by a road with no intervening

station. Besides there is no other site immediately adjoining the river line on the

South bank, unless it be Hexham, and I know of no reason for placing Gabrocentum

there. Finally, as everybody knows, the most probable meaning of the Celtic original

of the name Gabroceutum is " goat's head," i.e., Gateshead.

To return to the inscription on the Rudge "Cup." It includes one station

evidently not garrisoned at the time of the Notitia, viz., Banna. From the sequence

here and in the R. G. list it seems that this post lay on the Stanegate in the interval

between the Irthing and the Tipalt, i.e., between Amboglanna and Magna. Before the

erection of the wall, this locality, which presented no serious physical barrier to an

attack horn the North, must have been the most vulnerable point in the whole line. It

is not surprising therefore that there are the remains of at least three militarv posts

along the slope here traversed by the Stanegate, and one of which might be Banna,

though the name itself would point to the highest of the three.

Of the Rudge Cup names there remains the first, which appears in the

phrase "A Mais"-like the beginning of an "Iter." The ablative form most probably

represents a nominative Maiae: and there can be little doubt that this is the Magae of

the Notitia, and presumably it is also the Maia of the R. G. The latter, like the Rudge

Cup, places it next to Aballaba , between that station and Fallum Cocidi (temple of

the forest god, Cocid-somewhere in Inglewood forest, as the next place named is

Brough). Magae therefore is somewhere near the western terminus of the Stanegate

which is Lugubalum (Carlisle). It is quite distinct from the latter, for both appear in

the R. G. Besides Fanum Cocidi is not on the Lugubalum- Voreda road but

presumablv somewhere eastward of that line. Consequently we must look for Magae

on the Stanegate or near it, east of Carlisle. The name apparently means crooks or

bends (d. Welsh maig, a sudden turn), thus indicating- some unrecognized camp in

the neighbourhood of Parkbroom.

Immediately before Magae in the Notitia is Maglovis. The first element of

the name is the same as in Magae, and no doubt refers to river-windings. The second

is probably

56

the " Low" which is found at Fenham Flats as a generic name for streams which in

their lower course traverse the tidal area and therefore partly disappear at high tide. If

this be the right derivation, Maglovis should be Burgh-on- Sands. In the R. G. it

appears to be represented by Maium, which is associated on the one hand with Bribra

and on the other with Olerica. If these correspond to anything in the Notitia it must be

Braboniacum and Olenacum. The latter if confidently identified with Ellenbrough,

and with this the name Olenacum is in agreement, since it seems to mean "Olen

water" (whatever "Olen" may be), i.e., Ellen river. Braboniacum apparently contains

the same Celtic elements as Brovonacae (Kirkby Thore) of the Itin. Ant. The order in

which the names Bribra and Braboniacum occur in the R. G. and the Notitia agrees

very well with this identification; so also does the character of the garrison as given

in the latter.

Grouped in the Notitia with Magae and Maglovis is Longovicus. It cannot

be equated with any name in the R. G., nor is it founel in any "iter"; if included in

either it is hidden under another name. No Celtic element enters into the name, for the

Cymric "long" was of Latin origin. As a purely Roman word it may mean "ship-

town," "long- town," or " distant town." The first would point definitely to Bowness-

on-Solway; but I strongly incline to the third because of the presence of a Longtown

in the neighbourhood. It is true that it is beyond the wall, and in that respect

exceptional; but that gives a reason for its being called the "far" or advanced post.

The Itinerary name of the station in the vicinity (Castra Exploratorum) was out of

date at the time of the Notitia, and re-naming was quite natural. The garrison

consisted of troops called "Longovicarii" which might very well be a temporary name

applied to any body of men serving there on special outpost duty for a short period,

drawn from .adjacent stations on or near the wall in turn.

The identification of Alion with Whitley Castle has long- been generally

accepted, because the Notitia places the third cohort of the Nervii at Alion and an

inscription of that body of troops has been found at Whitley Castle. Evidently the

third Nervii were at Whitley Castle at some time or other; but it is equally clear that

at the time of the Notitia they were somewhere else. For increased knowledge of the

stations in Lancashire along the route of the tenth Iter (Itin, .Ant.) has established the

general accuracy of the Antonine record and among other things has fixed the

57

terminus at Whitley Oastle. That place, therefore, is Clanoventa, otherwise

Glannibanta.

The order of names in the Notitia is Axelodunum, Glannibanta, Alionis,

Gabrocentum, Tunnocelum, which is a west-to-east series. Alionis, therefore, lies on

or between the meridians of Glannibanta and Gabrocentum, in which region the

unidentified camps are Chester-Ie-Street, Lanchester, and (probably) Old Town near

Allendale. In the R. G., Alionis lies between Bribra (Brovonacae) on the other hand

and Gabrocentum on the other-practically the same limits as we have inferred from

the Notitia. Moreover the R. G. name takes the form Alauna, which elsewhere is the

Latin version of Alwin, Allen, or Alne. If it were not extremely precarious to rely on

the orthography of the R. G., this would definitely place Alionis at Oldtown-not at all

the place which one would on any other grounds regard as a likely station for a cohort

of the Third Nervii, situated as it is on a mere cross-track. If we consider the military

requirements, there is no doubt that the single station in the area above defined should

be either Lanchester or Chester- le-Street-both of which were in direct

communication with the wall by roads of the first class; and this points decisively to

Lanchester, because there was no intervening garrison between it and the wall, and

because it lay behind a section of the Wall which had no other supporting garrison

behind it. Also, it communicated with Gabrocentum by means of the "Streetgate,"

thus making it possible to dispense with a garrison at both Chester-le-Street and

Oldtown. These, however, might appear in the R. G., and one of them was probably

Modibogdum which is grouped with Tunnocelum, Gabrocentum, and Glannibanta.

The name appears to mean the "camp on ( or near) the round hill "-more applicable to

OIdtown than to Chester-le-Street.

The Bremetenracum of the Notitia remains to be accounted for. It lies in

the list between Axelodunum and a circuit which inc1udes Olenacum, Virosidum,

Braboniacum, and Maglovis. It ought therefore to be looked for between the last-

named and Olenacum; which points pretty definitely to Bowness-on-Solwav.

Moreover the name itself seems to agree with this identification, since the elements

are bremeten, a flat peninsula (bmich, arm; mâth, flat), and rhac, in front W. rhag).

This completes the list so far as the Notitia is concerned. Other stations

within the same area, one may suppose, had

58

been abandoned, or at least were not then maintained as military posts. Among them

was Ptolemy's Epiakon, which according to him lay on the line between Vinovium

and Korio. The identity of Vinovium or Vinovia is unquestioned: it is Binchester,

near Bishop Auckland. Also we may confidently put down Korio as identical with

Corstopitum, a place much too important to be passed over, yet altogether nameless if

it is not Ptolemys Korio or the Coriotitar of the R. G. Accordingly we look for

Epiakon- in the R. G., Ebio-on the Dere Street between Binchester and Corbridge. It

is impossible to avoid the conclusion that its modern representative is Ebchester, in

spite of the universal identification of this place with the Roman Vindomora, an

identification which rests entirely on its distance from Corbridge. It is possible that

Vindomora may be a later name of Epiakon; but it seems to me much more probable

that Vindomora is an unrecognised camp on the opposite side of the Derwent, at or

near Whittonstall.

Corstopitum is, of course, a certainty, fixed by the Ant. It., and otherwise. Other

stations included in the Itineraries are Voreda (Old Penrith), Brovacum (Brougham ,

near Eamont Bridge), Brovonacae (Kirby Thore) and Gulavum (Crackenthorpe, near

Appleby). From the lists of the R. G. the following identifications may be made with

more or less probability-Derventium, Papcastle; Pampocalia, Hard Knot Pass; and

Lagentium, Ambleside; while Ravonia, is generally taken to be Muncasler, near

Ravenglass.

No doubt there is much evidence still to be discovered, and this review merely

attempts to assess the probabilities as indicated by the information: now available,

thus forming a basis for future inquiry and sifting of testimony, with due regard to its

quality. Personally I should say that the Notitia and Antonine Itineraries may be

regarded as first class authorities-putting Ptolemy in the second class and the R. G. in

the third. Circumstantial evidence I have here deliberately excluded as it is well to

have two entirely independent sources of information; their relative values are then

much less likely to be confused.

59

A FEW NOTES ON AN ABNORMAL SPECIMEN OF THE BLUE SPRUCE

(PICEA NIGRA Link).

K. B. BLACKBURN, D.SC., F.L.S.

The distribution of the sexes in seed plants is very variable in the group as

a whole, but is relatively constant for any given species. Thus a buttercup has

normally both stamens and pistil in a single flower, whereas a birch has groups of

female flowers in one kind of catkin and male in another, though they are both on the

same tree (monoecious), or, again, two kinds of catkins may be borne on separate

trees (dioeicious), as in willows. It is only very occasionally that these arrangements

are disturbed; a starved buttercup flower may lack stamens or a catkin may depart

from its unisexual condition, as was described for several species by the present

writer in a previous number of this paper (Vol. VIII., 4, p. 131).

Now if we focus our attention on the group " Coniferae " we find that the

trees are commonly monoecious, since they bear ovulate cones and staminate cones

on the same tree. A pine or a spruce, for instance, bears, in the spring, ephemeral

cones consisting of spirally arranged scales each bearing two pollen sacs on the lower

surface. A single such scale is illustrated in the accompanying figure. These cones

shed clouds of 'light pollen and then die and drop off. The ovulate cones are woody

structures, rather more solid than

60

the male cones, and the two ovules are on the upper side of the scale which bears

them. These cones go on growing and increasing in size for a varying period of time,

in some species taking three years before they open and shed their seed.

This arrangement of the cones is so constant that in only a very few cases

have deviations been recorded. One such case was discovered last summer during a

Wallis Club Excursion up Birky Burn and was recorded briefly in The Vasculum

(Vol. X., 3, p. 125). As such occurrences are so rare in the Coniferae it seemed

worthwhile to put a few more details on record.

The tree was tall and tapering and had still retained its green branches

nearly to the ground. Dallimore and Jackson's "Handbook of the Coniferae " was

consulted for identification. The short glaucous leaves, square in section, glandular

stems, the purple colour and the form of the ovulate scales indicated that it was a

specimen of blur spruce (Picea nigra Link), a common Canadian tree. The tree is an

unusually fine specimen of this species and it is interesting to note that the narrow

tapering form is characteristic of a large proportion of the Canadian Conifers.

The branches of the tree were covered with the cones of the current year

though the date of the excursion (July 14th) was rather too late for the staminate

cones and they were somewhat withered.

Some of the cones were purely male, others had a few female scales at the

tip of the cone, which were apparently not fertile, and, starting from these, a series

occurs up to almost completely female cones by an increase in the thickness of the

stalk and in the number of ovulate scales.

The figure shows one staminate cone, two bi-sexual ones and one almost

completely female cone. The last form was not common on the branches examined

It is hoped that it will be possible to make further observation, on this tree

to ascertain if the abnormality is constant and if it sets fertile seed.

NEWS OF THE SOCIETIES.

THE WALLIS CLUB.

October 20th, 1924.-By kind invitation of Professor M. C. Potter a combined

meeting of the Wallis Club and the Botanical Section of the Natural History Society was held in

the Botanical Department, Armstrong College. Professor Potter took the chair and there was a

good attendance.

Mr. A. W. Bartlett, M.A., B.Sc., lectured on "Fungi," his lecture being illustrated

with lantern slides, coloured drawings, spore prints and specimens, many of which had been

gathered on the occasion of the Field

61

Meeting held at Gibside on October 18th. Some of the slides, from photographs of fungi in their

natural habitat, were much admired.

The lecture was listened to with keen attention and was followed by an interesting

discussion.

November 10th, 1924.-Monthly indoor meeting. In the absence of the president,

through illness, Mr. J. Jeffrey presided. There was a good attendance.

Mr. Harry Sticks exhibited specimens of Humming-bird Hawk-moth M. stellatarum, Linn, reared

from larvae taken on Blyth links in July, the insects emerging in September.

Mr. Geo. Nicholson exhibited specimens of Gold Spangle, P. bractea, and Marbled

Beauty, B. perla, taken at Warkworth in July.

Mr. R. E. Richardson gave details of horticultural experiments on chrysanthemums

and other plants and exhibited various specimens, among them an example of cauliflowering in a

chrysanthemum, fasciation in Michaelmas Daisy, exotic rock plants and a fruiting plant of

Impatiens lymphatica.

Mr. Geo. Temperley exhibited shells of Limnaea auricularia found in the arboretum

pond in Ravensworth Park, and of Hydrobia Jenkinsii from Hebburn Ponds. He also exhibited

dried and mounted specimens of flowering and other plants from a collection made in Cornwall.

This concluded the business of a most delightful and interesting meeting.

December 4th, 1924.-Annual Dinner, held in the Refectory, Armstrong College. The

club had the pleasure of entertaining as invited guests, Professor M. C. Potter of Armstrong

College, and C. E. Robson, Esq., Hon. Secretary of the Natural History Society. Over forty

members and guests were present.

December 8th, 1924.-Monthly indoor meeting, the President in the chair. There was

a good attendance of members.

Mr. J. W. Thompson exhibited a number of specimens of moths and butterflies, most

of them reared from larva collected on various outings at Chopwell, Hexham, Waldridge and

other places. In his description of these he gave many interesting details and a discussion

followed.

The rest of the evening was spent in the discussion of details of business.

NORTHERN NATURALISTS' UNION.

The first general meeting was held in the rooms of the Darlington Naturalists' Field

Club, on November 15th, Mr. Richard Luck, President of the Darlington Club in the Chair, and

over fifty members and associates being present at each meeting. In the afternoon Dr. B. Millard

Griffiths spoke on "Alien Plants" (see p. 40), and a lively discussion followed.

In the evening a conversazione was held, the collections of the Darlington Club

being on view and special exhibits being provided by Miss K. B. Blackburn, Messrs. Broadhead,

Carter, Gibbs. Garrett, Griffiths. Harrison and others. During the evening Mr. W. Raw gave a.

capital lecturette on Clutches of Eggs," which started an interesting discussion, and then Mr. J.

Broadhead gave a most interesting account of "Some Local Minerals"; it was unfortunate that the

discussion of this was spoiled by the visitors having to hurry away for a train.

The officers of the Darlington Club are to be congratulated on the excellence of the

arrangements, and if succeeding meetings are equally successful the Union will do well.

The Annual General meeting will be held at Durham on January 31st.

F. C. G,

62

CURRENT HAPPENINGS.

The Proceedings of the South London Society for 1923-192.1, contain much good

reading and will enhance the reputation of the Society. Mr. R. Adkin writes on "Some Ancient

Naturalists and their Work," in most attractive style; Mr. H. J. Turner discusses C. Pamphilus, its

varieties and local races, Mr. R. Adkin treats of the common Ermine moths and points out that the

White Ermine is the true lubricipeda of Linnaeus and that the Buff Ermine is the lutea of

Hufnagel. In addition there are excellent papers on Mosses, Indian Cuckoos, St. Kilda's, etc.

In the same journal Mr. Step describes a method of preserving spiders which is said to prevent

shrivelling and loss of pattern. The specimen is killed by dropping into methylated spirit to which

about 10 per cent. of saturated solution of mercuric chlorIde has been added, and is allowed to lie

in the spirit for a week before being carded.

Mr. C. Elton discusses "Periodic Fluctuations in the numbers of Animals" in very

clear and interesting fashion in the October number of The British Journal of Experimental

Biology. From a study of the great migrations of lemmings, the Hudson's Bay Co.'s records of the

abundance or otherwise of hare and foxes, the invasions of Pallas's sand grouse, etc., he conclude

that the numbers of animals vary regularly, and that there is clear evidence of two periods a

shorter one of about 3-6 years and a longer of about 11 years, the former being of more

importance in the Arctic and the latter in more southern areas.

We are glad to hear that Mr. F. Gerald Simpson has been appointed Director of

Archaeological Research in the Durham Colleges, and wish him all success. Archaeological

digging is both an art and a science and Mr. Simpson its acknowledged master; we hope for much

from his School.

Natural history is certainly prospering in the North East; all the old societies report

an increased membership, and new ones are being formed. A society is now being organized in

Allendale, a district where there are great chances for field work; we understand that Mr. J.

Stephenson, Wentworth Place, Allendale, is acting as secretary, and we wish the society a

prosperous life.

F. C. G.

NOTES AND RECORDS.

BIRDS.

Cygnus cygnus, Linn. 67

In the October, 1923, issue of The Vasculum, on page r31 eference is made to " a

remarkable fact that a pair of wild swans nested in Northumberland this year.

Being somewhat perturbed at the above having been taken to refer to the above

species by the authors of "A Practical Handbook of British Birds," the writer determined to

investigate the circumstances. Three special trips were made to the Northumberland Lakes in the

season of 1924 and careful observations were made of all the swans there. Careful enquiries were

made from all likely sources and a conclusion has been arrived at that the Swans referred to were

merely Mute Swans-Cygnus olor (Gmelin).

There is no doubt that both the Whooper and Bewicks' Swan (Cygnus bewickii

bewickii) winter on the Northumberland Lakes and equally no doubt that no species of Swan other

than C. olor breed there.

Extended enquiries show that the eggs which were taken in 1923 and to which the

original reference was made were not taken by anyone who could be claimed as an authority, but

merely by irresponsible

63

persons who should have known better. It is regretted that the original statement should have

raised a doubt in anyone's mind. In July, 1924, the only Swans on Crag Lough were a pair of

Mutes and these were seen later accompanied by four cygnet. On Greenlee five adult Mutes were

noted but no young ones were seen and all the birds were usually together. On Broomlee another

pair of Mutes were resident and these again apparently failed to rear a brood. This distribution

was maintained until at least September.

W. RAW.

Cuculus c. canorus, Linn. 67

Adult observed Northumberland Lakes on August 11th.

Chloris c. chloris, GREENFINCH. 67

A late brood still in the nest on September 15th at Hexham. This and the preceding

are unusually late records.-W. RAW.

FLOWERING PLANTS.

Radiola millegrana, Sm. 68

At Ross links, with Centunculus-and elsewhere. In fruit, but a few flowers still

remained. It occurs in two forms-un branched, an inch high, with a single terminal flower; or

branched, a little higher, with many flowers.

Alisma ranunculoides, L 68

Ross links, in a few of the pools. Usually only one or two plants.

Typha angustifolia, L. 68

Easington Grange, Belford. So far as I know this the record for Cheviotland.

Hippophae rhamnoides, L. 68

Howick only is named by B. and T., but the plant is to be found in quantity at

Beadnell and North Sunderland, a considerable distance from the sea. Also on the south shore of

Budle Bay.

*Epilobium roseum, Schrab. 67, 68

The flora of 1868 (B. and T.) gives only "garden ground at Darlington," and such a

habitat is what it seems to favour locally. How it came to be omitted in my "Flowering Plants of

an Upland Dale" (Vasculum, II., 1), I do not know, for it was a persistent weed in the Vicarage

garden (and others) at Ninebanks; but it also occurred in roadside waste ground. In my present

garden (Belford) I have it again in goodly numbers, though I have not yet noticed it elsewhere in

the neighbourhood.

*Vicia tetraspermum, Koch. 68

B. and T. in 1868 had no record for Cheviotland. It grows luxuriantly by the railway

near the bridge south of Belford station; also by the roadside on the bridge itself.

Vicia lathyroides, L. 68

B. and T. name various places on the basalt from Belford to Ratcheugh. I could add

one or two more, and it occurs also on Ross links.

Cerastium vulgatum pentandrum, Syme. 68

Cerastium tetrandrum, Curt.

Both of these forms (with other Cerastia) Occur on Ross links. The former is not

included in B. and T.

64

Sagina nodosa, Fenzl. 68

The little-branched almost upright flowering form is abundant on Ross links and

elsewhere in the district. The more luxuriant many branched non-flowering form occurs in a

strong colony at Budle Point. The fasciculate axillar buds drop out in the Autumn and take root in

the damp sand.

Sagina subulata, Presl. 68

This seems to have much the same range on the basalt as Vicia lathyroides.

Moenchia erecta, Sm. 68

As the preceding; but also on Ross links (like Vicia lathyroides, among the short

turf).

Ranunculus floribundus, Bab. 68

R. circinatus, Sibth.

*R. baudotii, Godr.

*R. omoiophyllus, Tenore (R. coenosus, Guss.)

These are the forms of aquatic Ranunculus which I have noted on Rose links. The

two starred have not previously been noted for 68. Under R. circinatus in B. and T., for "Swinhoe

Links," read "Swinhoe Lakes" (Middleton, Belford). The plant is by no means confined on Holy

Island to the lough only.

Allium schoenoprasum , L. 68

Still at Spindleston. Noted, in plenty, by the mill-race at Waren Mill on the Field Day

of September 27th.-J. E. H.

Orchis morio, L. Green-winged Meadow Orchid. 66

Gathered in quantity in a field at Donelly Ford, near Consett, 1923, but not searched

for in 1924.-Miss E. POWELL.

This is the only response as yet received to Dr. Harrison's appeal for recent records

(Vasculum, X., page 126). Personally I have no later note than 1891, at which time-as in two

previous years-the plant was fairly plentiful in a field on the south bank of the Wansbeck

immediately below Sheepwash Mill

.-J. E. H.

*Carex dioica, L. 66

Sparingly on the wet slopes of the Salix thicket on Waldridge Fell.

Carex pulicaris, L. Flea Sedge. 66

With the preceding but commoner.

Carex pendula, Huds. Great Pendulous Sedge. 66

Still (1924) in its Beamish, Urpeth and Ravensworth station given by Baker and

Tate; plentiful on the Wear below Chester-le- Street, in Lambton Woods a locality additional to

the single listed by the same authors on that river.

Doronicum pardalianches L. Leopard's Bane. 66

Not uncommon in a hedge near Burnmoor.

Vaccinium Oxycoccus L. Cranberry. 66

Although no suitable ground now exists for this species near Beamish its leaves and

stems are very plentiful in the peat in wood known as the Cranberry Wood.

Pyrola media, Swz. Wintergreen. 66

Not common between Shotley Bridge and Ebchester. J. W. H.

THE VASCULUM.

Vol. XI. No. 3. April, 1925.

THE HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY IN OUTLINE OF THE FLORA AND

FAUNA OF NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM.

A. D. PEACOCK, MSc., F.R.S.E.

There rolls the deep where grew the tree.

O Earth, what changes hast thou seen.

There, where the long street roars, hath been

The stillness of the Western Sea.

The hills are shadows and they flow

From form to form and nothing stands

They melt like mists the solid lands,

Like clouds they shape themselves and go. -Tennyson.

Although this paper has a local title it is invested with universality for its

subject matter is but part of the wider study of what Gadow (1) calls" the history and

geography of life in time and space. " No land has ever lived to itself and the flora

and fauna of our local area are representative of the larger area of Great Britain the

general biological facies of which, in turn, is that of the Continent of Europe; this

despite our geographical insularity.

Our subject has been studied from two aspects, namely, the topographical

and the ecological. Further, the topographical aspect has been approached in two

ways, firstly, by the bio-geographical method and secondly, by the geo-biological. In

bio-geography the bios, i.e., that flora and fauna, of a district, whether large or small,

is studied in all its bearings, an example of such being Sharff's work on "The History

of the European Fauna" (2). In geo-biology, the geographical distribution of a single

group of plants or animals is worked out thoroughly and one may cite as an instance

the work on certain moths of our colleague, Dr. J. W. H. Harrison, entitled " The

Geographical Distribution

66

of the Geometrid Sub-family Bistoninae" (3). The ecological method is to study the

relationships of living things to their environment.

Naturally this branch of biology has developed its own technicalities, and

it would be well to grasp these at the outset; and to serve a double purpose-that of

introducing certain definitions and that of introducing the necessary local colour-

these technical illustrations will be taken as far as possible from local examples.

On the limestone of County Durham at Castle Eden on the coast and as far

inland as Lanchester there still lives one of our little glories, one of the "blue"

butterflies, Aricia medom var. Salmacis Stph., the Castle Eden Argus. It is a distinct

variety and is found nowhere else. To such groups, whether they be races, species or

genera, etc., is applied the term "endemic" which implies originating in an area and

peculiar to that one area. The second term " autochthonus " is applied to a group

which has originated in a locality but is no longer confined to that locality. A local

example is presented in the melanic or black form of the Mottled Beauty moth,

Boarmia repandata found around Leamside and Middlesbrough. A continental

instance is supplied by the chamois, the mountain goat originating in Asia but now

isolated in stations forming a discontinuous chain along the high altitudes of the

Caucasus, Alps, Pyrenees and Cantabrians. The broad term "indigenous" means

native to an area either by having originated there or by having arrived there by

natural means, not, be it noted, through introduction by man. In these three foregoing

definitions we follow Scharff. When we speak of the "area of distribution" the

reference is to the entire expanse inhabited by a type, species or larger assemblage.

The distribution may be "continuous," i.e., the type resides, without great breaks,

throughout the whole area. The sparrow is a familiar example illustrating wide and

continuous distribution. When a particular area or medium supports a type, it is

known as the "station," as for instance, the moor is the station of heather and the

water that of the seal. "Discontinuity of distribution" implies that a type is present in

patches widely apart although between these districts there may exist places suitable

for its maintenance. A few examples will illustrate, the first being a review of the

geographical distribution of the Grouse family (Tetraonidae). This may conveniently

be set out in

67

tabular form as follows:-

Species Distribution.

Red Grouse Great Britain. Willow Grouse North Europe, North Asia, North America,

Greenland.

Ptarmigan Scotland, Mountains of Europe as far South as the Alps and Pyrenees, and as far East as the Urals.

Rock Ptarmigan Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, Arctic America,

Aleutian Islands, Behring Sea Islands, Japan and North Asia as far as the Urals.

Spitzbergen Ptarmigan Spitzbergen.

White Tailed Ptarmigan Rocky Mountains and South as far as North Mexico.

The 7 genera in North America comprise 14 species. 12 being peculiar to

that region.

The 4 genera in Europe comprise 8 species, 3 being peculiar to that

region.

Of the 9 species of Asia, 4 are peculiar to North Asia.

From these facts we deduce the following:-

1. The grouse family has continuous range comprising the whole northern

half of the northern hemisphere.

2. At one time there must have been a continuous circumpolar continent.

3. The centre of distribution, i.e., the headquarters or focus, must have

been North America.

4. The Red Grouse of our moors is a racial or specific endemic of Great

Britain.

A contrasting picture is presented in the case of the Tapirs. These animals

are found only in the East of South America and in the Malay Peninsula with its

adjacent islands. Hence it is an outstanding example of discontinuous distribution.

Again, a local plant, the Shrubby Cinquefoil, Potentilla fruticosa, is also an admirable

study. [Vide Dr. J. W. H. Harrison (4).] This species is found in Ireland-Galway,

Mayo and Clare; in England- Upper Teasdale; Scandinavia -one centre only; in

Russia-one centre in south-east; in Canada and United States. Hence the following

deductions:

1.Its distribution is discontinuous.

2.Its headquarters is North America.

3.The time of its arrival in Europe was during- the existence of a polar

continent, i.e. in pre-glacial times;

4. That it (a) either survived the glacial epoch in a few localities, or (b)

retreated southwards before the ice and subsequently returned with more genial times.

Of the above that under (4) is the most interesting as if we do not accept the idea of

survival on high ground, which is the more ready explanation, we are compelled to

explain

68

the extraordinary discontinuity of distribution of returned refugees-a far harder

proposition.

MODE OF SPREAD OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

In accounts of the migrations of animals of far-off epochs there occur

images and phrases which are somewhat misleading. We read of animals "invading"

and that " an almost endless stream of migrants poured into the British Isles." Now

without in the least decrying the value of imagination and pregnant phrases in

scientific writings we have to exercise care in interpreting their true significance.

These "picturesques" are doubtless inspired by their writers thrilling to geological

discovery in the same fashion as we all did to revelations of the tomb of

Tutankhamen, or as did the American public to the clutches of dinosaur eggs found

among the Mongolian sands. The suddenness and speed at which the riches are

revealed seem to telescope time and action so that there are begotten false values of

the rates of living and moving in those remote ages. It is a far safer guide to interpret

the past in the light of the present. While we certainly do find in great natural

catastrophes that the drama of vital relationships has its theatrical moments, we more

usually discover that its action in the main is slow and deliberate. Even modern

instances such as the possession of Australia by the rabbit in a few short years

requires careful interpretation. The success of the rodent depended firstly, upon the

fact that it was an experiment by man, secondly, an abundance of food, thirdly, on

freedom from competition by allied types, and fourthly on absence of enemies. In the

distant times we are considering nature perpetrated such experiments but rarely. A

truer analogy would be the re-settlement of a devastated region in the wake of an

army advancing against an enemy who disputes every foot of ground. There is the

establishment, out of the danger zone, of little colonies fringing the long margin

behind the forward area; this line, in turn, falls to the rear as it is forsaken and as new

arrivals trickle through to posts more ahead as the army advances; there are

occasional bolder movements forward in the salients and, should a very successful

military manoeuvre permit, an occasional forward surge. But, however, in the case of

plants and animals, there must also be reckoned the re-actions of competition.

With these values in mind we may more closely approach the subject of

the topography of our local flora and fauna. Thanks to the patient work of collectors

and systematists of the past century-and in this connection the work of Watson (5)

deserves special regard-with their long lists of species

69

and the places of sojourn of these species, important distributional generalisations

were made clear. Watson, for instance, worked out a classical set of botanical

conclusions. He distinguished in Great Britain 8 main floras which he designated

British, English, Germanic, Atlantic, Highland, Scottish, Intermediate and Local. The

British flora consisted of those plants common to all parts of Great Britain; the

English those confined to England; the Germanic those common to us and the

continent and now principally found to the East of our islands; the Atlantic those

found to the South and West. The remaining terms are self-explanatory.

Another set of conclusions, first made current by Edward Forbes (6) in

1846 supplanted Watson's by its broader outlook as it was based upon research into

the places of origin of our plants and animals. Recent views are given expression by

Scharff who assigned 5 centres of origin for our British bios, namely, Lusitanian,

Alpine, Arctic, Oriental and Siberian. By Lusitanian is meant pertaining to Portugal

(the old Roman province known as Lusitania), Spain, a portion of North Africa and

that submerged and lost land of Atlantis which ran westward from what is now the

Mediterranean. Alpine is used in the strict sense of pertaining to the Alps and not, as

is frequently the case, as referring to high altitudes (mountains) or high latitudes (the

Arctic). Arctic is synonomous with Boreal or Polar and connotes the Northern

regions of America, Europe and Asia. Oriental refers to south Asia, with Turkestan as

a centre, whilst Siberian relates to North Asia. Sometimes it is convenient to group

the two latter together under the term Asiatic.

To illustrate, take an example from the local flora. The plant census of

Baker and Tate (7), shows 935 plants for Northumberland and Durham. Of these,

108, i.e., 111/2 per cent. are Arctic, and Dr. Harrison would allow about another 81/2

as Alpines and Lusitanians. Hence 80 per cent., at least, are Asiatic. It should be

understood that these figures are not by any means as precise as they might be, but

the present state of our knowledge permits no others. In fact, an up-to-date statement

of this problem is commended as affording a pretty little piece of work for any of our

local botanists. This predominance of Asiatics holds good nationally as well as

locally. The adjective generally applied is "Germanic." How the above condition of

affairs has come to be may be gathered from the following outline summary. The

broadness and simplicity of its outlines, however, have only been rendered possible

by the exacting labours of scores of geologists, palaeontologists and biologists carried

on over scores of years.

70

71

THE ICE AGE.

The events which produced the most profound effects upon the life of our

local counties and, in fact, of our country, took place during what is called the Ice

Age or Glacial Epoch. Early investigators on this period were so deeply impressed by

the contrast they were revealing between that period and ours that, not unnaturally,

they conceived an exaggerated idea of Ice Age conditions. They pictured Europe as a

vast desolation, white, icebound and lifeless. Most modern views are opposed to this

for Glacial lakes existed and, therefore, the temperature could not always have been

below, the freezing point of water. A study of present day conditions again affords

insight. In New Zealand there are tropical plants at the base of the glaciers; in

Greenland there are nearly 400 plants such as heather, crowberry, bilberry, cranberry,

thyme, juniper, cotton grass, dandelion and buttercup besides over 200 mosses and 80

species of insects, many of these-and this is an important point- being plants of the

temperate zone. Also do we not read of Steffanson's "Friendly Arctic"? Further, there

can be no doubt that the Glacial Epoch really consisted of several ice periods

alternating with warmer periods known, according to which of two schools of

geologists be followed, as the "interglacial periods" or "intervals in the glaciation,"

when life could flourish more vigorously.

Locally our geologists show that while the greater part of our counties was

ice-covered certain areas were ice-free, namely Cheviot, Cross Fell, Upper Teesdale

together with parts of the Cleveland in North Yorkshire. The natural question then

arises-did any life support an existence, Robinson Crusoe like, on these islands amid

the ice? On the evidence of Greenland to-day, this is quite possible and, as will be

discovered later, certain hardy Lusitanians like the heather and, still more, the Arctics

such as, the blaeberry and cranberry may have survived those hard times. There were

local intervals in the glaciation, and so two possible effects could result-firstly,

survivors could radiate and spread from their fastnesses; and, secondly, new arrivals

could migrate hither from the Continent. The latter appears to have been the case, as

crustacean, mammoth and Irish Elk remains have been discovered in the glacial

deposits.

72

A NEW OCCURRENCE OF KAOLlNITE IN NORTHUMBERLAND.

S. J. TOMKEIEFF.

The occurrence of kaolinite in association with coal- measures shales and

ironstones has been already described in The Vasculum1, but, as far as it is known to

the author, the type of occurrence of kaolinite recently brought to light in an open pit

at Cow Gate, Newcastle-on-Tyne, is unique and has never been observed previously.

The shale2 in which the kaolinite-bearing nodules occurs, underlies the

High Main coal seam and is well exposed in the excavation. The clay-ironstone

nodules are irregularly distributed along a certain horizon of the shale. The majority

of them are loaf-shaped and they vary from a few inches to 15 inches in diameter.

Nearly every nodule, when broken, shows a very fine septarian structure with

numerous radial cracks widening towards the centre. The outer compact crust of the

nodules is visibly laminated, and in all probability those laminae are continuous with

the laminae of the shale, although they are much thicker than those of the shale. The

inside of the nodule is composed of a more dense reddish ironstone (Fe2O3 = 7.65 per

cent., FeO =44.05 per cent.). Ferrous iron is present in combination with carbon

dioxide.

Almost in every nodule the cracks are filled with powdery kaolinite

together with calcite. Small crystals of galena and iron pyrites are often found

imbedded in calcite. In every case kaolinite lines the walls of the cracks, while calcite

fills the remaining space. When kaolinite is present in comparatively small amounts,

it occurs along the walls in isolated semiglobular masses. (up to 0.5 cm. in diameter.)

A microscopic examination of those masses was extremely difficult, but apparently

they consist of radiating aggregates of kaolinite crystals.

The powdery kaolinite can be easily scraped out from the cracks and a

portion of this material has been analysed by the author. A small amount of iron and

carbon dioxide was found, but this is obviously derived from accidentally enclosed

nodular material and was subtracted from the main body of the analysis, together with

corresponding quantities of H2O, SiO2 and A12O3, data for which are supplied by an

analysis of the nodule, not given here.

1 J. A. Smythe, Minerals of the North Country. Silicates. The Vasculum, vol. X., No.

4, p. 100, 1924.

2 The shale is used for making bricks at the " Fenham Red Brick and Tile Works:"

Wm. Couhran Carr, Ltd. 72

73

The results of the analysis are as follow:-

One can see from this analysis, that the kaolinite £rom Cow Gate is of a

high degree of purity and almost exactly corresponds to the theoretical formula: -2

H2O.Al2O3.2 SiO2.

The specific gravity has, been accurately determined by the pycnometer

and its value is 2.607.

Under the microscope the white powdery material appears in the form of

minute hexagonal plates and elongated vermiculites. The vermiculites are usually

curved and show a perfect basal cleavage, along which they are easily broken down,

giving rise to isolated hexagonal plates. The average size of those plates or pellets is

about 0.025 mm. Their birefringence is low, extinction oblique at about 10° from the

optical axial plane, the refractive index is 2.56-2.57. It is perfectly evident, that the

kaolinite was deposited from a solution which has leached out some of the clayey

matter of the nodule. The association of kaolinite with calcite seems to indicate that

this process was facilitated by the presence of carbon dioxide in solution. The whole

process of formation of the deposit can be summed up in the following manner:-

(1) Deposition of fine clayey mud which afterwards became compressed into a shale.

(2) Segregation of masses of colloidal iron hydrate (derived from the material of the

mud) in the form of spheroidal concretions.

74

(3) Transformation of iron hydrate into a crystalline iron carbonate under the

influence of carbonated solutions with a subsequent setting of nodules and formation

of septarian cracks.

(4) Deposition of kaolinite and calcite inside the cracks by the agency of the same

solution. A complete account of this unique occurrence together with a more detailed

discussion of the probable mode of formation of the nodules and the kaolinite will

form the subject of a separate paper elsewhere.

POT-POURRI.

J. E. H.

The other day I happened to be cycling along the road which skirts Budle

Bay. The tide was out, and myriads of birds occupied the muddy flats, while a few

odd groups paddled in the stream or floated placidly in the pools. It was the quiet

time of noon, and the wind was hardly perceptible. In the far distance little flocks of

the smaller waders rose from time to time and immediately settled again in new

quarters. The noisy gulls were at rest, and the only sound which broke the stillness

was the wail of the curlews as one by one they rose and winged their way inland.

Inevitably my mind ran back to the early days of the Vasculum and the

first contribution of Mr. E. L. Gill to its pages (Vol. 1., p. 33-Winter and Summer at

Budle Bay). It was at this rendezvous of the coast birds that he first made their

acquaintance, and there he studied them whenever an opportunity could be made.

Now he is extending his circle of bird acquaintances in the southern hemisphere, and

taking a huge delight in it-as I learned from a letter of his which was sent on to me a

day or two after I viewed the scene which I have described above.

That letter sent me off on another journey, to a scene as strongly

contrasted with Budle Bay as it very well could be, but equally interesting to

Northumbrian naturalists because it was once the home of Mr. P. J. Selby, Twizell

House, Warenford. Visitors to the Hancock Museum who are interested in such

things will find in the Hancock collection a Blackcap which distinguished itself by

spending the winter at Twizell House a few years ago when Mr. Gill was still at the

Hancock Museum. He made a note of the occurrence in the Transactions of the

Natural History Society (N.D.N.).

75

The Blackcap naturally chose a very suitable place for its experiment; yet

it seems an odd thing that another bird of the same species should make the same

experiment and choose the same spot. So it is, however; and the fact was notified to

Mr. Gill. Hence, his letter, which caused me to be sent to Twizell House, to see the

bird if possible and learn all that could be learnt about the matter.

It was a congenial errand, as the good lady of the house, Mrs. Maling, is a

keen lover of Nature. The semi-wild rabbits on the lawn were not quite so numerous

as last year; foxes and weasels have been taking toll. But there was the usual variety

of colour. Beyond stood some of Mr. Selby's fine coniferae making a glorious vista

on a fine March day. Before the windows were all sorts of conveniences for wild

birds, and close by the front door a store of nuts for a squirrel which comes up daily

to enjoy them. The Blackcap I did not see, for it usually makes its appearance early in

the day when the general feeding of birds takes place. Mrs. Maling could not say with

certainty whether it had a companion or not.

The Blackcap letter was quickly followed by another reminder of Mr. Gill

in the shape of a reprint from the Geological Magazine-an account of some

Arthropods from the local coal-measures. In this branch of palaeontology it appears

that the coalfields of Staffordshire and Lancashire led the way when Northumberland

and Durham, pre-eminent for work done among carboniferous fossils in general, had

nothing to show. A few years ago, Mr. W. Eltringham of West Ryton-known to me as

a Hancock prizeman and a keen field botanist-"struck oil" at Crawcrook in shale used

for the making of bricks. As elsewhere, ironstone nodules in this carboniferous shale

were found to contain arthropod fossils. With characteristic perseverance Mr.

Eltringham has continued the investigation and Mr. Gill summarized his results in the

paper to which I now refer.

Insects are represented by two wings, one of which has been described

and figured as Hypermegethes northumbriae (Bolton, Fossil Insects of the British

Coal Measures, Pal. Soc., 1921); the other is still nameless.

Myriapods (all apparently of one Diplopod group) seem to occur more

freely. Mr. Gill figures one of them and identifies it with Euphoberia ferox Salter-a

fearsome beast, about six inches in length.

Crustacea and their immediate allies are also fairly numerous. One is

Arthropleura armata, Jordan; others are referred to the Merostomatous genera

Prestwichia, Belinurus,

76

and Cyclus. Most interesting of all are two species which are assigned to a new genus

and named respectively Camptophyllia eltringhamii and C. fallax, To the unlearned

eye these have all the appearance of a couple of common wood-lice !-supposing, that

is, that there were giants on the earth in those days; for the lesser of the two was well

over an inch in length.

Finally, there are the Arachnida, in which I am more especially interested.

A new species of Eophrynus, several samples of Anthracosiro woodwardii, and the

carapace of a scorpion comprise the bag; nothing particularly striking, but welcome

additions to the gradually increasing store of coal-measure material. In general form

and size the Eophrynus is quite like E. prestvici, but there are obvious differences of

dorsal sculpture which amply justify Mr. Gill in making a new species of it. The

Anthracosiro, which is perhaps the most often met with of all the coal-measure

Arachnids was found by Mr. Gill himself in this very same quarry at Crawcrook as

long ago as 1909-the first terrestrial arthropod on record for the local coalfield. The

rest we owe to Mr. Eltringham, with the exception of a single insect's wing described

by Bolton. It should be added that his collection includes a very considerable quantity

of fish remains, among them the teeth of a shark.

This naturally turns one's thoughts to the matrix. Under what

circumstances was it possible for the teeth of a shark and the carapace of a scorpion

to be similarly interred at the same spot? However these clay-ironstone nodules were

formed, they are practically our sole source of such relics of the coal-measures of

Britain a have been noted above. Not that the nodules have been formed about such

remains only; for as a matter of fact fragments of plants are much more frequent. The

whole list, animal and vegetable, suggests the stream and tidal drift of some quiet

estuarine backwater.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES.

I.-GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

On March 15th, no less than seven male Blackbirds were observed feeding

together in a field near Hexham. No signs of a female of the species appeared, neither

was there any tendency amongst these birds to fight. About two miles away on the

same day I saw another little lot of five. These again were all males and I conclude

that they must .all be birds which were passing through to a more northerly habitat:

but where were their hens?

77

Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea). A bird of this species turned up in the

harbour at Whitby, Yorks., early in March: A correspondent writes that "after a few

days it, of course, fell into the hands of the Philistines, and is now being mounted for

the museum at Whitby." This is said to be the first occurrence at that place.

An additional record worthy of remark is the occurrence of three Bewick

Swans at the Tees mouth on March 3rd, reported by Mr. C. E. Milburn.

W. RAW.

2.-THE NORTHUMBERLAND LOUGHS IN EARLY SPRING, 1925.

When visited on February 7th, these loughs held their usual winter population of

water-fowl. In spite of the mild season many Swans were present. In addition to the

resident Mute Swans, the adult pair on Crag Lough and the four semi-wild immature

birds, there was a flock of thirteen Bewick Swans on Crag Lough. Eight of these were

fully mature, while five were in different phases of immaturity. On Grindon was a

large flock of Whoopers, numbering 27 strong, most of them in the pure white

plumage of maturity. Duck were fairly plentiful though not in large flocks-above 200

birds were counted afloat on Grindon alone. Goosanders were noted as being less

numerous than in normal winters. Wigeon and Pochard were in the majority, but

there was a fair stock of Mallard and Teal, with quite a number of Golden-Eye and

Tufted Duck. Crag Lough and Greenlee were the resort of many Coot. Although the

former is the most frequently disturbed of the four Loughs, it appears to be much

favoured as a winter feeding-ground by Coot. Already some unmistakable signs of

Spring were observed. A solitary Curlew had returned to the Moors, and an early pair

of Dippers had established themselves in their old haunt on the streamlet flowing out

of the lough.

Five weeks later, on March 15th, no Swans except the resident Mutes were observed-

though it is possible that they may have been merely temporarily absent at some other

neighbouring lough. Goosanders and Pochard were much reduced in numbers, but all

the other species were still fairly numerous. An additional species was noted in the

presence of two pairs of Shovelers on Grindon. All the duck showed a distinct

tendency, not observed in the earlier part of the season to consort in pairs rather than

in mixed flocks. Curlews were now plentiful. and the air was full of their plaintively

musical calls. One flock of 36 birds was noted. The Redshanks had returned to their

usual breeding haunts, a few snipe were "drumming" overhead, and the Spring

78

cry of the Peewit was heard from every side. Black-headed Gulls in full breeding

plumage were already noisily assembling. The Dippers, referred to above, were again

noted, the cock being in full song, and an early Ring Ousel was also heard.

GEORGE W. TEMPERLEY.

MOSSES OF BASALTIC CRAGS, BELFORD.

J. B. DUNCAN.

The outcrops of the Whin Sill in the neighbourhood of Belford are very dry and not

favourable to clyptogams; their flora is therefore xerophytic in type and also non-

calcicolous.

They furnish some interesting flowering plants and it may be worth while to mention

some of the mosses and Hepatics. The latter are moisture-loving plants and

accordingly not numerous.

On the Kyloe Crags proper, the most imposing outcrop of the basalt, Grimmia ovata,

a rare moss discovered there many years ago, still flourishes.

Other less common species are Dicranum fuscescens, Hedwigia ciliata,

Rhacomitrium fasciculare and Cynodontium Bruntoni.

On Spindlestone Hill is Bartramia ithyphylla, not common away from the sub-alpine

region. On Chester Hill a little moisture trickling over the Whin rock enables Bryum

alpinum, a pretty species not commonly found away from the hills, to exist almost at

sea level and there also is Rhacomitrium aciculare, most frequently found on rocks

by streams.

The sandstone rocks which crop out in low cliffs from the moorland on Kyloe Hills

have a few plants not found on the Basalt. Mosses-Tetraphis pellucida, Dicranum

fuscescens, var. falcifolium, Aulacomnium androgynum, and Orthodontium gracile;

the last rare and only recently found in Northumberland.

The rare hepatic Lepidozia pinnata is also found in a limited area on these sandstone

rocks-the most easterly record for Britain. The list of mosses and hepatics annexed is

the result of one day's collecting on the dry crags close to Belford. The exposure of

the face is S.W. and though wooded is very dry.

79

In one part an outcrop of crag has a N.E. exposure wooded with oak, birch, hazel, and

at the base, alder.

This portion from its more favourable aspect furnishes quite a mossy display and

provides a few plants not at all common in the district: -Dicranum majus and D.

scoparium in very fine condition, and in clefts of the rock Webera cruda, not quite at

home so near the coast.

Amongst the mosses are the hepatics-Lophozia quinquedentata, Scapania nemorosa

and Scapania gracilis, all rare in this region. Another hepatic, Ptilidium ciliare,

which has escaped my notice, has been sent me by the Rev. J. E. Hull and is a new

record for Northumberland. *

The trees at the base of this crag, less exposed to the sun, yield several arboreal

species in quantity, which are absent where the exposure is southerly: -Ulota Bruchii,

U. phyllantha and U. crispa var. intermedia.

The full list of species as observed by me in January, 1925, is as follows:-

Polytrichum aloides, Hedw. Rare.

Polytrichum piliferum, Schreb. Common.

Polytrichum juniperinum, Willd. Common.

Ditrichum homomallum, Hampe. Quarry.

Ceratodon purpureus, Brid. Very Common.

Dicranella heteromalla, Schp. Common.

Dicranoweisia cirrata, Lindb. Rocks and tree trunks.

Dicranum scoparium, Hedw. Rock ledges.

Dicranum varorthophyllum, Brit. Heathy ground.

Dicranum majus, Turn. Wooded slopes

Fissidens bryoides, Hedw. Earthy banks.

Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw. Rocks.

Grimmia pulvinata, Smith. Rocks.

Grimmia trichophylla, Grev. Rocks.

Rhacomitrium heterostichum, Brid. Rocks.

Rhacomitrium lanuginosum, Brid. Rocks

Barbula fallax, Hedw. Quarry, plentiful.

Barbula hornschuchiana, Schultz. Quarry, plentiful.

Barbula unguiculata, Hedw. Common.

Ulota Bruchii, Hornsch. Trees.

Ulota crispa, v. intermedia, Braithw. Trees.

Ulota phyllantha, Brid. Trees.

Orthotrichum affine, Schrad. Quarry; on stones.

Bartramia pomiformis, Hedw. Rare.

Webera cruda, Schwaeg. Rock crevices, rare.

Bryum capillare, L. Common.

Bryum atropurpureum, Web. & Mohr. .Abundant in quarry.

Mnium hornum, L. Common.

Neckera complanata, Hübn. Rocks.

Camptothecium sericeum, Kindb. Very common on rocks .

* It grows among grass on the top of Belford Crag, along with Hylocomium

squarrosum.

80

Brachythecium albicans, B. & S. Quarry.

Brachythecium rutabulum, B. & S. Common.

Brachythecium populeum, B. & S. Common.

Eurhynchium myosuroides, Schp. Common.

Eurhynchium myurum, Dixon. Common.

Eurhynchium striatum, B. & S. Common.

Eurhynchium confertum, Milde. Common.

Plagiothecium elegans, Sull. Not common.

Plagiothecium denticulatum, B. & S. Common.

Plagiothecium silvaticum, B. & S. Not common.

Amblystegium serpens, B. & S. Common.

Hypnum cupressiforme, L. Common.

Hypnum cupressiforme, var. filiforme, Brid. Tree trunks.

Hypnum cupressiforme, var. tectorum, Brid. Rocks.

Hypnum cupressiforme, var. resupinatum, Schp. Tree trunks.

Hypnum Schreberi, Willd. Common.

Hylocomium squarrosum, B. & S. Common.

Hylocomium loreum, B. & S. Rare.

HEPATICS.

Metzgeria furcata (L.), Dum. Trees and rocks.

Lophozia ventricosa (Dicks.), Dum. Common.

Lophozia quinquedentata (Huds.), Cogn. Rare.

Lophozia attenuata (Mart.), Dum. Not common.

Plagiochila asplenioides (L.), Dum. Common.

Plagiochila asplenioides var. major, Nees. Not common.

Lophocolea bidentata (L.), Dum. Common.

Lepidozia reptans (L.), Dum. Not common.

Diplophyllum albicans CL.), Dum. Common.

Scapania gracilis (Lindb.), Kaal. Amongst mosses, rare.

Scapania nemorosa (L.), Dum. Amongst mosses, rare.

Radula complanata (L.), Dum. Not uncommon.

Madotheca platyphylla (L.), Dum. Rocks, rare.

Frullania dilatata (L.), Dum. Trees, common.

SOME NOTES ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN EGGAR

(Lasiocampa callunae),

H. F. BARNES.

The Northern Eggar (L. callunae) is very nearly related to, and is sometimes called a

variety of, the Oak Eggar (L. quercus), The distinguishing characteristics of the

former are a darker colouration in both sexes, the yellow patch at the base of the fore-

wings of the male, and the outward turn of the lower ends of the yellow bands. It

belongs to the family containing the Lackeys and Eggars (Lasio campidae). of which

a peculiar habit is that in several cases there is a slowing up of the life processes. For

instance, it is not uncommon for the Small Eggar (Eriogaster lanestris) to stay in the

pupa for 2 to 3 years instead of the usual one winter: cases have been known in which

the pupal stage has lasted for seven years.

81

The Northern Eggar was introduced as a species distinct from the Oak

Eggar when first it was put on the British list in 1847. The late Richard Weaver, who

gave it the name of "Scotch Eggar," found the caterpillars first in 1844, and then the

moth in 1845 at Rannoch.

It is not at all uncommon and has an extended range within the British

Isles, being recorded from Scotland, including the Hebrides and Orkneys, the moors

of northern England, and in Ireland and Wales; also from the Exmoor district in

North Devonshire, and the New Forest in Hants.

The life-cycle of the Northern Eggar is varied. For instance, larvae were

collected on heather in late July and early August in 1913 on mountains in North

Wales. These pupated in due course, after being fed on heather and billberry, and

hatched the same year in September. Some of these moths were of the normal dark

colour which distinguishes the Northern Eggar from the Oak Eggar, while others

were quite as light as the normal Oak Eggar.

In April, 1917, cocoons were. collected from heather and bilberry inland

moors in the centre of England about 1,000 feet above sea level. All these cocoons

that were not parasitized hatched in May and June of the same year, and were all

normal Northern Eggars.

In April, 1918, quite large larvae were collected on hawthorn in lowlands

near the sea-coast in North Wales. Pupation took place in June and the moths

emerged in July. These also were normal Northern Eggars.

In April, 1921, small larvae, about an inch long, were collected on heather

on mountains in North Wales. The difference in size from those cited in the previous

example may be accounted for by the fact that the weather and food conditions on the

mountains are more severe than in the low lying country. These small larvae were fed

on hawthorn and all had spun up by July 19th. One moth emerged on July 27th, and

was of the normal dark colour. The others remained in their cocoons until the

following May.

At the beginning of August, a female moth was found on heather up on

some mountains near the sea-coast in North Wales. During several evenings eggs

were laid, and in a few days 170 eggs were found scattered about the box in which

the moth had been kept. On August 22nd, the larvae began to hatch, and by August

30th, 139 larvae had hatched, about 20 more hatching later.

The eggs are highly polished, pale brown mottled with darker brown in

colour, and about the same size as those of the Poplar Hawk moth.

82

In the process of hatching, the larvae eat a hole as large as their heads in

one end of the egg, and after a short rest walk straight out. They do not eat the empty

egg-shell. In colour the larval are dull slaty-blue with a pale yellow bar edged with

black on the dorsal surface of every segment. During the time that they are in their

first skin, the yellow markings are pale yellow. After the first moult the yellow bars

appear as orange triangular patches with black edges. The head during the first skin

stage is black and glossy, but after the first moult it is a dull slaty-blue colour, the

same as the sides of the larval. They feed on hawthorn leaves freely, though the

parent moth was found on heather; the vice-versa case is not found to hold good. *

At the beginning of October most of the larvae have taken up their winter

quarters down among the dead leaves and stems. They lie at full length with their

heads pointing downwards. If there is a warm sunny day, some may be seen walking

about searching anxiously, but most of them are by this time in a semi-torpid state.

The larvae are now in their third skin. The orange triangular patch has become

grayish. A few have passed their third moult and in the fourth skin, all the centre of

the orange triangle has become gray and only the angles at its base remain yellow.

The whole colour of the larvae is much darker, gray and black, and the yellow marks

have become quite pale again as in the first skin; perhaps this dull colour is more

advantageous for hiding among the vegetation which remains throughout the winter.

By the end of February the larvae are showing signs of restlessness and

some are quite lively on sunny days. In captivity the larvae have been found to nibble

at shoots of the Pink, Monkshood, American Black berry, two evergreen shrubs, and

Dog's Mercury, but they would not touch Dandelion, though this serves as a very

good substitute food for many species.

By March 14th, one can usually find young hawthorn shoots on the

hedges and the larvae may be fed on these. The larvae rest usually with their heads

downwards or horizontal as the following figures show-52 per cent. with their heads

downwards; 44 per cent. with their heads horizontal; and 4 per cent. with their heads

upwards. If the food be sprinkled with water, the larvae walk excitedly

* This possible substitution of hawthorn for heather is very well-known among

lepidopterists. Trail (E.M.M., 1870, vol. 7, p. 88), writes: "I have found that almost

any species, which in a wild state feeds on heather or willow, will, in confinement,

feed on hawthorn and that almost all heather feeders will also eat willow.

83

to the drops and suck them up, as though very thirsty after the winter hibernation.

After several drinks the larval seem to be much better and then they eat more freely.

At the end of April their winter skins are shed and the intersegmental divisions are

now velvety black, while the yellow colour has almost completely given place to a

uniform gray colour. About the end of June the larval are quite large, and spin up

during the following month, and usually spend the following winter as pupae,

emerging the following May. If however, they spin up in June or early July the moth

sometimes emerges in the same year, either in August or September. From such

examples as those quoted above it would appear that there are three alternative life-

cycles of the Northern Eggar, which may be stated as follows:-

(1) ova stage in August, larval stage late August to the following June,

pupal stage July, and the moth in July and August;

(2) ova stage in August, larval stage late August to the following June, and

the pupal stage till the following May, when the moth appears;

(3) ova in late May, larval stage June to August or September, pupal stage

September till the following May. The first cycle takes 12 months, the

second takes 22 months, and the third cycle takes 12 months.

Summarizing, the three cycles may be thus briefly stated- (1) a 12 months' cycle,

August to August, with the winter as larval: (2) a 22 months' cycle, August to a year

the following May, in which the first winter is spent as larvae and the second as

pupae (3) a 12 months' cycle, May to the following May, the winter being spent as

pupae. Thus it will be seen that the variations in the duration of the life-cycle of the

Northern Eggar are identical with those of the Oak Eggar, as briefly stated by South

(Handbook of British Moths, vol. 1, 1907), but the frequency with which these

variations re-occur in the two species may be specific or entirely due to climatic

conditions.

84

THE SYNOD OF TWYFORD, 684 A.D.

J. E. H.

Under the head of "Place-name Problems" (Vasculum, ix, 3). I have given

my reasons for the identification of Bede's "Adtvifyrdi" with the town or village

formerly standing on the south bank of the Alne near its mouth and variously known

as Newbiggin or St. Waleric. Here I may simply add that according to Bede the place

was on the river Alne, and presumably on the south bank.

The recently constituted See of Hagustald (Hexham) had become vacant

by the deposition of Tunbert. No reason for his being deposed is given by Bede; nor

does he tell us how the deposition was effected. The purpose of the synod of Twyford

was to fill this vacancy. It was "no small synod," held in the presence of king Egfrid

and presided over by archbishop Theodore (Bede, Hist. Eccl., iv, 26). How came the

archbishop of Canterbury to be presiding over a synod in the province of York ? Was

there at the time a province of York?

In 625 Paulinus converted Edwin , king of Northumbria, and is commonly

reckoned the first bishop of York, having been previously consecrated by archbishop

Justus. As he was the only bishop in Northumbria, his jurisdiction was no doubt co-

terminous with the Kingdom. But he fled when danger threatened on the death of

Edwin (633). Tradition magnifies his success as a missionary (cf. his reputed

baptisms at Holystone, Pallinsburn, etc.), but history does not commend him for

courage. After his ignominious flight, a generation passed away before Ceadda was

consecrated to the See of York (661). Meanwhile Aidan had been bishop at

Lindisfarne from 635 to 651, and was like Paulinus the only bishop in Northumbria.

So also was his successor Finian. But the integrity of the kingdom had not been

maintained during the whole of this period, Bernicia and Deira being separated for

nearly half the time. It is significant that the Ripon lands granted to Eata of Melrose

in 660 were withdrawn when the See of York was filled-as if the Northern clergy

were regarded simply as " carrying on " until the proper authority was established at

York.

From Richard of Hexham we learn that the See of Hexham extended north

to the Alne, east to the sea, south to the Tees, and west to Weterhall. A we should

expect the boundary between York and Hexham coincides with that between Deira

and Bernicia.

85

To return to Bede's account we find that in the year 678 " a dispute arose

between king Egfrid and the most reverend bishop (antistes) Wilfrid, and that bishop

was expelled from his See, two bishops (episcopi) being appointed in his place over

the people of Northumbria, to wit, Bosa to the province of Deira and Eata to that of

Bernicia." These two were consecrated by Theodore along with Eadhaed who was set

over the province of the Lindisfari (at that time an appendage of Northumbria) in

place of Sexwulf. The removal of Sexwulf was the result of the conquest of the

Lindisfari by Egfrid. He had been at the same time "episcopus" of the Mercian and

Midland Angles, and that office he retained. Three years later archbishop Theodore

consecrated two more bishops for the dominions of Egfrid-Tunbert as bishop of

Hexham, Eata retaining Lindisfarne; and Trumwine "to the province of the Picts

which was then under the dominion of the Angles."

This was the state of things when the synod of Twyford was held except

that Tunbert for some unknown reason had been deposed from the See of Hexham,

and king Egfrid had it in mind to fill the vacancy by the appointment of Cuthbert,

then living the life of a hermit in Fame Island. A reluctant consent to take the

episcopal office had been wrung from the recluse by Egfrid's sister, Elfleda, abbess of

Whitby, in the year preceding the synod. He is said to have stipulated that his tenure

of the office should terminate at the end of two years, after which he would return to

end his days in his hermitage on Farne.

Meanwhile, Wilfrid remained an exile from Northumbria till the death of

Egfrid. He then succeeded Eata at Hexham, but after a year in that See, once more

became Bishop of York. The See, however, was no longer as he had left it, as it had

been shorn of Hexham, Lindisfarne, the province of the Picts, and Lindsey.

In all this, Bede never applies the title of archbishop to any bishop of

York: he reserves it entirely to Theodore. At the time of the synod of Twyford all the

bishops in Saxon Britain-seven in number, three in Northumbria, four in the rest of

the country-had been consecrated by Theodore himself. It appears therefore that he

presided at Twyford as archbishop of all the Saxon kingdoms, and that there was at

that time no such thing as an archbishopric of York even though the See of York

when Wilfrid first entered upon it nominally included the whole of Northumbria.

86

The following table will show the position in 684.

There is no doubt that Theodore was present at Twyford as sole

archbishop. Moreover, though he gets the credit of being an active organiser, it is not

difficult to see what was the real object of his activity, namely, to wipe out the

Columban clergy. His real position was that Rome was the only source of valid

orders; consequently the Celtic bishops were all uncanonically ordained. The case of

Ceadda is illuminative. After Colman's withdrawal in 664 only one bishop was

available for the consecration of Ceadda; so two British bishops were associated with

Vini in the consecration. When Ceadda was translated afterwards he was re-

consecrated by Theodore. It was not necessary to make this expressly a condition of

his confirmation in the new diocese. His disposition was easy-going and

uncontentious; and it was sufficient to suggest to him that there might be some doubt

as to the validity of his orders. He readily took the bait and consented to re-

consecration.

That procedure had been impossible in the case of Colman, a man of very

different character. Even the headstrong Wilfrid did not venture on direct attack, and

the issue was fought on a matter of discipline. Yet Wilfrid when nominated to York

sought consecration in Gaul. He was quite aware, however, that to chaIlenge the

Columbans with reference to the validity of their orders was hopeless; their reputation

was too solidly established.

And the last great name was Cuthbert. If any soreness remained because of the

departure of Colman it could be dissipated by the capture of Cuthbert. In all

probability this was the reason why so much pressure was brought to bear upon him.

First he was interviewed by the abbess Elfleda. Then this Synod of Twyford was

convened, within the vacant diocese of Hexham, but as near as possible to

87

Cuthbert's retreat. He was specially summoned but did not appear. Letters were sent

to him; also special official messengers. To all he gave the same reply. Finally an

extraordinary embassage was sent, headed by king Egfrid himself.

Cuthbert gave way at last, but after consideration managed to avoid the

See of Hexham to which he had been nominated. The more pliable Eata agreed to go

there and leave Lindisfarne to Cuthbert. Why did Cuthbert so strongly object to going

to Hexham? It is easy to say that so he might be the nearer to his beloved Farn. But it

is just possible that the manner in which the diocese of Hexham had become vacant

had some bearing on his attitude. Bede makes no remark about Tunbert's deposition.

It is quite probable that it was an arbitrary action of Egfrid, like the expulsion of

Wilfrid from York. Bede's silence is likely enough that of a partisan. It is noteworthy

that from the time of Ceadda's consecration onward, he speaks of all Celtic bishops as

"uncanonically ordained." He is definitely of Theodore's party.

Finally let us remember that Cuthbert had previously consented to take the

office of a bishop; and he was not a man to go back on his word. But though he had

consented to be a bishop, he had not agreed to become bishop of Hexham. On the

whole it seems most proba'le that it was not the place itself but the nature of the

vacancy to which he objected.

NOTE ON EMBRYOS AND SEEDLINGS OF WALNUTS.

A. J. DAVEY, M.Sc.

The common walnut, Juglans regia, is remarkable for the production of

accessory buds on the plumular axis, these buds being present in the embryo and

seedling stages.

Within the shell or inner stony layer of the drupaceous fruit lies the seed

or kernel covered with a brown testa. When this is peeled off, there remains the white

edible part which constitutes the embryo. The bulk of the embryo consists of the two

cotyledons. each bilobed and curiously folded. These are attached to the seedling axis

by broad bases which enclose the plumule or epicotyl.

This feature peculiar to Juglans regia is the presence of a vertical series of

five or six accessory buds on the epicotyI above the axil of each cotyledon. In the

embryo of a ripe walnut these appear as a series of tiny humps apparently developed

in basipetal succession (Fig. 1).

After germination the buds enlarge somewhat and become separated from

one another by intercalary growth of

88

the epicotyl, while the first pair of plumular leaves expands above them.

Under normal conditions the accessory buds remain dormant, but

experiment showed that removal of the apex or terminal bud of a seedling stimulated

the development of the uppermost pair of accessory buds. These grew out into

branches bearing foliage leaves.

In Juglans nigra, J. Sieboldiana, and J. Hindsii, no accessory buds are

produced, but in Juglans cinerea one or two additional buds have been seen above

the cotyledon axils (Figs. 2 and 3).

The species of Juglans differ as regards the development of their early

plumular leaves. It is noteworthy that, in the species producing accessory buds (J.

regia and J. cinerea), the first two plumular leaves expand as normal foliage leaves of

the compound type though smaller than adult leaves and with fewer segments. In

contrast to this in the species producing no accessory buds, (J. nigra, J. Sieboldiana

and J. Hindsii), there is developed a series of four or five

89

small scale leaves showing very gradual transitions to the foliage type of leaf.

In connection with other studies on seedling walnuts, attempts are being

made to trace the origin of these curious differences in the early developmental stages

of the embryo.

MORE ABOUT SAXIFRAGA GRANULATA.-I was much interested in

the Rev. J. E. Hull's account in the last number of The Vasculum of the flowers on the

basalt near Belford.

His description of an unusual form of Saxifraga granulata reminded me

that I have seen a similar form, though not quite so short, growing in quantity on the

summit of Ivinghoe Beacon on the Chilterns, at an altitude of 800 feet. The hill is

pure chalk, and has a quite characteristic chalk-hill flora, but the flat summit is a

stony waste of flint debris, which in May is starred over with short, large-flowered,

upright growing S. graulata. As far as I know it grows nowhere in the neighbourhood

until you reach the green-sand ridge, north of Leighton Buzzard, where the ordinary

form is quite common, growing, as usual, in damp, grassy places.-J. V.

BLACKBURN.

NEWS OF THE SOCIETIES.

THE WALLIS CLUB.

The Annual Meeting was held on January 12th, 1925. The Secretary reported that the

year had been a most successful one, and that the meetings had been interesting and well

attended. The total membership has increased from 55 to 69. The balance sheet shows an excess

or £1 2s. 11d. of income over expenditure. The following officers were then elected for the

present year. President, Dr. J. W. Heslop Harrison; Vice-Presidents, Messrs. G. W. Temperley,

W. Carter and J. Jeffrey; Secretaries, Dr. F. C. Garrett and Mr. W. Raw; Recorder, Dr. Kathleen

B. Blackburn; Librarian, Mrs. Burns; Council, Messrs. G. Anderson, J. Baxter, W. Bennett, Dr. B.

M. Griffiths, Messrs. Nicholson and Peacock, Mrs. Porter and Mr. J. W. Thompson.

Dr. K. B. Blackburn then exhibited a Collection of Canadian Lycopods, and some

local Orchids to illustrate the use of sulphur dioxide in preserving the colour of pressed flowers.

Mr. Charles Porter exhibited an ingenious model of his own construction to illustrate

the earth motions of rotation and revolution and that conical motion of the axis which results in

the "precession of the equinoxes." By means of additional fixtures the reasons and the varying

lengths of day and night were clearly explained. Dr. J. W. Heslop Harrison showed some

interesting willow galls from Canada and compared that produced by Rhabdophaga strobiloides

on S. Nicholsoni with that on Sallow produced by R. rosaria in our district. Mr. G. W. Temperley

announced the discovery of four new fungus records for Ravensworth namely Cordyceps

militaris, Fr., Scleroderma geaster Fr., Geaster rufesceus, Pers., including var. minor and

Humaria rutilaus, Sacc.

90

February 9th, 1925.-The ordinary monthly meeting was held, Dr. Harrison in the

chair. Dr. K. B. Blackburn exhibited a collection of plants of the families Liliaceae and Ericaceae

collected in Canada last year. Her description of them gave rise to a lively general discussion on

the undergrowth of forests and also on the geographical distribution of arctic forms. Dr. Harrison

then showed specimens of the egg rings of Lackey Moths, both American and English, to show

how the former are protected by gum, whereas the latter are naked.

On February 25th, 1925, a Conversazione was held in the Botanical Department,

Armstrong College by kind permission of Professor M. C. Potter. Two lantern lecturettes were

givcn during the evening. One by Mr. W. Raw on "Studies in Bird Life," when a beautiful series

of lantern slides from direct photographs of birds in relation to their habitats was shown. Dr. K. B.

Blackburn then showed a collection of photographs taken of and near the Illicillewaet Glacier in

the Selkirk Mountains of British Columbia. Specially worthy of note was a close up view of the

tiny creeping bramble, Rubus pedatus , one of the characteristic plants of sub-alpine habitats in

the Rookies and adjacent mountains. A large company of members and friends were present and

much enjoyed the various interesting exhibits brought by members. These were too numerous to

mention but represented most of the different aspects of biology.

March 9th, 1925, was a special "Canadian night." A long series of photographs taken

during the British Association meeting in Canada last summer were exhibited. Mr. A. D. Peacock

spoke on Quebec and the eastern part of the trip while Dr. K. B. Blackburn and Dr. Heslop

Harrison spoke especially on the western trip, to British Columbia and back, and the flora and

fauna of the districts passed through.

On March 20th, 1925, a special meeting was held which took the form of a

discussion on the Origin of the Flora and Fauna of the British Isles. Professor H. G. A. Hickling

opened the meeting with an interesting lecture on the geological aspects of the question. He

considered the general principles which must underlie any consideration of the detailed

geographical history of that small portion of the continent of Europe which we call the British

Isles. In describing the several recurrent ice ages on the continent of Europe he pointed out that

the British Isles were probably only involved in one of these. With regard to possible land

connections he gave it as his opinion that the oceans had always occupied their present positions

and that past connections could only he looked for across our shallower seas. A lively discussion

then arose on the difficulties of explaining the present distribution of our flora and fauna. Dr.

Harrison and Dr. Griffiths gave specific instances of curious distribution and the ensuing

discussion was waged chiefly round the anomalous flora and fauna of western Ireland and their

possible origins. The Yorkshire Naturalists' Union has arranged an excursion to Teesdale for the

last week-end in May, and have invited the Wallis Club to join them. It is hoped that something

can be arranged.

NOTES AND RECORDS.

FLOWERING PLANTS.

Ligustrum. vulgaris, L. Privet. 66

The wild form of this plant is not uncommon in the hedges and woods near Lamesley

precisely where Bryonia Dioica and Tamus communis reach their northern limits and I strongly

suspect that it is a genuine native. In that case we have a considerable extension of its Durham

range. The plants flower and fruit well.

91

Digitalis purpurea, L. Foxglove. 66

Once deemed extinct on the east side of the Team Valley; now existing in thousands

where the wood has been felled at Lamesley. Several other plants, like Listera ovata, Orchis

mascula, etc., the las- named supposed to be absent from the valley, have been, as it were,

"released" by the same circumstances and are now to be found there.

Salvia verbenaca, L. 66

Rare enough at Birtley but still persisting.

Hippophae rhamnoides. Sea Buckthorn. 68

In view of the occurrence of the psyllids proper to the plant on those growing at Sea

Houses, is there not a possibility that they are truly wild?-J. W. H. H.

Orchis morio, L. Greenwinged Meadow Orchis. 66

This plant is quite numerous in the Derwent Valley where I found a specimen with

pure white flowers a few years ago.

Neottia nidus-avis, L. Bird's nest Orchis. 66

Quite common in one wood in the Valley.

Corydalis claviculata, D.C. Climbing Corydalis. 66

Numerous but local.

Erodium cicutarium, L'Herit. Hemlock Stork's bill. 66

Found near by for the first time last year (1924).

Lysimachia vulgaris, L. Great Yellow Loosestrife. 66

Discovered at two stations on the Derwent banks.

Pyrola media, L. Wintergreen. 66

In a damp wood near Chopwell.

Hypericum humifusum, L. Trailing St. John's Wort. 66

A little plant, often overlooked but occurring at Chopwell.

Echium vulgare, L. Viper's Bugloss. 66

Grows in gravelly places in the valley.

PETER CHARLTON, ChopwelI.

LEPIDOPTERA. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

Acherontia atropos, L. Death's Head Hawk-Moth. 66

On Sunday, October 26th, my daughter Marjory found a fine specimen of a female

Death's Head lying dead on a road at Blackwell, near Darlington. The moth appears to have laid

most of her eggs; only few were found on opening the specimen, which is now in our Club

museum.-J. E. NOWERS.

I have had two Death's Head Hawks brought captured in good condition at rest on

timber; the other much damaged, was picked up dead under beech trees near Black Hall Mill.-

PETER CHARLTON, Chopwell.

Sphinx convolvuli, L. Convolvulus Hawk. 66,67

Two specimens have been taken at Reedsmouth in September and October, 1924;

also at Fatfield, Co. Durham, some years ago.

Dianthoecia nana, Rott. Marbled Coronet. 67

Captured at Lychnis flowers at Holywell.

Anisopteryx aescularia, Schiff. March Moth. 66

Found at rest on birch in Chopwell. Woods.

Coremia designata, Rott. Flame Carpet. 66

Also taken in Chopwell Woods in August, 1924, the first captures in the county for a

very long time.-J. W. THOMPSON, Holywell.

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Cheimatobia brumata, L. Winter Moth. 66

Very abundant at electric light at Birtley, but now with the pale type and melanic

forms in equal numbers. Has been seen almost every night in December, including that of

Christmas Day and Christmas Eve.-G. H. HARRISON, Birtley.

Geometra papilionaria, L. Large Emerald. 67

Larvae at Prestwick Carr.-J. R. JOHNSON, Gateshead.

Phigalia pedaria. Pale Brindled Beauty. 66

Taken on a street lamp outside my house on December 16th, in the form of a freshly

emerged male specimen. This is a month earlier than my previous record here.-J. P. ROBSON,

Barnard Castle.

CURRENT HAPPENINGS.

Local naturalists will hear with regret of the departure from Newcastle of Professor

M. C. Potter who has been granted leave of absence pending his retirement, and has gone to live

near Bournemouth. During the thirty-five years he has spent in the north, Dr. Potter has proved

himself a keen naturalist, and has always been ready to help any fellow-worker or to do anything

to advance the interests of his science. The good wishes of many friends are his.

The new number (Pts. 3 and 4) of the Transactions of the Entomological Society

consists of 550 pages and 50 plates so can hardly be reviewed in a paragraph, but it contains

papers on practically every branch of the Science. Mr. F. W. Edwards has a long paper on "British

Fungus-Gnats," which is of great importance to the dipterist, and although most of the other

papers deal with foreign insects the British worker cannot afford to neglect them. Mr. R. H. Harris

has a further instalment of his very curious and interesting notes on tsetse flies and mosquitoes.

The South-eastern Union of Scientific Societies is a strong and active body, and its

organ "The South-Eastern Naturalist" is worthy of it. The new number contains a full account of

the work of the Union .in 1924 as well as the papers read at its annual congress, and most of these

are of more than local interest. Lepidopterists will enjoy Prof. Poulton's "Modes of protection in

the pupal stage of butterflies and moths," and Sir Richard Gregory's presidential address "Science

in civilisation;" is worthy of its author. Our Business Editor is particularly struck by the item in

the balance sheet "Donations towards cost of South-Eastern Naturalist, £54 l2s. Id.;" and wishes

he could put something similar in the next Vasculum account!

Mr. E. Ernest Green (Ways End, Camberley, Surrey), is anxious to see more workers

busy with that neglected group the Scale Insects, and offers to assist any who will take it up. This

is an excellent offer and we hope that some of our local microscopists who have as yet no

speciality will accept it. Only 127 species have been found in Britain, and as 30 of these have

been discovered by Mr. Green during the last eight years there is evidently a great deal to be done

yet. The Wallis Club library contains Mr. Green's "Review of the Coccidae of the British Islands,"

and also his paper "on the preparation of Coccidae for microscopical study," so that the best

literature is at hand.

93

NORTHERN NATURALlSTS’ UNION.

The Union having been in existence for the greater part of a year, and having proved

its value, the provisional committee decided that itwas time to complete the organization and the

first annual meeting was held in the new Science Laboratories, Durham, on Saturday, January

31st. On arrival the party (over 60 strong) was met by Professor Irvine Masson and Dr. B. Millard

Griffiths who conducted it over the building. The laboratories are a valuable addition to the

resources of the North-East for they are very well planned and fitted, and although it seems likely

that they will soon be overflowing with students there is ample room for enlargement. There is

much to be said in favour of small towns as seats of Universities and one is disposed to envy the

student who will work in these buildings, especially as one knows how favoured he will be in the

matter of his Professors and lecturers. At the meeting which followed the tour of inspection,

Professor Irvine Masson formally welcomed the Union, expressing his hope that this was but the

first of a series of visits, and that they might prove beneficial alike to the University and the

Union.

Getting down to important if less interesting business the Secretary pointed out that

he was at the moment the only officer, and on the nomination of Mr. R. Luck and Mr. J. E.

Nowers, the Hon. Lady Parsons was elected the first President. A better selection could not have

been made, for not only is Lady Parsons a keen naturalist but during the meeting she proved

herself an admirable chairman. The secretary having reported that five societies, with about 400

members had joined the Union that it had held a very successful field meeting at Hawthorn Dene

and a conversazione at Darlington as already reported in these pages, and that the income had

proved sufficient to meet the expenditure, the members proceeded to consider the rules. As these

had already been discussed by the societies it was only necessary now formally to approve them,

and such amendments as were made were unimportant, except that the subscription for members

who do not belong to an affiliated society was reduced to seven shillings and sixpence.

The election of officers for the year came next and resulted as follows : President, the

Hon. Lady Parsons. Vice-Presidents, Mrs. T. E. Hodgkin (Stocksfield), Mr. W. Dixon (Rowlands

Gill), Dr. B. M. Griffiths (Durham), Dr. T. W. H. Harrison (Birtley), Mr. R Luck (Darlington),

Mr. W. A. Smallcombe (Sunderland). Hon. Treasurer, Mr. C. P. Nicholson, Elmstead, Elms

Road, Darlington. Hon. Secretary, Dr. F. C. Garrett, West Croft, Hexham. These, together with

one representative from each affiliated society form the Council of the Union.

Attention was called to the need for enlisting young workers, and to the desirability

of assisting school natural history societies, and the Council was authorized to establish a junior

section if it thought fit to do so.

Business having been disposed of Mr. F. Gerald Simpson , M.A. (Director of

Archaeological Research in the Durham Colleges) gave a most interesting address on "The

Archaeological work of a Field Club," but it is difficult to summarize so carefully reasoned a

statement without ruining the speaker's argument. Beginning with a discussion of the great value

of historical knowledge and research particularly to the scientist. Turning to the work of "local"

antiquaries Mr. Simpson pointed out that first class work can only be done by those well

grounded in archaeology, and that local workers must be content to act as hewers of wood and

drawers of water for more learned men, but reassured his discouraged auditors by adding that he

himself was but a local worker. He urged that all local societies should work in as close co-

operation with the local university as possible.

94

The President having thanked the Council of the Durham Colleges and Professor

Masson for their most kind hospitality the members adjourned to Hatfield Hall where the

Colleges generously provided tea. From every point of view the meeting was an unqualified

success: much business was done, the Union was put on a firm footing and during the walks and

at Hatfield Hall naturalists from all part of the district were enabled to compare notes and to get to

know each other better. A field meeting will be held early on the Tees marshes in June, and the

President invites the Union to visit the moors around Sweethope Loch in July.

Mr. Simpson's address is printed in full in the March issue of the Durham University

Journal, but an extract is here appended which deals with the interrelation of History and

Archaeology with Natural Science -a combination which The Vasculum has long recognized:-

I am to address the members of a Scientific Society upon the subject of Archaeology. As to

equipment, not so much as a pick does my department possess, though that surely need not

seriously disturb me, for County Durham appears to be a veritable home of such tools: while, as

for buildings, I feel with some reason like a tramp in a war-time issue of Punch who, on being

eloquently urged to defend his home, allowed his surroundings to reply in the words of the title

"His roof the open sky"!

At the outset I feel I am placed on the defensive by the knowledge that the parent of

Scientific Societies, the British Association, has given no official recognition to Archaeology. Nor

can I overlook either the tradition concerning antiquarian method, or the lack of it, or the

indefinite diehard prejudice which the very word "antiquarian" still inspires. Too many seem

unable to forget Gordon's account of the first digging on Hadrian's Wall: "We caused the place to

be dug where we were seated," and picture our work as nothing more than such a day's enjoyable

and not unrestful outing. Others may have heard of the excavator on the Wall who described how

he started work in this way: "I closed my eyes, held up my spade, let it fa1l and dug in the

direction in which it lay." To the ears of some of you may even have come the story of a certain

University working-party on a site situated, fortunately, south of the County of Durham! It is

stated that they found nothing Roman, though without doubt they were working upon a site of that

period. Others, however, who have followed have found traces of a "late" occupation in the shape

of glass undoubtedly imported from a country which once bore the name of Gaul.

In fact, I have to begin to outline the archaeological work of a Field Club by replying

to the very pertinent question. "Has this work real educational value for these practical days?

And, further. If that be conceded, cannot such a subject wait until less critical times, or is it so

vital that a place must forthwith be found for it in the education timetable-in the opinion of so

many, already overloaded?" I the more readily accept this approach to my subject because Dr.

Masson found it necessary to reply to a somewhat similar question. These are his words:-

" I would only make one other point. . It is directed towards the few who still, in this

twentieth century, ask for assurance as to the practical utility of pure science, and who would

prefer a technological training for students who may enter industry."

95

How much more necessary is it for me to deal with that particular aspect of the

general question of utility which concerns my own work when I have reason to believe that 10 per

cent. covers the proportion of people really interested in the subject?

May I give you the opinions of two distinguished professors, one of Science and the

other of Mathematics, as to the value of the Classical Period, its history and literature, as a subject

for study by science students? The first is that of Professor Smithells, for many years and until

recently, of Leeds University, and the second, of Professor Whitehead, of the Imperial Science

College. It was my privilege to hear, in 1921 I think it was, a lecture on Greek Mathematics and

Science delivered at. Leeds University by Sir T. L. Heath. I confess I was greatly surprised when

Professor Smithells, who presided, said in some such terms as these, at the conclusion of the

lecture: "I have always wished that my science students could have had a course of classical study

before beginning their work in my department." He then went on to give his estimate of the

quality of the Greek mind, He believed that had the Greek scientists had at their disposal the

stores of scientific information now available, they would in actual achievement have

outdistanced the best minds of to-day.

The second opinion I will quote from a paper by Professor Whitehead in the Hibbert

Journal for January, 1923, his subject being "The Place of Classics in Education." Professor

Whitehead, speaking of a discussion at the "leading committee of a great modern University,"

said:-

"The three representatives of the Faculty of Science energetically urged the importance of classics

on the ground of its value as a preliminary discipline for scientists. I mention this incident, "he

added, " because in my experience it is typical."

Then, later in the paper, he explained his view-point thus:- "All this diplomatic and

political stuff ... is a very thin view of history. What, is really necessary is that we should have an

instinctive grasp of, the flux of outlook, and of thought, and of aesthetic and racial impulses,

which have controlled the troubled history of mankind. Now the Roman Empire is the bottleneck

through which the vintage of the past has passed into modern life. So far as European civilization

is concerned, the key to history is a comprehension of the mentality of Rome and the work of its

Empire." And again: "The marvellous position of Rome in relation to Europe comes from the fact

that it has transmitted to us a double inheritance. It received the Hebrew religious thought and has

passed on to Europe its fusion with Greek civilization."

It is patent that these experienced teachers meant much more by the word"

discipline" than mere mental preparation. Surely they had in mind a broad, moulding effect,

producing steadiness and balance, moral as well as mental. Now you may be disposed to grant

that this is sound educational theory, an admirable ideal; but you will still put the second part of

the question: "In view of the pressure of the times, is it vital? Can it help to relieve the present

social and world conditions which, after all, is or should be the aim of all educational effort? "

To this part of the question, the Bishop of Durham has very strikingly replied within

the present month, and his speech at the annual meeting of the Historical Association at

Newcastle on "The Gift of Historical Thinking," was probably heard, or read, by many who are

present to-day, May I repeat some of his words:-

"Could the gift of historical thinking be made the possession of

96

the wage-earner? " (Professors Smithells and Whitehead were thinking only of science students:

the Bishop has a much wider field of view.) " Could the gift of historical thinking be made the

possession of the wage-earner? Modern democracy was a great experiment, the success or failure

of which the future alone could disclose. It was enough to know where the dangers lie and to

make the most of our resources to remove and mitigate them. . .. Neither the blinding prejudice of

class, nor the swollen vanity of nationalism, nor the preternatural suspicion of political panic,

could enter a mind filled , disciplined and exalted by historical thinking, which was the grand

prophylactic against that mental disease which was revolutionary in temper. It was no accident

that revolutionaries ever disclosed almost frenzied hatred of the memorials of history. Revolution

was the very negation of history. The man who thought historically, descerned and discriminated,

as well as observed and recorded, before he concluded."

Surely the Bishop was not thinking of such a balanced judgment as the ultimate ideal

to be slowly realized in a distant future? That would be entirely out of touch with the words we

have read. Clearly he was viewing the present, and we all agree with him, as one of those periods

which H. G. Wells had in mind when he said, " History is the record of a race between education

and catastrophe."

If, with the aid of the Bishop and the Professors, I have had any success in carrying

my first point-that there is a real and vital value in the study of Classical history and literature

even in these critical days-I have no fear of failure, but anticipate immediate success with my

second, namely, that archaeological research is the indispensable partner of the teacher charged

with the task of imparting this vital gift of historical thinking. Dependent upon the existing

literary material though we must ever be, it is nevertheless by common consent agreed that

already the value of this material has been enormously increased, and at the same time an entirely

new body of intimate knowledge, not only of that period but of every period of human history,

has been built up through the work of the archaeologist.

I do not think I need say more to indicate to you what I mean, then, by the

archaeological work of a Field Club. I am not going to be so foolish and presumptuous as to tell

the members of the Northern Naturalists' Union they ought all to become archaeologists. What I

ask is that in future you will view this branch of research from the same standpoint that you view

your own and test its results by similar standards, that you will, in fact, give us first of all your

confidence that this work is being conducted, and will increasingly be conducted, on what you

yourselves call scientific lines. In making this request I again have Dr. Masson's support: "Each of

us," he says, "must select his own small cross-section of Nature for his intensive study. But-this is

important-no one of us has any business to assume that his is the one and only aspect worthy of

study or productive of truth; and, as far as in him lies, he should take heed of the doings of his

fellow-inquirers in other domains."

How this new interest may work out in practice it is, I think, unnecessary to attempt

to detail at the moment. If I have gained some of you to the view that a greatly increased effort

must be made in order to place any and every person of average education in possession of a gift

such as this of historical thinking, with its capacity for producing that invaluable result, the habit

of a balanced exercise of Judgment, I am amply rewarded, for I have also gained your interest and

support for the development of Durham's share in that effort.

THE VASCULUM.

Vol. XL No. 4. July, 1925

EDITORIAL NOTE.

The heavy cost of printing has compelled us for some time past to resort to

economies which were much against the grain. It is pleasant, therefore, to find that

increased circulation seems to justify a greater freedom. Consequently, beginning

with the first number of our twelfth volume, due in October, each issue of the

Vasculum will consist of forty pages instead of thirty-two, and the general appearance

of the magazine will be considerably improved. At the same time we are glad to

announce that we have the promise of important papers from Dr. Fordham, Dr. E.

Leonard Gill, Dr. H. M. Blair, Mr. C. Nicholson , and Mr. W. Raw, in addition to the

usual bill of fare.

This is a satisfactory outlook, but it can be made still better if subscribers

will kindly make the Vasculum known to their friends, and to maintain the upward

trend of the circulation.

WITHERSLACK, WESTMORLAND.

SOME HOLIDAY NOTES.

J. E. HULL AND F. C. GARRETT.

This, be it understood, is the record of a holiday, not of a survey. The base

was the Derby Arms-a pleasant hostelry on the Kendal-Grange road, run by a native

of the ancient kingdom of Fife whose ambition is to welcome all the naturalists in the

British Isles and so handle them that they will "come again." They generally do. The

party was a skeleton crew of three, representing a full complement of nine the

remaining six being held up by the adverse winds of circumstance. Date, June 22-27.

First, as to the country and its general aspect. Two great limestone spurs

jut southward into the wedge between the Kent and Winster. The eastern is

Whitbarrow, and its precipitous termination, Whitbarrow Scar, rearing- its lime-

white face potted with yews over a base shrouded in woodland, is the dominant

feature in the landscape. Thence,

98

towards the tidal waters, is a medley of limestone ridges and bosses among which the

main road winds its way, from east to west. This disposition of the rocks has in three

instances produced a shallow basin of considerable extent which long ages of swamp

and moorland vegetation have filled with .a deposit of peat some eight or ten feet m

thickness where it is now exposed by the peat-cutters. The cutting of the peat usually

commences in March and is concluded in May; but this year it was delayed and was

still in progress when we arrived on the scene in the last week of June. Perhaps the

operations were being prolonged in view of the troubles which threaten to paralyse

the coal trade.

Foulshaw Moss, adjacent to the lower reaches of the Kent, has been

appropriated by the sea-birds, and was not visited by us. First attention was given to

Meathop Moss, which lies at no great distance to the south of the Derby Arms. Like

the others, it is a heather moss plentilully sprinkled with small silver birches and in

several places odorous with Sweet Gale. Sphagnum is by no means abundant, and as

a consequence the common sundew is not very frequent except in the ditches.

The prolonged drought had dried up all the surface water and therefore the

long-leaved Sundew (Drosera longifolia) stood out conspicuously on the caked mud

which represented the shallow waters which it loves. This dried-up condition of

things made it possible to wander at will over the whole surface of the moss without

any great anxiety as to one's footing. It is anything but helpful, however, to collectors

of certain ground creatures, such as Arachnids-many of which seem to require more

or less moisture and practically disappear in a prolonged drought. Spiders under such

circumstances sometimes find refuge under the flaked mud of dried-up pools, but on

this occasion seem to have found a "better 'ole." Neither had they retreated to the

damp sides of ditches, which were occupied only by the usual inhabitants, Pirata

(only piraticus was seen) and Antistea. In the overhanging heather Tetragnatha

solandri was present but in no great number. Epeira cornuta, which commonly hangs

its web athwart these narrow water courses. did not appear at all. A web slung

between two dumps of heather on the open moss may have belonged to this species,

but was more probably that of E. patagiata; but there was no nest, and the spider

itself could not be found.

In one of the ditches a little group of the common sun dew gave unusual

and interesting proof of the plant's insect capturing abilities. Everybody knows that

insects are

99

trapped by the viscid fluid secreted by the gland-tipped hairs of the sundew; but the

victims are nearly always some of the smaller diptera, such as midges and gnats. In

this case, however, an unfortunate Large Heath butterfly (Coenonympha typhon) had

been limed and held fast. It was quite lively, having been caught by the tips of its fore

wings. When released and its wings (which were glued together) freed, it fluttered

away somewhat feebly. Still stranger. was the capture made by an adjacent plant,

namely, a pair of the pretty red dragon-flies (A. minium), taken in cop. They also

were little the worse for their captivity and flew away when released.

The most conspicuous flowering plant on the moss was the bog Asphodel

(Narthecium), but more interesting because of its comparative rarity was Andromeda

polifolia. It is quite generally distributed over the moss and is considerably more

robust than the Andromeda of our Northumbrian fells. The whole moss was sparingly

flecked with the seeding heads of cotton grass (mostly Eriophorum vaginatum), many

of them occupied by that interesting spider Dictyna arundinacea for nursery

purposes. The female encloses the head with a loose web leaving a small entrance

aperture above, within which she may be seen crouching on her globular egg-cocoon.

Still more of these nurseries are to be found on the heather, from which plant the

wandering male may be swept or beaten, as also (though less frequently) from the

silver birch.

A belt of trees extends into the middle of the moss from its western

margin, affording a slight variation of habitat. Here occurred Euarcha flammata

Clerck (usually called falcata), a handsome Salticid or jumping spider. No doubt in

more normal weather it occupies its more usual habitat, the margins of pools on the

moss. Another Salticid- Heliophanus flavipes-and the ant-like Drassid, Micaria

pulicaria, were obtained in the same locality as the Euarcha, but neither has any

claim to be considered a swamp species.

The open moss is the great haunt of the Large Heath (C. typhon) which

flies in hundreds on a fine day; a good many were examined and were usually the

variety rothliebii (davus), but another visitor obtained some very good intermediate

forms. With it occurs the beautiful Yellow Underwing (A. myrtilli) and many of the

Heath Moths as well as the Small Argent and Sable (M. tristata). On a sunny

afternoon it was a beautiful sight to see the great Eggars darting about but it was

difficult to secure any for they flew at a great speed, one could not hurry, and

although

100

one marked where they landed they disappeared in the heather in a surprising fashion.

Another lepidopterists' puzzler was the Clouded Buff (D. russula); it was there in

quantity, but when on the wing it flew too high and when resting it vanished; the

painstaking work of one of our party on four days only resulted in the capture of three

specimens though one would expect so gay a moth to be a conspicuous object.

From the heather on the moss nothing of importance was obtained by

beating. The only Acari were Anystis and a few common Oribatids. Spiders included

the ubiquitous Dictyna arundinacea, Peponocranium ludicrum (abundant, all

females), Clubiona trivialis, Philodromus aureolus (young), and three species of

Xysticus, all immature (probably cristatus, pini, and kochii). The larger birches on the

northern margin of the moss were a little more productive. Among the spiders taken

was a female which was bottled under the impression that it was an ordinary Epeira

cucurbitina, retained simply as a reminder of its presence. On examination, however,

it proved to be the much rarer species E. inconspicua Sim., hitherto recorded only for

Sussex. Another interesting species from the same region was Theridium impressum

which also occurred more sparingly on the birches in the middle of the moss.

Linyphia peltata was plentiful; Chiracanthum carnifex and Leptyphantes obscurus

occasional. Young examples of a Pentastomid Hemipteron (Acanthosoma sp.) were

present in some number, and the adult bug should be fairly plentiful in September.

The Witherslack Moss in the Winster valley is of the same general

character as the Meathop Moss but apparently much wetter when in normal

condition. As a consequence the long-leaved Sundew (Drosera longifolia) is more

abundant, usually to be found associated with Rhynchospora alba. In one such place

was a fine dump of Splachnid moss which with the help of Mr. J. B. Duncan has been

identified as Tetraplodon mnioides, generally found at considerable altitudes growing

on decaying animal matter. This is rather disappointing as the habitat rather suggested

the very rare Widdy Bank species-T. wormskjoldii.

For some unknown reason Arachnid species were much less numerous

here than on Meathop Moss, but certain of the commoner Epeiridae were more

plentiful-Tetragnatha extensa, Epeira diadema, and Zygia sp. (probably atrica). The

last two were immature. Phyllonethis lineata and Linyphia peltata were very

abundant on the birches and young firs.

101

The mosses do not commend themselves for night-work; but that does not

matter, for there are plenty of good places to choose from, and it would be hard to

find a more delightful hunting ground than Black Tom's Lane whether for sugar, light

or dusking. The lane is about a mile long and leads from the meadows of the Winster

into the heart of Witherslack moss; along its eastern side runs a limestone bank

clothed with mixed wood, and on the west narrow fields formed by the removal of the

peat separate it from the great moss. With such variety of soil and vegetation and no

sheep or houses, small wonder that moths are innumerable. It was here that in 1922

Mr. Gordon Smith working with a 2,000 c.p. lamp made his record bag of 90 species

in one night, among them the two Elephant Hawks and many rarities; and here also

Dr. Lowther has done much of the collecting which he has reported in The

Entomologist. One caution is necessary; before you go dusking in Black Tom's Lane

familiarise yourself with the paths to it by day; they are not easy to find in the dark-

the best is the least obvious -and you may be compelled to finish with a tramp of

some three miles along the hard road. We were unlucky in our night work; as a rule

there was a cold north wind, and on the one "perfect" night-warm, still and damp-for

some reason the moths refused to stir; the lane was patrolled until long after midnight

but even the Yellow Underwing and the Silver Y were rarities! However, we saw

enough to whet our appetites and make us eager for another visit to the joys and

beauties of Westmorland and the comforts of the Derby Arms.

Next in interest to the mosses were the limestone ridges and rocks. Hard

by the Derby Arms is a little wayside nook under a limestone crag which once was

(and perhaps still is) a station for the Little Blue butterfly (Z. minima). In this corner,

under loose stones, occurred Robertus neglectus, a rather uncommon spider, and an

A. maurobius which agrees with typical specimens of A. terrestris but unfortunately

is immature and cannot be recorded under that name.

Only a little westward of this spot is a typical limestone ridge of

considerable interest-especially its western face which rises in a series of three grassy

terraces. Among the many flowers which spangled the open terraces were the

Butterfly Orchid and the Fragrant Orchid. Further on, where bushes and low trees

presented the aspect of a thicket the common Gromwell (Lithospermum officinale)

grew among the brambles; also a thistle (which occurs elsewhere in the

102

neighbourhood) of doubtful identity, which, judging by the swollen tuberous roots

should be Cnicus tuberosus.

At its highest part the ridge breaks into naked limestone, in the deep rifts

of which the Hart's Tongue fern finds a congenial home. With it grow two

Spleenworts-the black and the wall rue. The surface of the rock was gay with the

yellow stonecrop, but produced also a plant of greater interest-the vernal Sandwort,

Arenaria verna, Of this there is no great quantity, and it seemed to be hard hit by the

drought. The parched slopes were almost destitute of Arachnida. A few

Rhyncholophus phalangioides were running at large, but no spiders; and sifting of

grass clumps produced nothing of any note except a solitary female of Neriene

cornuta, though the more interesting Drassus lapidicola (the typical form, not

cupreus) was taken under a stone. Beating of gorse and other bushes was hardly more

productive. Philodromus aureolus was the dominant species, but mostly immature.

Of much greater interest was Dictyna latens. It was not very plentiful, but both sexes

were taken.

The Common Blue (L. Icarus) was in swarms and of quite unusual

brilliance in colour; with it, and equally abundant, that curiously variable insect the

Brown Argus (L. medon), A good many of these were examined and the principal

varieties seen were allous, semi-allous and albi-annulata, the latter interesting

because the white ring round the black discal spot has caused many to mistake it for

the Durham variety (salmacis). Most lists and books state that the Durham Argus is

found in this district, but Mr. F. Littlewood has given particular attention to the

matter and is satisfied that this is a mistake. Fifty years ago Newman described the

Wood White (L. sinapis) as abundant here but no capture has been reported since

1905 and it is extinct, as also the little Blue (Z. minima) appears to be. For long this

little fly could be found on a small patch of ground close to the Derby Arms, and

visited all too frequently by collectors, but none were taken in either 1924 or 1925. A

recent writer in The Entomoloqist blames the County Council roadmen for storing

barrels of tar on this spot, but they did little harm; the food plant is abundant within a

yard or two of the tarry area (which is small) and the real cause for its extermination

seems to be the selfish greed of collectors. In 1922 some of us watched a pair at

work; both were on the ground by nine a.m., one or both was there until sunset and

the little fly had no chance to lay in peace. Later in the year they were reported as

having exhibited "a nice series from Wither-slack," but was it worth while?

103

A little earlier the three small Fritillaries (Euphrosyne, Selene and Lucina)

are abundant if you know where to look for them, but we were too late and only saw

one A. Euphrosyne; with the Fritillaries are found both the Foresters, but these also

were over by June 22nd. Two other butterflies unknown in Northumberland and

abundant here are G. rhamni and V. io but for these one must go in the spring, or

better in the late summer when all that are wanted can be obtained.

The rough rocky ground on the other side of Witherslack village, more or

less overgrown with bracken and bramble, was picturesque enough but did not yield

much. On these rocks Sedum acre ceded pride of place to its relative Sedum anglicum

which whitened the limestone wherever it could find a footing; and where the turf

met the bare rock a few plants of Senecio silvaticus appeared. Here one could rest and

smoke and watch the antics of a brood of robins without feeling that one was missing

much.

The shores of the Kent estuary held out no inducements to the

lepidopterists, but while they pursued the elusive Clouded Buff and other things on

Meathop Moss the remaining member of the party spent an hour or two near the tidal

mark beyond Ulpha, chiefly in the neighbourhood of a limestone crag whose base is

washed by the tide. On the eastern side it forms a tiny sun-warmed cove, carpeted

with short grass, the walls decked with Sedum anglicum with here and there an early

bloom of Hieracium murorum.

This cove was alive with tiny mites of a brilliant scarlet hue which raced

hither and thither over the surface of the rock and amid the short turf. This was a

species of Belaustium, not yet identified, and it is just possible that it may be as yet

undescribed, as Halbert does not seem to have met with it on the other side of the

Irish Sea. It is a small species of greater breadth than usual , clothed pretty densely

with spathulate blunt setae shortly plumose on one surface only.

The distinctively maritime plants on this crag were Silene maritima and

Sagina maritima. Above on the landward side were several plants of Lathyrus

silvestris, not yet in bloom.

The salt-grass yielded no Arachnida of any note. A diligent search

revealed only such commonplace species as Erigone longipalpis, Oedothorax fuscus,

Dicymbium nigrum, and Pirata piraticus.

104

THE HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY IN OUTLINE OF FLORA AND FAUNA

OF NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM.

(Continued. )

A. D. PEACOCK, M.Sc., F.R.S.E.

Local Post-Glacial Effects.-Once the ice had finally retreated, the land

took on the configuration we know to-day. Early post-glacial times, as Forbes

suggested, were probably comparable to those of the Barren Grounds of America

above the, latitude of 70° N.-treeless, richly populous with caribou, reindeer, musk

ox, wolf, arctic fox, white bear, ermine and shrew. Our population was similar with

its reindeer, primitive cattle, bear, fox, wolf, and beaver. Later with more genial times

came the trees-pine, oak and beech -and their attendant fauna, conditions as we know

them to-day but wilder.

Turning to local geological conditions which have operated and are still

operating, we find them few and simple. North lie the Cheviots which bar the low-

altitude northerners and deflect them to the west; south are the Clevelands which bar

the low-altitude southerners but these hills, at the same time, are also a meeting

ground. Altogether 77 species of plants found in our countries fail to penetrate

Scotland. Two examples will suffice. A lane at Lamesley is the northern limit of

Black Bryony (Tamus communis) and White Bryony (Bryonia dioica). How many

insects are affected similarly has not been ascertained but here are three examples of

moths reaching north to Durham and no further, viz., the Lemon Sallow (Xanthia

givago), the Golder Ear (Plusia moneta) and the Mullein Shark (Cucullia verbosci).

Among northerners which have a outhern limit here are the Coral Wort (Coralorrhiza

innata) at Newham Bog and Ross Links. There are 16 plants which come to halt with

us and, on the east of our islands, go no further south, among these being the bog

Bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum).

Let us now consider our flora and fauna in the following order; Pre-glacial

and Glacial Survivors, Lusitanians, Arctics, Alpine, Orientals and Siberians.

Pre-glacial and Glacial Survivors.-This is a vexed question. Relicts could

consist of Lusitanians, or Arctics which had spread south before the ice age began.

Such spreading is quite possible as northerners are more readily acclimatised to the

south than southerners to the north.

* Scientific names are only given in cases where there is likely to be any confusion as

to what species is meant.

105

Again, there could be survivors from the Arctics which retreated before

the ice and supplanted the earlier Lusitanians. From the above discussion of the Ice

Age it is reasonable to believe that Arctics such as the blaeberry family would

survive. But are we to believe that the warmer Lusitanians could hold out? Probably

only the hardy upland heaths could do so. We may picture Cross Fell, Cheviot and

Upper Teesdale during glacial times as lonely island moors of Arctic blae-. crow-,

and cranberry, mosses and lichens, with Arctic saxifrages possibly, and Lusitanian

heather, and attendant invertebrates such as snails and insects-but without a bird

singing.

Arctics-with the final retreat of the ice, the south- driven Lusitanians and

Arctics could return. The climate would at first be moist and cold so that the Arctics

would probably be the earliest repatriates, though the Lusitanian heather would stand

a chance of speedy recovery. Examples of our Arctics to-day are the blaeberries,

crowberry, cranberry (i.e., the Vacciniales), the saxifrages, rushes, cotton- grass and

wintergreens of upland or moorland haunts; of the familiar fauna are the red grouse,

and of the lesser known fauna are the "Green-veined White Butterfly" (Pieris napi)

and the" Autumnal Moth" (Oporabia autumnata). Though presenting its own

peculiarities due to its nature, our North Sea shows a general Boreal fauna and as

examples there may be cited the common prawn or crayfish (Nephrops norvegicus),

the sticklebacks, perches, many cod, herring and several flat-fish. Of the fresh water

is the Miller's Thumb (Cottus gobio), which, curiously enough, as Professor Meek

has shown, survives only at isolated points.

Lusitanians.-From our geographical position we cannot expect to possess

many Lusitanians, but the common southerners we do possess may occasion surprise

as we would naturally associate them with the sterner north. They comprise two

heaths (bell heather, and Cross-leaved heath), the wild hyacinth or blue-bell, and the

holly. Of mammals are the rabbit, badger, mole, red-deer (now extinct locally); of

birds, the chaffinch, brambling, and pied wagtail; of reptiles, the grass snake, which is

very scarce; of molluscs, the common black slug.

Alpines.-The majority of our Alpines, so-called, are really Arctics, the

majority of true Alpines being of Arctic origin. But we do possess certain forms

which have reached us from the Alps. They are a stonecrop (Sedum villosum) a

saxifrage (S. hypnoides), Alpine milk-worts, meadow rue (Thalictrum alpinum), and

Bartsia (B. alpina). Of animals

106

is the Dormouse (Muscadinus arvellanarius), surely a journey for such a little

beastie.

Asiatics.-Evidently in their journey from the East plants and animals have

pursued one of two routes; one southern and Oriental and the other northern and

Siberian. The Southern route ran around Turkestan, across Syria and the land now

covered by the Aegean Sea, across Turkey and across South Europe; the northern led

from north of the Caspian. The yellow wagtail (Motacilla campestris), according to

Scharff, has a story in this connexion. One colony is West European including our

islands and counties, while the other is East European and is found in south-east

Russia and Turkestan. Our colony winters in ,West Africa and the writer, for one,

has many a time watched in Southern Nigeria (with a pang of home-sickness) its

friendly little figure wagging away in the hot red dust of the compound. The Eastern

Colony winters in South Africa. From such evidence and other data it is suggested

that a first migration occurred early from the Orient and eventually reached 'Western

Europe while a second and later migration reached East Europe with the Siberians but

was never able to spread farther west. The proportion of the Oriental and Siberian

flora and fauna still remain to be ascertained.

(a) Oriental.-The vast geological events of the Ice Age did not affect this

area directly; neither were there serious obstacles in the path of migrants from it.

Consequently a steady flow of life set towards us. Representatives to-day are the

English hare, the red deer, most of the voles, the legless lizard or slow worm, the

three newts (Molge vulgaris, M. palmata, M. cristata), the Painted Lady butterfly

(Vanessa cardui) and the Clouded Yellow (Colias edusa). As an example of the

plants may be cited the oak.

(b) Siberian.-From geological evidence the main Siberian migration does

not appear to have reached here until the close of the Ice Age. They are the most

recent arrivals but are an important biological element. Of mammals are the harvest

mouse, the stoat and common shrew of to-day, and the beaver of yesterday; of

reptiles, the viper and lizard (Lacerta vivipara); of amphibia , the common frog

(Rana temporaria). Most of our common lepidoptera are Siberian. Familiar plant

instances are the dandelion and plantains.

Among the curiosities of the subject deserving of mention is the obscurity

which prevails concerning our knowledge, of the native countries of the common

domesticated horses, cattle, dogs and cats. We know practically nothing of their

distributional history.

107

Degee of Peculiarity and Generality of the Local Flora and Fauna.-In this

connection let us deal first with the flora which has been so very well worked out.

From the work of Watson (5) and Baker and Tate (7), on the flowering plants we may

deduce the following:-

1. We possess about 66 per cent. of the species found in Great Britain;

2. We are about seventh on the list of counties in regard to the number of

species; the general rule is the further south the more species.

3. Of our flora about 80 per cent. belong to the Germanic type and are of

Asiatic (Eastern) origin.

Of these about 111/2 per cent. are Arctic (Northern) and about 81 per cent.

are Lusitanian (Southern) and Alpine ( originally Arctic).

4. Only one species is peculiar to Northumberland and Durham, viz., bog

sandwort (Arenaria uliginosum), restricted to Teesdale.

Among our rarities are Spring Gentian (Gentiana verna), the Shrubby

Cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa) and the little Bird's Eye Primrose (Primula

farinosa).

The thoroughness of our knowledge of the local flora, is not by any means

equalled by our knowledge of the fauna. Such statistical generalisations as have been

given in the flora are not possible on the animals. Certainly, while groups such as

vertebrates, lepidoptera, beetles, smaller crustacea, molluscs, zoophytes, sponges,

etc., have been listed there are many more groups which still remain unreckoned.

Lacking the census we also lack the generalizations concerning their distribution.

Hence it may happen that what we call rarities now are really not such; it may simply

mean that the technique for their collection has not been discovered or that the type

has not been studied attentively.

Hobson's list of lepidoptera, 1912 (8), showed that we possessed 1,169

species out of the 2,061 species of Great Britain, i.e., 57 per cent., but he mentions

that more work would reveal a greater number. Since Robson's time additions have

continually been made and listed in The Vasculum, Probably, therefore, the

percentage now reaches to about 60 and hence approximates closely to the 60 per

cent. shown in the case of our flora.

Mennell and Perkins in 1864 (9) found we possessed 59 out of the 75 British

mammals, i.e., nearly 80 per cent.. This is a high percentage and it has undoubtedly

been assisted

108

by the number of local marine mammals. But, on the other hand, we are too far north

for many bats; we only possess 7 out of 14.

The beetles according to Messrs. Bagnall, Gardner and Walsh, number

some 1,800 out of a total British number of 3,400, i.e., 53 per cent.

Among our faunal specialities we note the endemic variety of the blue

butterflies, the Castle Eden Argus, restricted to our area alone and the autochthonous

black varieties of moths (melanics) such as the Mottled Beauty (Boarmia repandata).

Of our rarities there are the Chillingham Cattle. In the light of the studies of Professor

Meek and Mr. Gray (10) on the Corstopitum Cattle remains, in which was revealed a

type having a slender build with the lower first pre-molar tooth absent, the

Chillinghams appear to be the descendants of wild cattle which roamed our country

before the Romans. This wild species they call Bos sylvestris. They do not subscribe

to the view that the Chillinghams are the descendants of the giant Bos primigenius.

Probably they belong to a smaller race distributed wildly in Europe and originating in

Asia.

Of insects there is the peculiar solitary ant (Mutilla europaea) stranded in

a few regions, viz., North Yorkshire, Blackhall Rocks, and South Shields, and

isolated from other points of occurrence in England and Europe. There are also two

bumble bees, Bombus Smithianus, not found elsewhere until we reach Shetland, and

B. latreillellus var. distinguendus, a purely northern variety of a southern species.

Modern Influences.-This final section deals with the modifying influences

which are at work to-day. Undoubtedly these are due largely to man and are wrought

by thought as well as by want of thought. Industrialism is filling with slag the

beautiful Hown's Gill, near Consett, is destroying the Durham Denes with pit-rejecta,

and poisons the salmon in the Tyne with oil, chemicals and sewage. Town expansion

has practically destroyed the happy hunting grounds round Gosforth and East Boldon.

Drainage has entirely altered the character of Prestwick Carr. The war felled our pine

woods but good may come out of that if we follow clean and rational afforestation.

Ships brought us grain weevils. In sum, with Edward Forbes "The progress of

civilization drives before it and finally banishes many an indigenous but useful flower

and at the same time introduces others as useless and perhaps not so harmless, to take

its place. With good comes evil and the hand that sows the corn diffuses the dodder, "

109

Of smaller significance is the presence of plants brought by ships' ballast

at least 117 of such having been detected locally. In the visits of outsiders among the

birds such as Pallas' Sand Grouse and the Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus) and among

the lepidoptera such as the Convolvulus Hawk Moth (Sphinx convolvuli) there would

appear natural attempts at colonization. Man himself takes pleasure at times in

preserving our beautiful things as witness the efforts of Viscount Grey of Falloden,

Mr. Abel Chapman of Houxty, and Mr. Beck at Gosforth. By the collaboration of the

Home Office, the Duke of Northumberland, and Dr. Harrison, Newnham Bog is now

preserved and maintained as a sanctuary. Still more recently there is the successful

effort of the Ornithological Section at the Hancock Museum, working in conjunction

with other Ornithological Societies, in connection with the preservation of the bird

life of the Farne Islands.

As a final word, and at the risk of unduly repeating the point, the writer

would urge that in this problem of the history and geography of the local bios there is

abundant opportunity for Our local field naturalists to push their enquiries further

toward fundamentals. Those who would work through the plants or animals of the

groups in which they have specialized and place them into their historical and

geographical relationships would be doing not only local but national and

international scientific service.

REFERENCES.

1. Gadow, H., The Wanderings of Animals. Camb. Univ. Press, 1913.

2. Scharff, R. F., History of European Fauna. 1899.

3. Harrison, J. W. H., The Geographical Distribution of the Geometrid Sub-family

Bistoninae. 18 parts. Naturalist, 1916-7-8.

4. Harrison, J. W. H., The History and Geography of the Shrubby Cinquefoil.

Vasculum, Vol. II., No. 2.

5. Watson, H. C., Topographical Botany. 1883 (with supplement).

6. Forbes, E., On the Connection between the existing Flora and Fauna of the British

Isles and the Geological Changes which have affected their Area. Geol. Memoirs,

Vol. I, 1846.

7. Baker, J. G., and Tate, G. A New Flora of Northumberland and Durham. Trans.

Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, Durham and Newcastle-on-Tyne, Vol. II., 1868.

8. Robson , J. E., A Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Northumberland, Durham and

Newcastle-on-Tyne. Ibid., Vols. XII. and XV., 1899 and 1913.

9. Mennel and Perkins, Catalogue of the Mammalia of Northumberland and Durham.

Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club, Vol. VI, pt. 2, 1864

10. Meek, A., and Gray, R. A. H., Corstopitum. Report on the Excavations in 1910.

(Roman Animal Remains). Arch. Ael., 1911.

110

MINERALS OF THE NORTH COUNTRY

SULPHATES OF CALCIUM, SODIUM AND MAGNESIUM.

J. A. SMYTHE.

Sulphates of Calcium.-There are two natural sulphates of calcium, both of

which occur abundantly in the North Country; these are the anhydrous sulphate,

CaSO4, known as Anhydrite, and the dihydrate, CaSO42H2O, which forms the

mineral Selenite, a water-clear mineral, with very pronounced cleavage and so soft as

to be scratched by the finger-nail. Massive forms of this hydrate, of confused

crystallisation, are the familiar Gypsum and Alabaster. From gypsum, by partial

dehydration, is produced a valuable artificial product known as Plaster of Paris.

The formation of anhydrite mark characteristically a stage in the

precipitation of sea-water salts, when the dissolved calcium sulphate reaches

saturation point in presence of concentrated brine. It is thus associated with rock-salt

and other salt, and, in our district, was extensively deposited in late Permian times,

when arms of the sea, more or less land-locked, were drying up.

A remarkable deposit of this material, no less than 265 feet thick, was

proved by boring at Hartlepool, some years ago. Dr. C. T. Trechmann has described it

in detail (Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., 1913, 69, 384) and shown that it occupies the

position of the wide slack , between Hartlepool and West Hartlepool, in which the

timber-yards and harbours are situated. This mass of anhydrite rests upon gypsiferous

magnesian limestones of the Middle Division and represents the time-equivalent of

part of this division and of the Upper Division of the same series. Evidence is

adduced that anhydrite was, in places and at times, deposited along with the dolomitic

limestones and being afterwards converted by water, where unprotected by

impervious covering, into gypsum, was removed as such, giving rise to porous

structures and even to mechanical collapse. In this manner, some of the striking

features of this limestone, e.g., its brecciation receive an explanation.

Anhydrite is converted slowly into gypsum by the action of water, an

increase of 60 per cent. in volume taking place in the process. Hence masses of

anhydrite like the above are often associated with gypsum, especially at the upper and

lower surfaces. Gypsum may also be deposited directly from solution in water, its

solubility in pure water being quite appreciable (2 grams CaSO4 per litre at 18o C.).

Large

111

quantities are met with in the Permian and Triassic beds of the Eden Valley and West

Cumberland. In the former locality, it is quarried at several places, e.g., Kirkby

Thore, near Appleby. There it is about 30 feet thick, capped with a similar thickness

of glacial drift; it contains thin bands of anhydrite, especially about the middle of the

deposit.

Anhydrite is commercially useless, but gypsum finds many practical

applications and is won on a large scale. about 200,000 tons a year being raised in the

United Kingdom. The fine-grained varieties, often banded, reined and coloured, form

the ornamental alabaster, easily shaped into statuary by reason of its softness. The

whiter forms of gypsum are used for paper-filling, as a constituent of pigments, and

as a lubricant and polishing powder. Added to Portland Cement, gypsum has the

property of retarding the time of setting. Some is used as Brewers' Gypsum, being

added to water for brewing in order to imitate the composition of the famous Burton

water, which, being drawn from gypsiferous Triassic beds is rich in calcium sulphate,

containing on an average 70 grains per gallon of this salt out of a total of 120 grains

of saline matter per gallon of water.

Perhaps the most interesting application of Gypsum is in the manufacture

of Plaster of Paris. When strongly heated, the mineral loses all its combined water

and leaves the anhydrous salt, identical in composition with anhydrite. It is then said

to be "dead burnt" and the residue recombines with water very slowly. If, however,

the heating be restricted to a temperature of 120o to 130o C., only one fourth of the

water is expelled and the resulting Plaster of Paris combines rapidly with water, re-

forming the fully hydrated salt. This is accompanied by expansion in volume, so that

a paste of the plaster with water sets quickly and gives an accurate cast of the mould;

further, the interlocking of the reformed crystals of gypsum produces considerable

rigidity, notwithstanding the softness of the component crystals.

In practice, the gypsum for conversion into Plaster of Paris is crushed and

ground to a very fine powder, then heated to the requisite temperature in upright iron

boilers. The escaping steam, rising through the comminuted mineral meal, gives the

appearance of a boiling liquid whence the process of dehydration is known as

"boiling'." Care must be taken not to break this operation, otherwise the steam is

condensed and the whole mass sets in the boiler.

112

Gypsum or selenite may be met with frequently in small quantities and

under a variety of conditions and it may be looked for wherever the sulphuric acid

from weathering pyrite has an opportunity of coming in contact with limestone. A

local occurrence which may be of interest is at Seaton Sluice. Here the mineral occurs

in beautiful stellar aggregates of slender needles, half an inch in length, in the shales

at the north cheek of the whin dyke.

Some years ago (1918), I observed an incrustation lining the brickwork of

the level to the old lead mine at Ayle Burn, a little north of Alston. The crystals were

well formed and from 1/16 to 1/8 inch in length, and yielded results on analysis

showing them to be pure selenite:-

Found. Calculated

for

CaSO4.2H2O. CaO 32.50 32.56

SO3 46.73 46.51

H2O 21.07 20.93

This level was driven by the London Lead Co. to work the Aleburn vein

and it was in following this that a large cavern in the Great Limestone, locally well

known, was discovered. References to it are to be found in Sopwith's Account of the

Mining District of Alston Moor (p. 68), and in Wallace's Laws which regulate the

deposition of Lead Ores in Veins (p. 185), from which it is evident that the level was

made about the year 1783. This would give 135 years as the maximum age of the

crystalline deposit, but it seems unlikely that growth was continuous, since the

brickwork, at the time of observation, was quite dry.

A gypsiferous deposit occurs as a thin, coherent crust, occupying joints

and bedding planes in sandstone, just by the bridge which crosses the loop line

between the main north railway and Benton Station. It appears to be of recent

formation, for the joints and bedding planes have been weathered out since the

railway cutting was made, not so many years ago. Pieces of the crust, six inches

square and about 1/16 inch thick can be extracted. The material is dark-coloured, but

distinctly crystalline under the lens. After washing away loose sand-grains and drying

in air, it forms a light grey powder on grinding and yields on analysis :-

Per Cent.

Gypsum 80.18 Ferric Sulphate 2.95

Clay and Sand 13.90

Carbonaceous Matter 2.97

113

The position of this deposit raises difficulty as to the origin of the calcium

sulphate, for the material is in sandstone, close to the rock surface, which is capped

by 4 feet of boulder clay, The neighbourhood of the bridge suggests that the building

lime is possibly the source of sulphate, and this is confirmed by the examination of

stalagmatic material from other bridges in the locality. This has been found to be by

no means pure calcium carbonate, but to contain noteworthy amounts of calcium

sulphate.

Sulphate of Sodium.-Glauber Salt, Na2SO4.10H2O, the sal mirable of the

earlier chemists, is known native as the mineral Mirabilite. Owing to its easy

solubility in water and its great tendency to lose water of crystallisation at the

ordinary temperature, its preservation in nature requires special protective conditions.

One of the few recorded occurrences in Britain is at the Kirkby Thore quarries,

mentioned above, where it was found in 1900 by C. O. Trechmann (Mineralog. Mag.,

1901, 13, 73). The mineral occupied a lenticular cavity, in the gypsum, about 2 inches

long and 5/8 inch thick; it had suffered some solution by water and was slightly

effloresced, but on breaking the lump it was found to be "perfectly limpid and

colourless, with marked conchoidal fracture, and exhibiting in some of the fragments

a perfect cleavage in one direction" (loc. cit.). Analysis of this limpid material

showed it to be pure Glauber salt.

Sulphate of Magnesium.-This is the well-known Epsom salts, or Epsomite,

MgSO4.7H2O. It is easily soluble in water and is quite commonly met with in pit-

waters. As the crystallised mineral, it may frequently be seen in coal-pits and

sometimes in ironstone mines, usually as bundles of exceedingly slender needles, up

to 4 inches in length and of dazzling whiteness. It is known by the pitmen under the

name of Old Men's Whiskers, a singularly good descriptive term, especially

applicable when the brilliant natural lustre of the crystals is somewhat dimmed by a

slight coating of dust.

114

A CONVENIENT CAGE FOR LARVAE.

F. C. GARBETT.

Many forms of cage have been described, most of them either unsuitable or too

expensive, and a satisfactory one which can be made at home is a boon to the

lepidopterist. The one to be described is not new but seems to be little known, and as

I have used it for several years and found it entirely satisfactory I wish to recommend

it to others; not the least of its merits being that it can be made by even a most

indifferent workman.

To begin with a box is required, but its exact size is not important. I have now

adopted 8 in. by 8 in. by 6 in. deep as my standard size, but I have made cages from

deep cigar boxes, and still use them though they are rather small. With a saw cut it

through two inches from the top, first making a mark down one side so that the two

parts can be fitted together again later. Inside the rim of the bottom part fix a

continuous beading of thin wood (cigar box) projecting three-quarters of an inch, and

smooth it with glass paper so that the upper part-the collar-may slide over it easily but

fit it closely.

Nail a piece of lath to each corner of the collar, fixing them on its outer side so as to

give more room in the cage, and join the tops of these uprights by light strips of

wood; paste "leno" over this frame-work and the cage is ready.

115

As a rule the four laths should be ten inches long, and the lino is more easily fixed if

short lengths of lath are tacked on between the feet of the four uprights.

The food plant stands inside the cage in a squat bottle of water, cotton

wool being packed in the neck to keep the water clean and to prevent larvae from

wandering in; it is worth while to steady the bottle by twisting a few inches of "lead"

piping round it. For the convenience of larva; that pupate in the ground soil or fibre

can be placed in the box, and it is my experience that the fibre need not be damp;

larvae go down into dry fibre quite readily and there are no masses of mouldy frass to

infect the pupae.

It is impossible for the most restless larva to escape from such a cage

except by eating its way out, and few will attempt that; the cage is well ventilated,

perfectly stable, and not expensive to make.

BIRTLEY MARSHES.

HELENA HESLOP HARRISON

One would not expect a marsh bounded on one side by a railway line and

on the other by ironworks to possess an attractive flora, and so the prospect of a visit

to the marshes at Birtley did not raise many hopes of adding new plants to the local

lists. However, I was to be very agreeably surprised.

We chose for our visit a fine day in June and hence found everything at its

very best. Even at a distance the fine display of Yellow Flags (Iris pseudocorus) ,

which fringed the marsh on the north and west, stood out conspicuously with, a

background of rushes far off in the centre of the marsh where lay snugly hidden the

nests of the Coot, Teal, and Water Hen. In the open water amongst the rushes a Little

Grebe was disporting itself, and before coming nearer we spent an amusing five

minutes watching it dive. As we approached the marsh a Mallard rose with a whirr of

wings and the other water fowl, alarmed by it, skimmed as far away from us as

possible.

We followed the railway embankment (parallel to the west side of the

marsh) and thus passed two distinct types of plants, those growing on the water edge

and those growing at the bottom of the embankment, the latter comprising for the

most part of plants preferring a fairly moist, but not wet, situation.

116

Conspicuous among these latter were the Great Burnet (Sanguisorba

officinalis), with its bright reddish-purple flowers, the Wild Angelica (Angelica

sylvestris), the Woody Nightshade (Solanum dulcamara) trying hard to become a

genuine water plant, the Meadow Sweet (Spiraea Ulmaria) and the Great Wild

Valerian (Valeriana officinalis).

Among the Rushes and Sedges of the water side were the Great Sedge

(Carex vulpina) and the Sea Club Rush (Scirpus maritimus). We noticed the Club

Rush with particular interest, since the typical habitat of this plant is a salt-marsh.

There is here ample scope for speculation as to how this plant deserted its native

haunts and settled in Birtley!

At points all along this edge the marsh had crept past the fence formerly

running along the bottom of the embankment, but now with its old post standing a

few inches above the top of the water. Very curiously, on the top of one of these posts

was a solitary plant of the Celery Leaved Crowfoot (Ranunculus sceleratus), the one

other specimen discoverable being at the other side of the marsh. As we reached the

south-west corner of the marsh the two Water Plantains became very abundant. The

common larger one (Alisma plantago), both with ordinary and with double flowers,

used to be the only Water Plantain found here, but recently the Lesser Water Plantain

(Alisma ranunculoides) has made its appearance and seems to be increasing rapidly in

numbers.

One is commonly told that there are no orchids in the Team Valley, but

this we entirely disproved by finding a large number of beautiful purple Marsh

Orchids, with their spikes standing out boldly among the rushes along the south side

of the swamp. On examination these proved to be Orchis praetermissa var. pulchella

of a very uniform type. The stems of this orchid are hollow, its leaves unspotted and

the flowers a very beautiful rich deep red-purple with a number of darker purple lines

and blotches on the lip.

This is the first time that any orchid has been found here and its

recognition provides the first county record for this form; consequently we were

highly delighted with our discovery.

Growing with the orchids was the Cuckoo Flower (Cardamine pratensis

var. palustris). It is peculiar that all the plants we saw were of this large flowered

variety, the common Cuckoo Flower being exceedingly rare.

117

One of the most beautiful plants we met with was the Mare's Tail

(Hippurus vulgaris), The plant itself (which, by the way, was in full flower) is not

very striking, but, as we saw it, assembled in masses of several hundreds together in

its favoured habitat, it looked particularly fine.

The Creeping Spike Rush (Eleocharis palustris) formed a zone all along

this south side, together with the Branched Bur-weed (Sparganium ramosum). On

this latter were settled hosts of Dragon flies consisting almost wholly of the two

delicate blue species, Ischnura elegans, with its, black abdomen and barred blue

extremity, and Agrion puella almost uniformly blue. We found it was impossible to

go right down the east side of the marsh. There however, we detected one solitary

specimen of the Marsh Forget-me-not (Myosotis palustris), another recent arrival in

the swamp, and nearby on the bank sides the Great Hairy Willow Herb (Epilobium

hirsutum), Yellow Rocket (Barbarea vulgaris) and the Marsh Wound Wort (Stachys

palustris).

Among the plants growing in the water of the Marsh itself were the two

Duckweeds (Lemma minor and Lemma trisulca), the Water Starwort (Callitriche

verna) a specimen of which we took home for the aquarium, Floating Meadow Grass

(Glyceria fluitans), the Ribbon Grass (Phalaris arundinacea) and the Hairy Mint

(Mentha hirsuta). In some parts the water surface was entirely obscured by the Alga

Enteromorpha intestinalis, intermingled with masses of Zannichellia palustris and

often enough with crowns of Water Milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum).

As we were making our way homewards round the marsh we met some

ornithologists who had been wading for the eggs of the water fowl. We were sorry

enough to learn that they had taken the eggs of the Teal, Coot , Water Hen and Little

Grebe.

If this is what can be obtained from a casual visit taken more particularly

from a botanical standpoint, what does the marsh hold in store for both the botanist

and zoologist, who visit it from time to time to observe its treasures systematically ?

118

BILLINGHAM MARSHES.

JUNE 13TH, 1925.

The second field meeting of the Northern Naturalists' Union was held at

Billingham on June 13th when, by the courtesy of Mr. Dixon and Mr. Stainthorpe, we

were allowed to work the extensive marshes adjoining Billingham Beck. Favoured by

delightfully fine weather over sixty members were present, including representatives

from the Cleveland Naturalists' Field Club, the Darlington Field Club, the Consett

Natural History Society, the Sunderland Natural History Society, the Vale of Derwent

Naturalists' Field Club and the Wallis Club.

In order to make the results of our researches as valuable as possible

competent referees had been appointed and afforded all the help they could during the

day. Amongst these Mr. C. E. Milburn and Mr. W. Raw attended to the

Ornithologists, Dr. K. B. Blackburn and Mr. J. E. Nowers to the Botanists, whilst Mr.

G. Nicholson, Mr. T. A. Lofthouse, Mr. M. Lawson Thompson and Dr. J. W. H.

Harrison served the Entomologists in like capacity.

The party was divided into two sections, one arriving at Billingham about

11.30 a.m. and the other at 2.45 p.m. but, in the main, the work attempted by both lots

was the same.

Leaving the station, we passed through Mr. Dixon's fields to the Trollius

Bog over which we wandered at will, gathering treasures here and admiring beauties

there, but ever sparing the rare to perpetuate its race to delight future generations of

naturalists. Amongst the latter was one single plant, the last representative of the Red

Sandstone colony of the Bird's Eye Primrose (Primula farinose), known a hundred

years ago and only rediscovered in 1919 when eleven plants existed.

Naturally, since this tract affords us the only piece of untouched fenland in

our counties, its chief attractions are botanical, and our constant aim was to verify

recent records made by Dr. J. W. H. Harrison and to add to them if possible.

Most of the old plants flowering at this period were noted, but additions to

the marsh flora were made in the form of Carex glauca, C. pulicaris, Triglochin

maritimum, Ranunculus sceleratus and Menyanthes trifoliata. Of these stands out

pre-eminently T. maritimum for in the same marsh flourishes Triglochin palustre, and

thus we have a repetition of the state of affairs in Saltholme nearer the mouth of the

river-a fact confirming one's views as to a fairly recent contact between the sea and

this area.

119

Similarly, new to the Bottoms, but not marsh plants, we collected Rosa incerta,

Habenaria viridis, Orchis Moria and Botrychium lunaria. The first-named provides

us with a new county record whilst the last serves to emphasise the connection

between this marsh and Upper Teesdale, suggested by the occurrence of such Boreal

forms as Trollius europaeus, Primula farinosa and the moth Coremia munitata.

Appended is a full list of the plants reported to Dr. Blackburn and Mr. Nowers :-

Equisetum maximum. Trollius europaeus. E. palustre. Ranunculus sceleratus.

Botrychium lunaria. Thalictrum flavum.

Carex glauca. Nasturtium officinale. Carex caryophyllea. C. vesicaria.

C. Goodenowii. C. pulicaris.

C. vulpina. Primula farinosa, C. acutiformis. P. veris.

C. panicea. Menyanthes trifoliata.

C. hirta. Lathyrus macrorhizus. Orchis incarnata. Myosotis palustris.

O. praetermissa. M. caespitosa.

O. morio. Valeriana officinalis. O. ericetorum. V. dioica.

O. incarnate x O. ericetorum. Veronica officinalis.

Helleborine palustre. Symphytum officinale var patens. Habenaria viridis. Senecio crucifolius.

Listera ovata. S. aquaticus.

Iris pseudacorus. Crepis paludosa. Triglochin maritimum. Oenanthe fistulosa.

T. palustre. Angelica sylvestris. Juncus glaucus. Geum rivale.

J. conglomeratus. Rosa mollis,

Schoenus nigricans. R. incerta. Alisma plantago-aquaticum. R. coriifolia.

Scirpus lacustris. Geum rivale.

Phragmites communis. Stachys Betonica, Glyceria aquatica. Ajuga reptans.

Elymus arenarius. Geranium pratense.

Phalaris arundinacea. Populus tremula.

In spite of the greater interest of the botanical side the Entomologists were not idle,

and a thoroughly useful day was spent. Never has it fallen to the lot of a Durham

worker to see so many Orange Tips in one day, females being as

120

commonly observed as males. Of these Mr. Johnson took four to secure material for

his photographic studies, and he was fortunate enough to find eggs of the species

likewise, not only on its normal food plant Cardamine pratensis, but also on Water

Cress. Interesting, too, to us all were cocoons of the Drinker Moth (Odonestis

potatoria) now probably extinct in all its inland localities except Waldridge Fell and

this marsh. A single cocoon of Plusia festucae served to remind us of the presence of

this lovely moth. Other species taken by or reported to Mr. Lofthouse and Dr.

Harrison were:-

Euchloe cardamines. Sericoris lacunana, Pieris napi. Pardia tripunctana.

P. rapae. Phoxopteryx lundana.

Coenonympha pamphilus, Bactrea lanceolana. Eupithecia pygmoeata. Ephippiphora cirsiana.

E. exiguata. Argyrolepia hartmanniana,

E. castigata (melanic). A. cnicana. Melanippe montanata. Catoptria ulicetana .

M. sociata Mimaesoptilus bipuncidactyla

Euclidia mi. Adela rufimitrella. Odonestis potatoria. Glyphipteryx fuscouiridella.

Arctia caja. Chrysoclysta aurifrontella.

Tortrix ministrana. Elachista argentella. T. palleana.

Of course the usual small dragon flies, Agrion puella, A. minium and

Ischnura elegans were plentiful, as were also various Sialids and Nemourids already

put on record in previous numbers of our periodical.

As the marsh was recognised as affording little scope for the

ornithologists, in fact only the Snipe and Reed Bunting being noted, Mr. C. E.

Milburn conducted these enthusiasts to more favoured areas near the Tees mouth.

They reaped a rich reward for their pains for they saw nests of the Skylark, Ringed

Plover, Common Tern, and Lesser Tern , whi1st a newly hatched chick of the latter

species was observed trying to hide in the shingle. In addition to these were seen the

Grey Heron, the Shoveller Duck, the Green Plover, the Red Shark, the Snipe, the

Herring Gull and the Black Headed Gull.

The proceedings closed with a very enjoyable tea at Norton when further

opportunities were given to carry out one of the aims of the Union, i.e., to enable us

to become more fully acquainted with each other, no matter where we live or to

which organisation we belong.

121

THE DURHAM MARSH ORCHIDS.

J. W. HESLOP HARRISON, D.Sc.

In my earlier paper on the genus Orchis (Vasculum, Vol. III., pp. 86-89) I

summarised my knowledge of the forms I had encountered in my rambles without

submitting their status to any critical tests. More recently, and again without

questioning its specific rank, I have put on record for the county Orchis purpurella,

Stephenson, a plant also detected in the sister county by Mr. R. B. Cooke.

I now wish to indicate my views on our plants so that other workers may

confirm or deny them, more especially as I have now concluded that the plant

regarded as the Orchis latifolia of Linnaeus, as far as this county is concerned, can no

longer be admitted to specific rank and ought, therefore, to be expunged from our

lists. I grant that such a plant may possibly occur on the continent, but I am

convinced, although I cannot as yet prove it from personal knowledge, that much the

same state of affairs holds elsewhere. Under the title "Marsh Orchids," for the

purposes of the present paper, I include those orchids listed in my former contribution

under the aggregate name Orchis maculata, for these cannot be dissociated from the

group of plants to which the name "Marsh Orchid" more properly belongs. The plants

therefore to be discussed are, Orchis incarnata L, O. praeter-missa Druce, O.

praeter-missa var. pulchella Druce, O. latifolia L., O. purpurella Steph, O. Fuchsii

Druce and O. ericetorum. Linton.

Of these, O. incarnata is not listed by Baker and Tate nevertheless it has

been collected in some plenty in marshy places down the Northumberland and

Durham coasts, in the lower Tees Marshes and in Upper Teesdale, generally in its

typical form with rose pink flowers but occasionally with light or dark purple

inflorescences (Billingham) or even in an almost blood red guise (Langdon Beck).

Concerning its rank no doubt can exist; its stout, hollow stem, its sword-like

unspotted leaves, the smallish flowers with feebly lobed, reflexed lips, erect sepals

and stout spur, and its early flowering period (June 2nd-17th) effectually shut it off

from its neighbours. Indeed, with us so constant is it to its typical flower coloration,

dull rose pink, that that character alone suffices to distinguish it in 95 per cent. of the

specimens seen. It prefers very wet, spots and is nowhere more at home than in such

hollows on the coast, often alone (Seaton Sluice), but often with Orchs Fuchsii and

even O. ericetorum (Blackhall Rocks), and with O. praetermissa, Gymnodenia

conopsea and the same two plants (Billingham and the southern portions of the

Blackhalls on the cliffs).

122

Orchis praetermissa Druce, described not long ago, has proved to be

excessively abundant in many places, and in the Team Valley, in many stations,

Lameley, Low Fell, Birtley, and Vigo, it appears as the sole representative of the

genus. So long as one regarded the occurrence of unspotted O. latifolia as a common

event, one was bound to admit the truth of the statement made by Baker and Tate that

O. latifolia was frequent in damp meadows, and my own pronouncement to the same

effect was fully warranted. Now, I am compelled to admit that, wherever I have

carried out critical investigation, if there was a pure "stand" of the form, it was

always O. praetermissa.

This orchid can always be separated from O. Fuchsii and O. ericetorum by

its hollow stem, and from O. incarnata by its less sword-shaped, unspotted leaves,

purplish flower with a broader and flatter lip, and its less erect sepal.

With us, it is at its best about ten days later than O. incarnata, and it is

apparently more often found away from other members of the genus than that species,

although, frequently enough, it has the same associates.

On Waldridge Fell, where it grows with O. Fuchsii, it hybridises easily

with that species, and there also occurs the so-called typical ring-spotted O. latifolia

as well as U. purpurella-a combination found also in the hollows on the cliffs at

Blackhall Rocks. In my opinion, these ring- spotted forms are, in the main, F1

hybrids between the two species named, and, as they are fully fertile, I regard the

group of forms, including O. purpurella, found with them, as composed of F2 plants

and other hybrids of complex composition resulting from the various crossings

possible. That such a form as O. latifolia (?) stands out pre-eminent I regard as a

necessary corollary to its position as an F1 hybrid, and that O. purpurella also

emerges prominently I assign to its ability to continue at points wholly impossible for

other segregates. Such a preferential survival of segregates has been shown to hold

good in Viola tricolor hybrids by Clausen. Its occurrence in O. praetermissa hybrids

would be the more readily appreciated if the curious way it crowds together in

marshy hollows on the coast in little rushy nooks shunned by O. Fuchsii were seen.

The other two palmate orchids, O. Fuchsii and O. ericetorum, up to the

present not regarded as distinct with us but lumped in our local lists as O. maculata

are to be separated from the oters by their solid stems, their narrower blotched leaves,

the blotches being often less heavily marked centrally, their generally paler range of

flower coloration,

123

and the definitely later time of flowering, O. ericetorum being at its best in late June,

and O. Fuchsii a little later. Indeed so different are they from their congeners just

discussed, that very rarely would even a novice tend to confuse either with O.

incarnata or O. praetermissa.

The most easily appreciated features serving to separate O. Fuchsii from O.

ericetorum lie in the gradual tapering of the lower leaf of the latter contrasted with its

blunt abruptly narrowing tip in O. Fuchsii coupled with the differences in the lips of

the two flowers. In O. Fuchsii, the lip is deeply cut into three subequal lobes, whilst

in its ally the central lobe is very tiny compared with the lateral pair. Moreover,

whilst even with us both grow freely enough alongside one another, in acid peaty

bogs and similar situations O. Fuchsii, although abundant, occurs alone. On the other

hand, curiously enough, every example brought from the Norton area and every

specimen seen at Sweethope appertained to O. ericetorum.

At the Blackhall Rocks the form O. O'Kellyi, described from the West of Ireland by

Druce, characterised by its white flowers and unspotted leaves, may be gathered

occasionally with its very close relative O. Fuchsii.

Our Durham list, thus, now stands as follows:-

Orchis incarnata L. Found commonly down the coast, as well as in the Tees Valley

from the mouth of the river up to Widdy Bank Fell.

O. praetermissa Druce. Quite common in damp meadows and also in more marshy

spots, but never actually in water as with O. incarnata.

O. praetermissa var. pulchella Druce. As with the type.

O. Fuchsii Druce. The Sneap, Waldridge Fell, Birtley, all along the coast, and

probably widespread in similar situations.

O. ericetorum. Linton. Billingham and along the coast but of drier proclivities than its

ally. Probably equally common.

O. O'Kellyi Druce. If this form is to be regarded as distinct from O. Fuchsii it is to be

found at the Blackhall Rocks.

Hybrids.

(1) Orchis incarnata x O. praetermissa. Blackhalls.

(2) O. ericetorum x O. 1ncarnata. Blllingbam.

(3) O. praetermissa x o. Fuchsii. Waldridge, Blackhalls.

(4) O. Fuchsii x O. ericetorum, On the coast.

(5) O. Fuchsii x Gymnadenia conopsea. Blackhalls.

124

(6) O. ericetorum x G. conopsea. Billingham.

(7) O. purpurella Steph. This form, which I regard as the outcome of a cross between

O. Fuchsii and O. praetermissa of a later generation than the F1 lot, which is hybrid

(3) and probably also the O. latifolia of various authors, occurs with other segregates

of similar origin on Waldridge Fell and on the coast, south of Blackhall Rocks Hotel.

THE WALLIS CLUB.

INDOOR MEETINGS.

Although the usual summer programme is now being carried out, the informal indoor

meetings which proved so successful last season have been continued.

On May 11th, the plants discovered on the occasion of the Lumley outing were

discussed, and, in particular, Mr. R. B. Cooke indicated that, in all probability,

Lamium Galeobdolon (the Yellow Deadnettle), not hitherto recorded for our counties,

occurred in these woods. He suggested further careful investigation. Mr. R. E.

Richardson showed specimens of the primrose with a foliaceous calyx which led to a

discussion of the origin of the floral organs, Mr. Giles, Mr. Temperley, Dr. Harrison

and others taking part. Dr. Harrison exhibited a practically complete collection of the

European Clouded Yellows (Colias edusa, C. chrysotheme, etc.), and a debate arose

on the possible origin of the species.

On June 8th, Mr. G. Temperley brought a fine collection of shells of Helix

arbustorum. to illustrate its local variation and to demonstrate the curious nature of

Widdy Bank Fell specimens, taken when we met there at Whitsuntide by Dr.

Blackburn and himself; Mr. R. B. Cooke drew attention to his beautiful Primula

farinosa indicating the differences between Teesdale, Coast, Westmoreland and

French examples; Mr. A. D. Peacock gave an interesting account of his sawfly

cultures describing his unique results and explaining the genealogical tree of his

various broods; Dr. Harrison exhibited an almost complete collection of Durham and

Northumberland Salices in the form of living twigs, and also two additional Durham

examples of the Green Hairstreak Butterfly; Mrs. Porter and Mr. Carter showed

interesting fossils.

FIELD MEETINGS.

The first field meeting in Lumley Woods on May 2nd attracted a goodly number of

members who thoroughly enjoyed the sunshine and the spring foliage. No very rare

finds

125

were made although some interesting plants were gathered. Amongst these were the

Dusky Cranesbill (Geranium phaeum) reported for this station over a hundred years

ago; the Toothwort (Lathraea squamaria) found parasitic on the roots of elm, hazel

ivy and, somewhat surprisingly, on snowberry and dogwood; and the Moschatel

(Adoxa moschatellina). Mr. Cooke took a plant just coming into flower which was

almost certainly the Yellow Deadnettle. We have to thank Mr. and Mrs. Baxter most

heartily for the excellent tea provided.

The second meeting, at Muggleswick on July 4th, was perhaps the most

enjoyable the Club has held, the weather being perfect and the attendance and "sport"

good. For once in a way the entomologists had the best of it, insects being abundant

on Muggleswick Common, and many of them were rarities. Most interesting was Mr.

Nicholsons capture of larval of D. fascelina (the Dark Tussock), a moth which has

not been reported in these counties for fifty years, though the presence of A. fumata

(the Smoky Wave) in quantity was equally unexpected. Among other moths were A.

strigula, P. interrogationis, A. myrtilli, E. nanata and of course L. quercus (var.

callunae). This is one of the few Durham stations for the Small Twayblade (L.

cordata) listed by Baker and Tate and it was found in plenty, as also was the Sundew

(D. rotundifolia). Sedges were surprisingly few in number though present in quantity,

among them C. echinata, C. panicea, C. canescens, C. flava and C. Goodenowii.

Not the least pleasure of the day was the charming hospitality of Dr. and

Mrs. T. C. Hunter at whose cottage on the moor tea was provided-and enjoyed.

CURRENT HAPPENINGS.

The Proceedings of the South London Entomological and Natural History

Society for 1924-5 furnish a good deal of interesting reading. Mr. R. Adkin has a

suggestive paper on Parallel Variation in the British Lepidoptera, and also writes on

"Entomology, Ancient and Present Day," the latter portion treating of what is called

medical entomology a subject which is also discussed by Mr. H. W. Andrews.

Captain N. D. Riley's presidential address was on "Seasonal Variation in Butterflies,"

so the lepidopterist is catered for particularly well. The report shows that the

membership was 239-the highest number recorded-and as the Society has £650

invested it is evidently in a prosperous condition.

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Mr. E. Leonard Gill made many friends during his long stay in Newcastle

and all will be glad to hear that Manchester University has conferred the degree of

D.Sc. upon him. Our readers will be pleased to know that Dr. Gill has promised an

article for The Vasculum at an early date.

The Consett Naturalists' Field Club has been reconstituted, and, starting

with thirty-six members and with good fields at hand it should do well. Mr. Charles

E. Almond, 18, Rogers Street, Blackhill, is the Hon. Secretary, and we wish him and

the Club all success.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Towards the end of May a gamekeeper in Yorkshire showed me a nest of the Tawny

Ow1 containing three young nearly fully fledged; it was on the top of an old stump

which was somewhat hollowed, but the young were visible at a considerable distance.

Although in other respects apparently perfectly healthy all had badly inflamed eyes,

most of them being completely closed by masses of pus. In addition they were almost

covered by flies and midges and one wonders whether these were responsible for

their pitiable condition. Mr. George Nicholson tells me that in Dipton Wood he saw

recently a young Tawny Owl which had left the nest and was in a similar state. Has

this been noted by other observers?

W. RAW,

8, Monk's Terrace, Hexham.

NEWS OF THE SOCIETIES.

DARLINGTON AND TEESDALE NATURALISTS' FIELD CLUB.

At the annual meeting on April 28th, abundant evidence was produced that the club

is in a thoroughly healthy condition, for the treasurer (Mr. R. H. Sargent) announced a balance in

hand of £25 4s. Od., and the secretary (Mr. J. E. Nowers) reported something like a record

amount of work done, and an increase of membership to 152. The club is now comfortably

housed in a room of its own which has been admired and sometimes coveted by members of

visiting societies, and where its collections and its excellent library can be made use of by the

members. Last summer eight field meetings were held, and were as well attended as could be

expected in such a season; the weather was usually bad, and May 31st, when Cronkley Fell and

Upper Teesdale were visited was the wettest day in forty years! Nevertheless, the expeditions

were profitable, but Mr. Nowers pertinently remarks that "the excursions at which the best work

was done were the least pretentious, these being more conducive to good scientific work." The

temptation to visit beautiful places is great, but the object of a Field Club is the study of natural

history, etc., and the most charming spots are seldom the most profitable.

In addition to the meetings of the club the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union held its

August bank-holiday meeting in the Croft district, greatly to the advantage of the local naturalists.

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The winter evening meetings were even more successful than the outdoor ones, and

the attendance was frequently all that the room could hold. It is cheering to find that members of

the club supplied most of the papers read, and also that members of associated societies helped to

vary the programme. The formation of the Northern Naturalists' Union (in which this club played

a leading part) was the event of the year; the first general meeting was held in the Club's room,

and its members have found the benefit of mixing with members of other societies and specialists

in various branches of knowledge. Mr. R. Luck moved a vote of thanks to the secretary for his

report and his work, and Mr. Nowers received the ovation which he has earned so well.

Passing to business the club revised its rules, and wisely replaced its Sectional

leaders by Sectional organisers; we hope this means that those honoured by election to these

offices will be expected to develop their sections not only by recruiting new members but by

arranging for their education in the subject. Mr. J. B. Ord was elected President, and the Secretary

and his Assistant (Miss Nowers), the Treasurer, and the Librarian (Mr. J. Broadhead) were all re-

elected. Full of life and energy the Club is taking its place as one of the leading Natural History

Societies in the North and carrying on the good tradition of the Darlington Naturalists of fifty

years ago.

VALE OF DERWENT NATURALISTS' FIELD CLUB.

The members of the Vale of Derwent Naturalists' Field Club held their first field

meeting this season at Ebchester on May 16th, where they were joined by some members of the

Consett and Derwent Valley Research and Naturalists' Field Club. The day was fine and sunny

but a thick haze obscured the distant landscape. The entomologists had rather a poor time. One or

two small white butterflies were seen, whilst on the body of a recently killed badger specimens of

carrion beetles (Necrophorus humator and Silpha thoracica) were found. The willow warbler,

longtailed tit, yellow hammer, swallow and cuckoo were seen or heard, and two nests of the

common wren were found. The botanical section recorded the following in bloom :-Sweet Cicely,

green winged orchis, leopards bane, wood anemone, herb Robert, Jack-by-the-hedge, marsh

marigold, golden saxifrage, red campion , bitter vetch, wood sorrel, bird cherry, blackthorn, &c.

There were also some specimens of a hybrid primula found and a clump of yellow iris, but not in

bloom. Tea was served at the Chelmsford Hotel after which, there was it discussion on "Ebchester

in Roman Times." Mr. Scott of Blackhill had kindly sent some excellent plans showing Ebchester

as a Roman camp, and these greatly assisted the members to understand what Ebchester was like

in those days. The Roman remains were next visited, then the members went their various ways

having had a most. enjoyable and profitable outing.

Under excellent weather conditions the second field meeting was held at Lockhaugh

on June 6th. The party assembled at Rowlands Gill Station and then proceeded to Lockhaugh via

the Derwent side and skirting some of the fields of Hollin Hill Farm. En route the call of the

cuckoo and the "craik-craik" of the Landrail came drifting over the meadows. The stonechat, tree

and meadow pipit, pied wagtail, willow warbler, pied flycatcher, kingfisher, &c., were seen or

heard. The botanists, as usual, were well to the fore. Several spring plants were still in bloom, and

the air was heavy with the scent of the hawthorn which covered the hedgerows. Some of the

flowers recorded were:- Comfrey, moneywort, lousewort, geum, bistort stitchwort (lesser and

greater), wild geranium, heartsease, oxeye daisy, forget-me-not, rowan, chestnut and guelder rose.

The butterflies were few in variety. Tea was served at Lockhaugh farm, after which the party

dispersed.

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NOTES AND RECORDS.

LEPIDOPTERA.-BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

Agrotis agathina, Dup. Heath Rustic. 67

A single example of the very beautiful larva of this moth was taken in Dipton Woods

near Corbridge -J. W. H. H.

Hadena thalassina, Rott. Pale-shouldered Brocade. 66, 67

Taken flying in bright sunshine on Waldridge Fell (J. W. T.), and at Sweethope (F.

C. G.).

Ypsipetes ruberata, Frr. Ruddy High Flier. 67

Disturbed from various sallow at Sweethope.

Coremia designata, Rott. Flame Carpet 66

The autumnal brood of this very local and rare moth in our counties was captured by

Mr. Thompson at Chopwell last year; the spring brood can be reported in some numbers from

Waldridge this year.

Tephrosia bistortata, Geeze. The Engrailed. 66

Rare at Waldridge-a first local record from a purely birch wood, larch being its

favorite food plant with us.

Sesia formiciformis, Esp. Red Tipped Clearwing. 67

Larvae not uncommon in twigs of Salix purpurea near Bywell.

Callophrys rubi, L. Green Hairstreak. 66

This recent .addition to the local butterfly fauna occurred again in May this year and

in view of the tremendous area it seems to cover there can be little harm in stating that its habitat

is Waldridge Fell.

HYMENOPTERA.- BEES, WASPS, ETC.

Bombus smithianus. Orange Humble Bee. 66

This northern form occurred in June on the coast south of Black Hall Rocks.

HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.-SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

Asteroleconium variolosum, Ratz. Pitmaking Oak Coccid. 67

Near Bywell in quantity. This scale has been recorded so many times under the

description of "First Northern Record" with its cecidological synonym, Asterodiaspis quercicola,

appended that it seems necessary to point out that it was recorded in The Vasculum long before

these "first" records, and that it abounds in Durham and Southern Northumberland wherever it is

looked for.

Fonscolombia fraxini, Kalt. Felted Ash Scale. 67

Very plentiful, and even in greater quantities tban usual, on ashes along the Tyne

banks near Bywell.

Lecanium ciliatum, Douglas. 67

As usual rare, but present, near Bywell. -J. W. H. HARRISON . .