The veterans and the romanization of Spain

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T > b e veterans andthe romanization ofSpain

Ju 1 3 . TSluciN

SUMMARY.The itistorians of today tend to overestimate tite role the veteransplayed in the Romanitation of Spain. Perhaps. only the period from 45 B.C. to 1 3 1 3 .C .saw a considerable influx of veerans o Spain. At oher timer there were not so manyveterans and, what is more, they primarily settled down in the already deeply Romani-

zed zone. They increased tite Roman element in the province but not play a decisiverole in its formation or operation. They did not belong, as a rule, to the urgan cUteeither.

In historical sciencie there is a widespread beliel that the army and itsveterans who settled down on the Iberian Peninsula played the most signi-ficant. ifnot decisive role in the Romanization ofSpainThus, accordingto P. A. Brunt who maintained that he majority ofthe immigrants camefrom the Italics, not the Romans proper, those Italics were primarily, even.perhaps, exclusively. former soldiers who in he course ofmany years of

their service in the army got well accustomed to life in he province2. A.Balil, P. Bosch Gimpera, and E. M. Staerman hold that the main agents ofthe Romanization were the Spaniards who were included into the Romanarmy and who returned to the home country3. This opinion

was counteredby G. Alfdldy and 3 . M. Roldn Hervs. The latter devoted a special com-prehensive study to the Roman army in Spain (and to he Spaniards ser-vng in the Roman army outside the Iberian Peninsula)~. In his later work,however, J. M - RoldAn Hervs has succumbed to the conventional view-poin and stressed the great contribution ofthe army and the veterants tothe process of Romanizaion~. Butis it really so? Does this opinion hold

water?

()Translated from th e Russian by L. Chis tonogova1 . I .E.g., Blzquez, J . M. Causas de la romanizacin de Hispania. Hispania, T. 2 4 . 1964 , p .

2 3 ; Le Roux E . Provincialisation e recrutenient militaire dans le N. O . hispanique. - Gerion. T .3 , 1985 , p. 2 99 .

2. Brunt, 1 . A. Italian Manpower 225 E . C . A. D. 1 4 . Oxford, 1971 , p. 2 17 - 2 19 .3 . Balil A. Un factor difusor de la romanizacin: las tropas hispnicas al servicio de Roma.

Emrita>. T. 24 , 1956 , p. 10 8 - 134 ; Bosch Gimpera, P. Les soldats ibriques, agents dhellenisationel de romanisaion. Mlanges olieres Jrome Carcopino. 1 . . 1966 . p . 1 4 1 -1 4 8 : Staerman EM.The moral and religion a opressed classes M., 1961 . p. 2 3 5 -2 3 < > (in Russian).

4 . Roldan Hervas J . M. Hispania y el ejrcito romano. Salamanca, 1974 , p . 258-262; Alflldy G.

Hispanien und rmishe Heer. Gerion. T. 3, 1985 . 5 . 402-403.5 . Roldn Hervs, J. M. La organizacin militar. HE. T. II, 2 , p . 40-114.

Gerin. 7 . 1989- 137/147 - Editorial de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid.


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me rst Roman settlement in Spain was undoubtedly a military one.This is the town ofItalica founded in 206 B. C. by Scipio for his mutilated

soldiers after the battle of llipa (App. Hisp. 38). As A. Garca y Bellidopoints out, the town grewn to be a permanent hospital and at the sametime aRoman outpost in the South ofthe Peninsula ~. For years. it had nostatus ofRoman or Latin town, being. evidently. a vicus. though there isno direct knowledge of it. As is known, the first Latin colony in Spain was

Carteia founded for the Roman soldiers children by Spain mothers (Liv.XLIII, 3, 1-3), but it cannot be, ofcourse. regarded as a military colony.

Corduba was the first colony in the Baetis valley, deduced by M. Clau-

dius Marcellus (Strabo III, 2, 1), as long ago as 152 or even 169 B. C.~ Butwa have no reference whatever to the veterans settling there. In this ac-

count ofthe foundation ofthe colony Strabo emphasizes that the originalresidents of the colony were the elect ofthe Romans and aborigines. sothat the Roman presence in Corduba is to be taken for granted.

It seems quite probable tbough, that both Poseidonios. Strabos mostlikely source, and Strabo himself (and the Spaniards too, for that matter)mscalled the Italics Romans. because there in the provinces hey were ne-ver. too careful to tel the ones from the others. The dual eharacter ofCor-duba was for some time patently feling the existence of two vici in thetwon the vicus ofthe Spaniards and that ofthe foreigners ~. Rut couldthe Romans of Corduba have been called foreigners? It is an established

and generally accepted historical fact, that the Spanish vicus was the dis-trict of the aborigines. IfCorduba had been populated by genuine Romancitizensm, and veterane at that, they would hardly have been called foreig-ners there. It looks more likely that those were after al not Romans. leastof al veterans. but the Italies. Having come to live in a foreign countrythey must have felt out of their natural element. they were aliens and thelocal residents considered them as such. Therefore we must admit that theveterans were hardly residents ofthis vicus forensis.

The veterans are known to have lived in Valentia. Rete they are alwaysconsidered as one ofthe two elements in the towns citizenship veterani

et veteres (CIL II. 3741, 3733, 3736). One inseription mentions a uterqueordo Valentinorum (CIL II. 3745). It follows then that the veterans cometo settle in Valentia some time after the original inhabitants who must bethe Lusitanians whom D. lunius Brutus located on the Mediterranean

coast in the year 138 1 3 . C. (Liv. per. 55). Perhaps at a certain period priorto 60 B. C. sorne people from Italy came to leve in the town and later theybegan to be called veteres whereas the veterans did not find their way to

6 . Garca y Bellido. A La Itlica de Hadriano. Le s empereurs romains dE s pag n e, P ; 1 9 6 5 , p .7 -8 .

7 . Gatsterer II. Untersuchngen zum rmischen Stadtewesen auf der Iberischen Halbinsel. B .,1971 , 5 . 9 ; Knapp R . C . Romn Crdoba. Berkeley-Los Angeles-L., 1983 , p. 9-lo.8 . Knapp, R . C . O p . cit., p. 13-14 .


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this town until the second century or even the beginning ofthe third cen-tury A. D. Anyway, there seems no reason to think that the veterans esta-blished them selves in Valentia in he Republican time~.

Without providing any other data on the Romano-Italian colonizationofSpain. we must definitely state that there is virtualy no indubitable evi-dence for the military colonization on the Iberian Peninsula prior o Cae-sars epoch except he above-mentioned foundation of Italica as a vete-rans inflrmaly.

Let us approach he problem at issue from a different angle. There wasno neeessity to evict the Romans from Italy either soldiers or peasantspractically until the Gracchs. Listing he colonies founded by he Ro-mans, Velleus Paterculus enumerates only the ones deduced to he diffe-rent countries ofItaly plus Narbo in Galia (1 . 14-15). As we know, CaiusGraechus failed in his attempt to found a colony on he site ofdevastatedCarthage whereas he popularity ofhis opponent Livius was largely basedon his altemative suggestion o deduce colonies to ltaly. Itwas not untilthe reforms ofMarius that he problem ofsettling he veterans first arose.Noteworhy 1 8 he telling ulterance ofAppianus (bel. civ. II, 120) that inantiquity the soldiers were allowed one by one o go backto their home-lands when their service in he army was over and it was some time laterthat they began o be deduced in he mass o colonies and provided withsomebody elses land and houses. Spanish territories were always exclu-ded from he various agrarian laws and bils concerning he distribution

of land among he veterans ~ For example. the veterans of Marius recei-ved their plots of land in Africa in accordance with the ftrst law ofSatur-nnus (De vir. il. 73,1); according to he second law in Sicily, in Achaia,in Macedonia (ibid., 73,5) and in Gallia (App. bel. civ. 1 , 29). Sulla isknown o have bestowed lands on his veterans directly in Italy (App. bel.civ. 1 , 96) and to have deduced a single colony o Corsica (Plin. n. h. III,80).

Ample evidence may be derived from the bil ofServilius Rullus which

caused heated debates in 64-63 1 3 . C. Here Spain is mentioned for the first

time: he earth around Neu Carthage won by he valour of both Scipiosmust be sold out as well as other lands so that for money raised his waynew lands could be bought in order o deduce colonies in Italy proper andCampania in partifcular (Cie. de leg. agr. 1 , 5; II 51). So we can see that inhose days ha Spanish lands ware considered by he Roman politicianseXclusiVely as possible sources ofmoney and means. not as possible pa-

9 . GalstererH. Op. cit., 5.53-54. Can he apparance of the future veteres.have been caused bythe uprising ofSertorius? It is common knowledge tha Valentia among other cities suppored thisgeneral an d surrended s o Pompe ius only alter Sertorius death (flor. II, 2 0 ).

1 0 . Tite reviewof th e agrar ian laws, those relating tho th e veterans included, m ay b e found in:

Utchenko L. 5 . Tite Crisis and Fa l ob th e R om an Republic. Moscow, 1 9 6 5 , p . 1 7 9 -1 8 3 (inRussian).


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ces to deduce colonies to. Likewise, we shall note, both agrarian laws ofCaesar-the consul passed in 59 B. C. also concerned Italy alone

Thus we have no reasons to maintain that amass settlement ofvete-

rans in Spain took place prior o the forties ofthe first century B. C.Nonetheless, by the forties ofthe first century B. C. Spain had already

quite a few immigrants from Italy. During the early stages ofthe Civil Warbetween Caesan and the Pompeians several legions were recruted fromamong them. The year 49 B. C. marked the existence ofthe so-called


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Suetonius (lu. 42. 1) says that Caesar settled 80.000 citizens in the overseascolonies and Plutarch (Caes. 57) specifies that Caesar founded those colo-nies specially for his soldiers o uve in. True enough, Spain was not the

only and even, perhaps, not the country where Caesars colonies were de-duced. That same Putach poins out in bis same passage tha Carthageand Corinh were Caesars best known colonies. And yet Spain also drewhe dictators attention.

In the extreme Norh-East ofSpain Caesar settled his colonists in thevicinity ofEmporion, a Greek colony founded at the beginning oftbe VIthcentury 1 3 . C. A wall separated Emporion from the natiye town ofIndica.Now after he victorious war against the cbildren of Pompeius Caesarfounded a third settlement that ofReman colonist (Liv. XXXIV, 9). Ruthe great bulk ofcolonies were built by he dictator himselfor by his order

by his succeasors in South Spain, in he Baetis valley. The fact seems onlytoo natural and self-explanaory. The majority ofhe communities ofthisregion had aken the side ofhe Pompeians and Caesar punished them bydispossessing them oftheir land on which he deduced his colonies ~. Resi-des. last but not Ieas, the Baetis valley was the mos fertile part ofhe Ibe-dan Peninsula: the fertility ofthe soil was the immigrants prime attrac-tion to tbese quarters.

When speaking about Caesars colonization (here we mean boh hisown colonies and hose deduced by bis order) two points ofgreat signift-cance should be stressed. First, Caesars coonists were not only veterans,

but also other strata of the population, he proletarians among them ~.This generally recognized historical thesis holds true ofSpain too. Thus,Caesar founded on the banofthe Baetis Hispalis, offtcially called Romulalulia (Isidor, orig. 15, 1 , 71) or simply Romula (Plin, n . h . III, 11; CIL II,1168). At he same time Strabo (III, 2, 1) mentions the town ofBaetis thatsurpassed Hispalis in fame and honour due to Caesars soldiers residingthere. The very structure of Strabos phrase underlines the difference be-ween these two towns. It follows that Hispalis was not a veterans settle-ment. Let us stae in passing, that his township ofBaetis was apparently afairly insignificant one as the geographer pointedly speaks about itsscanty population. The town was never again recorded either in literatureor in epigraphy or in numismatics. Therefore it must be concluded that iteiher before long merged with Hispalis or it was but an insignificant ce-munity near this important centre 9. Thus the only unquestionably vete-ran settlement ofCaesat (if Strabo does not mean actually Augustus whenusing the name ofCaesar, though) was rather negligible.

1 7 . vittingboff, E . Rmische Kolonisation und Btlrgerrech spolitik unter Caesar und Augus-tus. Wiesbaden . 1 9 52 . 5 . 75-77; Tsirkin Ju 8. The south of Spa in i n th e Civil W ar of 46-45 B . C.AEArq., V . 5 4 . 1 9 8 1 , p . 9 7 .

1 8 . VittingholT, E . O p. cit., 5 . 5 3 ; Utchenko, 5 . L. Op. cit., p . 2 2 0 .1 9 . Galsterer, H. Op. cit., 5 . 1 9 .


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Secondly, it should be borne in mmd tha he majority ofhe Caesa-ran colonies (even ifwe believe a considerable number ofthem o be ve-teran settlements) were situated in he Middle and Lower Baetis valley, i.e.

in the panofSpain tha was by that time already wholly or almost whollyRomanized so that the role of Caesars veterans in the Romanization ofhis zone ofthe Peninsula is scarcely worth speaking.

The foundation ofcolonies went on well after Caesars death. For ms-ance, in 35-34 1 3 . C. proconsul C. Norbanus Flaccus founded Norba Cae-sarina in he West ofSpain 20 As he was very active in his struggle againstthe Lusitanians and even won a riumph for his victories we may withconfidence maintain bat he founded this town for the good of bis vete-rans. Veterans were he most likely inhabitants ofhe colony Caelsa foun-ded by Lepidus andoflicially entited Victrix lulia Lepida (however, later

Lepida was removed from theciys name)28. The cognomen Victrix

seems to testify to a military nature ofthe settlement.Augustus did he same at the dawn of bis rule. Of al the owns he

founded in Spain two were undoubtedly military colonies: Emerita Au-gusta for the veterans of the y and X Iegions and Caesaraugusta for heformer servicemen ofthe lv Macedonian, he VI Victrix and the X Gemi-na legions 22 These Iegions had actively participated in the wars oftbetwenties of he firs cenury E. C. which resulted in he complete subjuga-tion of Spain. Evidently it was Augustus bat some time previously had dedu-ced the colony ofAcci for he veterans oftbe 1 and II legions2i. Thus wesee that these colonies were populated by the former soldiers ofhe mili-tary detachments in mass. It entirely corresponds to what Tacitus (Aun.XIV. 27) tels us abou how veteran colonies were deduced: whole legionscomplete with heir centurions and tribunes.... when each and every sol-dier together with his feow-servicemen formed a community.

Tacitus contrasts bis procedure to tha ofhe later period when the re-tired soldiers just disperced al over he provinces or foot-soldiers fromdifferent maniples settled together withou authorized leaders. This practi-ce was in al probability the consequence ofhe reforms ofAugustus whoreplaced he deduction ofcolonies by payment ofa certain sum ofmoney

2 0 . Catlejo Serrano, C. La arqueologa de Norba Caesarina. AEArq. y. 41 ,1968 , p . 1 2 1 ; GalsIe-rer 1 - 1 . Op. cit., 5 . 23-24; Roldn Hervs, 1 M. Hispania. . . , p . 1 78 .

2 1 . Galsterer fi. Op. cit. , 5 . 2 4 -2 5 .2 2 . Ibid., 5 . 2 3 , 2 7 ; Roldn Hervs. J . M. Hispania. . . . p . 1 8 1 -1 8 2 .2 3 . Galsterer H. O p. ch, 5 . 6 9 (N. 1 . ) : Roldn Hervs. J . M. Hispania p . 1 8 1 -1 8 2 . There is a

supposition that veterans settled down in Corduba too: Knapp, R. C. Op. cit. , p . 2 9 . The hypothe-sis is suppor ted by th e fact that th e cojas struck in his ciy between 1 8 B . C. and 2 A. D. bear therepresentat ion of tw o standards an d of th e legions eagle. Bu a l th e s a m e t ime Knapp remarksha ih e connection berween tite ype of th e coja and a veteran set lemen is nol absolutely certain

but very plausible.


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that a veteran could dispose ofas he saw Ii 2 4 . A any rate, there are nomore new colonies founded in Spain afer Augustus whereas the itie ofacolony began o be conferred on a own wihout deducing any colonist

there. Sometimes. however, newcomers from among the veerans could in-crease he existing numbers of he colonist in a town. For instance. Ohoperformed anoher deduction ofveerans to Emerica Augusta and Hispa-lis (Tac. hist. 1 . 78, 1) and at some time unknown to us a considerablegroup ofveterans carne to settle down in Valentia and formed there the se-cond ordo ofhe ciizens communiy25.

Yet al these were nothing but ex-cepions. In the main exservicemen took their choice ofplace o uve andformed no united communities.

The discharged warriors, at leass many ofthem. preferred now to se-le in he locality of heir former servce. This tendency was particularly

manifest in those legions ha were stationed forlong spells oftime in oneand the same place. Such was the situation in Spain. especially after heyear 70 A. D. Previously several legions were quartered here relieving nowand again one another.

Mter the year 70 A. D. Spain had only one legion he VII Gemina

stationed in the Wes ofTarraconensis. Gradually more and more locallads became legionaries ofheir own volition so that there was no need forthem to leave Spain26. In he Corpus ofMilitary Inscriptions of Spaincompiled by J . M. Roldn Hervs27 there are 75 inscriptions of soldiers(including centurions) ofthe legions quartered there on the Peninsula un-

til 70 A. D. Among these inscriptions there are 66 tombstone epiaphs. 34ofthem are discovered in Spain. In other words, the veerans (who were inhe majoriy) stayed on in Spain and died there. The figures for the wa-rriors and veterans ofthe VI L Gemina legion seem more conspicuous: 147inscripions. 103 ofthese are epitaphs. 85 ofthem, i.e. over 80 per cent, arefound in Spain.

Rut le us examine the geographical distribution ofepigraphical evi-dence. Prior to he year 70 A. D. epitaphs ofthe soldiers and veterans werescattered up and down Spain whereas afer 70 A. D. a substantial quantityof hem was found in Tarraco: 5 1 out of85 tombstone inscriptions ofthe

veterans and soldiers ofthe VII legion (viz. 60 per cent) were disclosed he-re. Other towns, Legio VII among them, lag far behind Tarraco in this res-pect. This is no o be explained by sheer fortuity ofepigraphic finds. Rat-her extensive digs were and still are carried out in modem Leon andMeri-

2 4 . Utchenko, 5. L. O p. ci t . , p . 1 85 . Comp. : Ma~kin N.A. The Principate of Augusnhs. M. 1 9 4 9 ,p . SIl (in Russian).

25 . Galsterer H. Op. cit., 5 . 12, 1 3 .2 6 . Roldn Hervs, J . M. Hispania..., p . 179-188. 238-258

2 7 . Ibid., p . 361-505 (abbrew. CIM, 1 -3 8 6 ).


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da; the town ofMunigua in Baetica has also been throughly excavated btin no other place so many veterans mnscriptions are too be undug as in Ta-rraco. This town in general aracted diverge people from ah pars ofSpain

sometimes even from faraway regions~. Vererans also willingly settledhere descendants from Spain. from other provinces and even from Italyproper alike. For instance, we fnd in Tarraco in he first cenury C. luliusReburrusofthe Spanish town ofSegisana Brasaca (CIM, 584) andan Ita-lic L. Valerius Secundus (CIM. 583).

The Tarraco oflater periods likewise witnessed he presence ofthe reti-red warriors ofthe VII Gemine Legion, the natives ofNemaus and Narboin Narbonensis Gallia, of Mevania in Ialy or of Sicca Veneria m u Mrica(CIM, 598. 604, 602, 643). Even the Spaniards who served in his legionalso often favoured staying in Tarraco over returning to their native pla-

ces, see the example ofa certain Cn. Pompeius Fructus ofToleum (dM,597) or Cn. Fulvius Capratinus ofItalica (CIM. 659).

Unreliable and relative as any figures concerning aniquity may be,they still leave us margin o draw some conclusions. First and foremost isshould be pointed ou that the majority of retired soidiers, even thoughstaying on in the province oftheir military service. preferred to leave thedirec premises ofthe camp or even is vicinage. They mostly opted o goto Tarraco and. to a lesser degree, to some other towns in Eastern andSouhem Spain. The choice of the veterans is easy to understand: after atedious and arduous service they sought some haven to relax in a fairly

affluent quie and comfortable place ir for easy life. Such places were tho-roughly Romanized towns, especially Tarraco, he capital of the provinceofthe same name, an important economic and particularly trading centre.Hence the second conclusin: the veterans had to make no efforts, howe-ver spontaneous, to Romanize these territories. They were smoothly engul-

fed by an already established socio-economic, political and cultural struc-ture, not disinct from the Italic one.

Ofspecial inerest for historical science are bose Spaniards who joi-ned the Roman army and after leaving it became major agents ofRoma-nization. Indeed. we often come across references to Spaniards who ser-

ved in the Roman army not only in legions, including the VII Gemina Le-gion which has been considered aboye, but also in auxiliary garrsons.They tookpad in he Civil Wars ofthe end ofhe Repubhic too. For ms-tance, he Celtiberians fought in Carbos army agamnst Sulla in Italy. Ac-

2 8 . Blzquez. J . M. La economa de la Hispania R om an a. H E , t. II, 1 , p . 4 6 6 an d maps ( f g .272). P . Le Roux bel ieves the cons iderab le contingent of th e VII Ocarina Legion present in Tarra-co tobe the veceregents statY and th e city itself to be th e legions administrative centre: Le RouxP . A propos dun inscription de Tarragone: la cariere de cennirion Aurelius lustus. AEArq. y. 5 0 -5 1 , 1977-1978, p . 8 3 . This opinion can be prompted only by th e numerous inscriptions of th e le-

gions veterans unear thed in Tarraco, but th e explanation of bis F a c t it to be sought elsewhere.The leg ion headquar ters mus have been. afler al. in its camp.


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Tite veerans nne!tite roman/za/on ofSpain 145

cording to Appianus (bel. civ., 1 , 89). 270 soldiers deserted to Sulla and herest were killed by Carbo; consequently, heir total number was muchgreater. There were Spanish cohorts in Caesars guard (App. bel. civ. II,

108). Sextus Pompeius had Spanish seamen in Sicily (App. bel. civ. IV, 85).Iberian and Lusitanian horsernen fought in he ranks ofthe army ofBru-tus and Cassius (App. bel. civ. IV, 88).

Rut we do not know on what terms and for how long hose soldiersfough a long way from home for the cause oftheir commanders, what re-wards they recieved for he services rendered. There is only one direct evi-dence at our disposal: he riders of the Spanish Salluvian urm were re-warded with Roman citizenship for their valour during the Social War byCn. Pompeius Strabo (ILS, 8888). That was a reward precisely in return brtheir valour and courage, though. not for their service as such. Therefore

we do no deem it wise o suppose that such was the lot ofal or at least ofmany Spanish soldiers in the Roman army. As is generally known, civiepolicies were amighty means in the hands ofRomes captains and politi-cans. Sertorius also seems to have resorted o his instrumen more hanonce. The very fact tha in Spain here were people Sertorius by name(CIL II, 254. 3744, 3786 and others) proves tha Romes authorities ack-nowledged Roman citizenship granted to heir forefathers by this insur-gent general. Even more people were called Caecilius and Pompeius. Nodoubt, some oftheir ancestors had fought under he standards ofthese mi-liary leaders. On no account, however, was he granting ofRoman citi-zenship an ordinary practice.

The situation changed under the Empire. During this period soldiersofvarious alae and cohorts began to normally recieve on retirement Ro-man citizenship (if they had none before) and in case they setled downon land hey turned municipal landowners. In Spain here were a greatmany auxiliar miliary units of this kind: we know abou twenty cavalryalae aud over eighty infrantry cohorts~. Although not a h ofhem were si-multaneously under he standards yet it is not oo much o say that no lesshan fffty thousand Spaniards manned a one time those alae and cohorts.

11 hey had come backpeople ofa new type they might indeed have cons-tituted a powerful force. Hut did they come back at al?

Le us again study the statistic data. By he mid-seventies ofhe twen-tieth centul-y there came to ligh lO inscriptions ofsoldiers ofthe Spanish

alae of he frst-to he third centuries, 4 ofthem were found in Spain, outof317 inscriptions ofinfantrymen ofSpanish cohorts II inscriptions comefrom Spain, out of 1 2 inscriptions of Spaniards who fought in non-Spanish regimens two were found in Spain. Thus we may infer that heoverwhelming majority ofSpanish soldiers who served in hose units andqualitied for a reirement sayed on in he places ofthe service so hat they

2 9 . RoldAn HerAs, J . M. Hispania. . . . p . 6 5 -1 5 8 .


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could not spread any elements ofantique society of Rome over he Penin-sula. It goes without saying that sorne ex-servicemen did come backhomeas, for example, did a certair Toncius of lgeditanorum municipium who

was buried in his native place (CIM, 391) but those were just exceptions.A different lot befel he soldiers ofthose auxiiary deachments that

ware quartered in Spain proper. W e know by now six alae of his type anseven or eight cohorts, i.e. abou 8.500 soldiers al in ah. They left behind66 inscripions, 58 ofthem in Spain. True, hose are in tbe main dedica-tory or honorary inscripions that bear witness to he presence ofsoldiersofa particular unit in his or that town. but they spell nohing abou whet-her they went on living on retiremen in Spain. There are several tombsto-ne inscription too. Besides, it stands to reason that discharged soldiers ofoher units staioned in Spain also setled down o uve in this counry near

heir former camps. very much in he way the Spanish veterans did. Andyet they were not too numerous and, being aliens, they could not exert anytangible influence on the local residents 3 O ~ Moreover, they also moved af-ter their service to he more prosperous owns ofhe Eas and South ofheIberian Peninsula.

Einally we must consider one more issue ofgreat consequence. In his-tonca] science there is an opinion which A. Balil had expressed with parti-cular cleamess that he veerans formed a citys oligarchy

31. In order oprove and disprove it , let us again study he epigraphic data. The secondvolumen of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum contains some 180

inscripions wih references o duumvirs or less ofen quauorvirs, andonly twelve of them, i.e. slightly over 7 per cent, previously served in thearmy. There were discharged soldiers who heid other town offces (for ms-tance. hose ofan aedile and decurion) or provincial offlcies (more oftenhan not, ha of a flamen of a province). From his volume we come toknow about fifty people of bis sort. This is a fairly large number. Rutwhatabout their military careefl Can we regard them as real. genuine veterans?

Out ofthe fifty ex-servicemen, who held this or that urban or provin-cial office, here were two private soldiers (one duumvir and one servir ofyoung men). five centurions (four were duumvirs and one decurion) (CIL.

II. 115. 1404, 1681. 5438, 4463. 4514, 2853). It is not in the least surprising ifwe bear in mmd he strata from both the legion and auxiliary units weremanned. The overwhelming majority ofthese officials, though, were pre-viously either tribunes oflegions or praefects ofcohorts or praefects ofar-

3 0 . AlfIdy, O. O p. cit., 5 . 4 0 2 -4 0 3 .3 1 . Balil A. Riqueza y sociedad e n la Espaa Romana. Hispania. T . 2 5 . 1 9 6 5 . p . 3 55 . P . Le

Roux holds that Span ish soldiers were recruited from comparatively high strata of h e Spanishsociety: Le Roux P . Provincialisation..,. p . 3 0 5 -3 0 6 . It would no doubt have made it elsier for th e

veerans to join th e city oligarchy. O. Alfldy has proved.however. hat the situation

wasrather

opposi te: soldiers came, most likely, from the lower layers of th e i nd igenous population.


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tisans. in other words, they belonged aiready o he highes estates oftheEmpire 32 For many ofthem their military service was bu one episode ofageneral career. Surely. they may be hardly regarded as veterans in the

usual sense of the word. Besides. many ofthem occupied the office ofaflamen of he province an tonorary raher than actual office.

Summing up. we have this to say. AIhough there is no denying herole he veterans played in he Romanizacion ofSpain, the historians oftoday end to overestimate it. Perhaps, only he period from 45 B. C. o 1 31 3 . C. saw a considerable influx ofveterans to Spain. A oher times therewere not so many veterans and, what is more, they prima-ily settled downin the aiready deeply Romanized zone. They increased the Roman ele-ment in he province but could not play a decisive role in its formation or

operation. They did not belong, as a me. to he urban lite either.

The major agents ofhe Romanization ofthe Iberian Peninsula are obe sought in other layers ofthe Italian population.

3 2 . Makin, N.A. Op. cit., p . 5 0 9 -5 1 0 .


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The veterans and the romanization of Spain

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