THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

Front Cover:

Vatican Observatory astronomerChristopher Corbally, S.J., (lowerlevel) and visiting scholar AileenO'Donoghue (upper level) admirethe beauty and serenity of the 10September sunset beforebeginning their night's observingrun at the University of Arizona'sBok Telescope on Kitt Peakoutside of Tucson. Horrific eventstranspiring the next morning on theother side of the continent wouldchange the United States and theworld forever. (Photo by DavidHarvey)

Cover Artist: Dave Fischer

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THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

Vatican Observatory

Annual Report 2001

Vatican Observatory(Castel Gandolfo)V−00120 Città del VaticanoRome ITALY

Vatican ObservatoryResearch GroupSteward ObservatoryUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona 85721 USA

Editor: Elizabeth J. MaggioCover Artist: Dave Fischer

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THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

Vatican Observatory Staff

The following are permanent staff members of the Vatican Observatory, Castel Gandolfo, Italy, and theVatican Observatory Research Group (VORG), Tucson, Arizona:

GEORGE V. COYNE, S.J., DirectorRICHARD P. BOYLE, S.J.JUAN CASANOVAS, S.J.GUY J. CONSOLMAGNO, S.J.CHRISTOPHER J. CORBALLY, S.J., Vice Director for VORG President, National Committee to International Astronomical UnionJA VIER IGEA LOPEZ−FANDOGIUSEPPE KOCH, S.J.JOSÉ G. FUNES, S.J.,SABINO MAFFEO, S.J., Vice Director for AdministrationRICHARD J. MURPHY, S.J.,ALESSANDRO OMIZZOLOWILLIAM R. STOEGER, S.J.ANDREW P. WHITMAN, S.J. Administrator VORG

Adjunct Astronomers:

EMMANUEL M. CARREIRA, S.J.LOUIS CARUANA, S.J.MICHAEL HELLERGUSTAV TERES, S.J.

Vatican Observatory FoundationBoard of Directors

OfficersGEORGE V. COYNE, S.J., President and Chairman of the BoardCHRISTOPHER J. CORBALLY, S.J., First Vice PresidentRICHARD P. BOYLE, S.J., Second Vice PresidentWILLIAM R. STOEGER, S.J., SecretaryPAUL M. HENKELS, Treasurer

DirectorsRICHARD P. BOYLE, S.J.EMMANUEL M. CARREIRA, S.J.CHRISTOPHER J. CORBALLY, S.J.GEORGE V. COYNE, S.J.CHARLES L. CURRIE, S.J.BEN DALBY

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KAREN DALBYPAULA D'ANGELOMANUEL J. ESPINOZASHEILA GRINELLPAUL M. HENKELSCHRISTOPHER P. HITCHCOCKJOHN B. HOLLYWOOD, S.J.JAMES C. McGEEPETER P. MULLENCHARLES W. POLZER, S.J.WILLIAM R. STOEGER, S.J.BRENDAN D. THOMSONFAITH VILAS

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THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

From the Director

A Year to Remember

Many events occurred over the past year at the Vatican Observatory that we can accept with joy andquiet gratitude. But it would, indeed, be very shortsighted of us if we did not realize that, since thetragic events of 11 September, we all live in a changed world. Our passion to understand the universeas astronomers and friends of astronomers cannot become for us a refuge from the need to confrontthe problems that face all of us as citizens of the Earth. And so I ask you: Can our scientific researchand all of the associated activities that we describe in these Annual Reports make any contribution tonourishing peace and harmony on this insignificantly small piece of the universe on which we live?

The photograph on the cover of this year's Annual Report was selected for the unique moment in thehistory of the United States, and the world, that it preserves. The photograph was taken the evening of10 September at the University of Arizona's Bok Telescope on Kitt Peak outside of Tucson. VaticanObservatory astronomer Chris Corbally and visiting scholar Aileen O'Donoghue were preparing tobegin a full night of astronomical observations. David Harvey, of the Computer Support Group at theUniversity of Arizona's Steward Observatory, photographed the astronomers as they stood on thetelescope's catwalk to watch a magnificent Arizona sunsetthe last, as it turned out, that they would seebefore the dawn of a new age for the world. The clouds in the evening sky, having displayed theirbeauty in the setting sun, fortunately disappeared soon afterwards, and our astronomers went inside towork at the telescope to try to understand nature's beauty in the cosmos. When their nighttime laborswere over, they slept late into the next morning, unaware of the tragic events unfolding on the otherside of the continent. We record that historic sunset on our cover in remembrance of all of the victimsof 11 September and with a prayer and a dream that beauty will win out over hatred and that ourpursuit of knowledge will contribute to the realization of that dream.

If ignorance nourishes hatred, then knowledge, especially that gained in collaboration with others ofdifferent ethnic and religious backgrounds, must surely be a path to peace and harmony. It is our fondhope that the Vatican Observatory's Summer Schools in Observational Astronomy and Astrophysicsare serving that purpose, and the memories we have of our schools indicate that our hope is wellfounded. The eighth Summer School took place this year and is described later in this section. Theschools, which began in 1986, have brought together nearly 200 young scholars from 50 differentnations around the world. The map shows how far and wide the Summer Schools have reached.

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are especially proud that 58 percent of the participants came from developing countries, and that 42percent were women. Their Summer School experience along with the recommendations provided bythe School's faculty have enabled many of the students to go on to study and pursue careers in someof the most prestigious centers in the world for astrophysical research. In particular, six studentsfromArgentina, Bulgaria, Peru, Russia, South Africa, and the Ukrainehave been awarded graduatescholarships from the Jesuit Community of the Vatican Observatory. We are proud of all of the 200alumni of the Summer Schools. Each in their own quiet way is a sign to their neighbors that peace isindeed a gift, but one that must be earned by the common pursuit of all those activities that unite us ashuman beings. The Vatican Observatory Summer Schools bear witness to the fact that a passion tounderstand the universe through research does just that unites us all.

As the tragic events unfolded in the northeastern United States on the morning of 11 September, it wasmid−afternoon in Rome, where Vatican Observatory astronomer Guy Consolmagno and his colleagueswere busily into the second half of the second day of the 64th annual meeting of the MeteoriticalSociety, for which the Vatican Observatory was a major sponsor and Consolmagno served as chair ofthe local organizing committee.

The meeting was the largest in the history of the Meteoritical Society. Some 600 participants camefrom more than 20 nations to attend the conference held at the Pontifical Gregorian University. Here, inthe historical center of Rome, was a microcosm of a world that had been struck by evil. The morningafter 11 September many participants attended the Papal Audience in St. Peter's Square where theywere able to share their dismay with John Paul II, who was clearly shaken and who requested

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personally that there be none of the song, laughter, and applause that usually exhilarate theaudiences. He asked instead for a spirit of recollection and prayer for the victims of the attack and theirfamilies, for the many suffering nations, and for a world in which hatred would, in the end, be defeated.During the following days, the international scientific cohort went about their work at the conference,talking about the latest discoveries about meteorites, comets, and asteroids. They did so with heavyhearts but with a sense that their solidarity in research could contribute to bringing about the very thingfor which the Pope had prayedthe defeat of hatred in whatever form and wherever it exists.

Research Highlights

Chronicling the history of science is an integral part of the research mission of the VaticanObservatory. In that light, we are happy to report the publication this year of Sabino Maffeo's TheVatican Observatory: In the Service of Nine Popes, in both Italian and English. This book is a revisedand enlarged edition of In the Service of Nine Popes: 100 Years of the Vatican Observatory, which waspublished a decade earlier. Maffeo's meticulous recording of more than 110 years of Observatoryhistory reassures us of the contribution we can make toward a better tomorrow by our scientificresearch. In that spirit, I wrote the following in the book's Presentation:

As the fruit of the author's labors we have in this book the most complete history of the VaticanObservatory ever written. However, to the attentive reader it will become obvious that we have herenot only a faithful presentation of historical facts and figures, but also a fulfillment in our times of theoriginal intentions of Pope Leo XIII in founding the Observatory, namely, " ... that everyone might seeclearly that the Church and her Pastors are not opposed to true and solid science, whether human ordivine, but that they embrace it, encourage it, and promote it with the fullest possible dedication." Thisbook intends to explain to the general public more than to experts what the Pope's astronomers do andwhy they do it. Thus it responds in an exemplary way to those original intentions of the Pope.

What gives particular value to this publication is Maffeo's new research on the directorship of FatherAngelo Rodríguez, who took over the Specola's administration in 1898. Rodríguez, a meteorologist,had little interest in the observatory's primary astronomical work at the time, which was joining otherastronomers around the world in measuring the magnitude and position of stars on hundreds ofphotographic plates for a project known as the International Sky Map. According to Maffeo, "Thisenterprise represented the first great example of international collaboration in an astronomicalprogram." Unfortunately, because of the director's lack of interest, work on the star catalog wastemporarily suspended. Rodríguez's directorship was an especially difficult period for the Specola as itmoved from an institute struggling to establish research programs to a true astronomical observatory. Ithink that Maffeo's efforts are particularly helpful in that properly recording this part of theObservatory's past reminds us of how human and so how fallible we, and all that we do, are.

The Vatican Observatory's 140−Year−Old Program in Stellar Spectroscopy

Sabino Maffeo's history of the Vatican Observatory describes the accomplishments of Angelo Secchi,S.J., who in 1850 became director of the Observatory of the Roman College, the forerunner of today'sSpecola Vaticana (Vatican Observatory in Italian). In the 1860s, Secchi experimented with a newtechnique, called spectroscopy, which uses a prism to split light into its component colors. Secchiattached a prism to the front of a telescope and found that this technique could be used to break astar's light into its corresponding spectrum of colors containing features specific to each star. In doingso, he discovered that stars could be classified according to their spectral differences. Secchi, who isconsidered the father of the spectral classification of stars, used spectroscopy to observe more than4,000 stars, launching a scientific endeavor that continues today at the Vatican Observatory.Continuing this research for the Specola are Richard Boyle and Christopher Corbally, who have beenworking for many years along with astronomers from Canada, Lithuania, Poland, Wales, Italy, and theUnited States, a truly international collaboration.

Each year as we report on the staff's research activities, we are also building up a history of certaincontinuing areas of the Observatory's interests, such as the spectral classification of stars begun bySecchi. But it is not often that we take the time to purposefully look at that history. Boyle kindlyprovided us with the historical account presented here of the work that led up to the Vatican

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Observatory's current research in this area.

In the early 1900s, the pioneering astronomers Hertzsprung, a Dane, and Russell, an American, madea major advancement to Secchi's initial discovery. They observed that the relative brightness ofdifferent colors in a star's spectrum can provide information about the star's intrinsic size andbrightness, and ultimately about its age and the history of the region of the galaxy where it formed. Bythe way, both Hertzsprung and Russel visited the Specola.

Throughout most of the twentieth century, a long−term project of astronomers worldwide was tomeasure spectra of as many stars in as many regions as possible. Telescopes like the VaticanObservatory's Double Astrograph, and later the Schmidt, at Castel Gandolfo were pressed into service.These instruments were designed to capture light from a wide swath of the sky, guide it through a giantprism, and capture the resulting "rainbows" of starlight on a photographic plate. Astronomers then hadto identify and classify each spectrum on the photograph by eye. Thousands of stars were classifiedthis way. But the relatively low sensitivity of photographic plates and the labor−intensive nature ofworking with them ultimately limited the science that could be done in this fashion.

In the 1960s, the photographic plate began to be replaced by more−sensitive electronic detectors.These photoelectric tubes, however, could only measure one star at a time, but with a precision fargreater than the crude spectra on the photographic plates. A further refinement was made by passingthe starlight through filters. This allowed astronomers to estimate the star's color rather than look at itsentire spectrum. One popular set of filters used at that time was developed by the Danish astronomerStrömgren. Each filter in his set took in a wide range of color. By comparing the brightness of the starfrom one filter to the next, a stellar classification could be determined for most ordinary stars.

In the 1980s, the light detectors in telescopes were almost completely replaced by electronic CCDchips. These both exceeded the sensitivity of the photoelectric tube and captured at once a wholecollection of stars in a given region of the sky. Indeed, the sensitivity of the CCD chips gave rise to anew practical problem: instead of a few bright stars in a given small field of view, astronomers now hadto analyze dozens to hundreds of stars in each tiny region of the sky.

Around this time, astronomers recognized an inherent weakness in the Strömgren filters for classifyingcertain stars whose colors had been altered when their light passed through clouds of interstellar dust.For those stars, data taken with the Strömgren filters gave rise to an ambiguity: Was a given star "red"because of its intrinsic color, or because the dust had scattered away the blue light? A new set offilters, known as the Vilnius filters (named for the Observatory of Vilnius, Lithuania, where this systemwas developed) was devised that did away with this ambiguity. But an enormous amount of work hadalready been done using the Strömgren filters, and it seemed a waste to discard that work. Thus in the1990s, astronomers agreed on a compromise set of filters combining the best of both sets and knowntoday as the Stromvil Photometric System.

Boyle and his collaborators are now making many photoelectric and CCD observations of galactic andglobular star clusters using this new Stromvil system with the Vatican Observatory's VATT as well aswith other telescopes. Because of its efficiency, the Stromvil filter system has also been proposed foruse on the European Space Agency's GAIA mission, scheduled for launch in 2010 to map the billionbrightest objects in the sky.

Vatican Observatory Summer School

The Eighth Vatican Observatory Summer School in Observational Astronomy and Astrophysics washeld at the Observatory's headquarters in Castel Gandolfo from 16 June to 13 July. The topic of thisyear's School, "Observations and Theoretical Understanding of Stellar Remnants," attracted 26students from 19 countries.

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VOSS 2001 student Katherine Vieira of Venezuela observesthe sun during a class exercise directed by Emmanuel Carreira,S.J. (left). (Photo by VOSS 2001 student Alan Yost, S.J.)

The faculty included Gary Schmidt, University of Arizona; Ramesh Narayan, Harvard SmithsonianCenter for Astrophysics; Francesca D'Antona, Rome Observatory at Monte Porzio; and the VaticanObservatory's William Stoeger. On 4 July His Holiness John Paul II received the group in St. Peter'sSquare at the termination of the General Audience. The Pope gave the students a special writtenmessage in which, among other statements, he remarked: "Your personal and professionalfriendships, which embrace a variety of political, cultural, and religious differences, are one of the mostprecious fruits of the School, and I pray that these bonds will endure through the years." The youngscholars were joined at the audience by the guests of the Vatican Observatory Foundation.

Personnel News

As of 1 September, Giuseppe Koch, S.J., joins the staff of the Observatory as Assistant to the Director.Father Koch entered the Society of Jesus in 1958 and obtained his degree in Mathematics andPhysics in 1966 at the University of Rome. Since 1970 he has been doing pastoral work and teachingphysics in the Jesuit Secondary Schools of Rome and of Palermo, Sicily.

As of 1 September, Javier Igea Lopez−Fando, priest of the Diocese of Toledo, Spain, joins the staff ofthe Observatory on a half−time basis. Igea obtained his doctorate in 1998 at New York University witha thesis on proto−planetary disks. He will continue half−time as Professor of Philosophical Cosmologyin the seminary of Toledo.

Marcelo B. Ribiero arrived September 4 to begin a year of collaborative research in cosmology withStoeger at VORG. He is an Associate Professor in the Physics Institute, Federal University of Rio deJaneiro, Brazil, and his research is being funded by Brazil's Ministry of Education, CAPES.

Aileen O'Donoghue, physics and astronomy professor to undergraduates at St. Lawrence University inCanton, New York, since 1988, is spending her sabbatical leave for the 2001−2002 academic year asa visiting scholar with the VORG. Her astronomical research has been almost entirely in the radioband, and she has used the Very Large Array Radio Telescope in Socorro, New Mexico, to imageextended radio galaxies and analyze the flow dynamics of the extended structure. Realizing thatoptical astronomy is more amenable to the involvement of undergraduates in research, she has cometo the Vatican Observatory to gain expertise in optical observations and analysis. O'Donoghue is alsointerested in the science−religion interface and has been involved in the Science and the SpiritualQuest II program of the Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences in Berkeley, California.

Richard J. Murphy, S.J., has been appointed Superior of the Jesuit Community of the VaticanObservatory in Tucson. Sabino Maffeo, S.J., remains as Superior of the Community at CastelGandolfo.

Carolina Fornino in Longobardi, who resides in Grottaferrata, a neighboring town to Castel Gandolfo, isworking as a volunteer in the Vatican Observatory's library.

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Vatican Observatory Foundation Annual Meeting

The annual meeting of the members and directors of the Vatican Observatory Foundation was held on23 February 2001 in Tucson, Arizona. The following were elected to serve as members and directorsfor a three−year period: CHRISTOPHER J. CORBALLY, S.J., BEN DALBY, PAULA D'ANGELO, PAULM. HENKELS, CHRISTOPHER P. HITCHCOCK, CHARLES W. POLZER, S.J., and WILLIAM R.STOEGER, S.J. On the day preceding the annual meeting, a seminar was conducted by members ofthe Observatory staff to present their research in a popular forum to friends of the Observatory and tomembers of the Board. On the day after the meeting the same group was accompanied on anexcursion to the observatories on Mt. Hopkins.

Through the efforts of NANCY KNOCHE, Development Director, and JAMES McGEE, Chair of theDevelopment Committee, the Foundation continues the two Vatican Observatory Guild giving plansannounced in the 2000 Annual Report: the Circles of Giving and the Reaching for the Heavens Guildmembership. At each Board meeting a festive dinner is held to welcome major donors into the variousCircles of Giving, which have been named in honor of the following eminent persons in the history ofthe Church and science: John Paul II, Leo XIII, Gregory XIII, Pius XI, Angelo Secchi, S.J., EusebioKino, S.J., Christoph Clavius, S.J., and Georges Lemaître. During the past year, the DevelopmentCommittee organized a number of events for Observatory supporters, in particular: a luncheon in NewYork on 4 June hosted by Peter Mullen, with Cardinal Avery Dulles as honorary guest, and a visit toRome, the Vatican, and the Vatican Observatory at Castel Gandolfo in July organized by PaulaD'Angelo, a member of the Foundation Board.

Once again through the efforts of BRENDAN D. THOMSON, an official Vatican Observatory calendarfor the year 2001 has been produced with the theme, "Young Astronomers Lead Us to a BetterTomorrow." Among the images featured in the calendar are pictures of Earth and the cosmos taken byalumni of the Vatican Observatory Summer Schools.

George V. Coyne, S.J., Director

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THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

Theoretical Studies, Astrophysics, and Cosmology

STOEGER and ARAÚJO (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro) and collaborators and studentshave completed and published their treatment of constructing solutions to the Einstein field equationswith cosmological data functions for dust (pressure−free matter) in observational(past−light−cone−based) coordinates in the case of open and closed (non−flat)Friedmann−Lemaître−Robertson−Walker (FLRW) universes and in perturbed FLRW cases. Theypublished their results for all exact spherically symmetric cases in 1999. Now they are working tocomplete the solution scheme for the general perturbation case (including non−spherically symmetricperturbations to FLRW) and for cases involving a mixture of dust and a vacuum energy (non−zerocosmological constant). They have made significant progress on both fronts.

STOEGER and RIBEIRO (Physics Institute, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro) have begunsome preliminary work on bridging the chasm between theoretical relativistic cosmology and theobservational cosmology treatment of data as it applies to FLRW models of the universe. In particular,they are trying to describe mathematically the relationship which obtains between the galaxy luminosityfunction and relativistic energy−density of the universe at various redshifts. They are also studying howsuch data, including that pertaining to clusters of galaxies, might eventually be able to be used toconstrain both cosmological models and luminosity and number evolution, without assuming that theuniverse on a particular scale is FLRW. One particular motivation for this work is to determine what isthe smallest length scale on which our Universe is approximately FLRW.

ELLIS, MCEWAN, and DUNSBY (Department of Mathematics, University of Cape Town) together withSTOEGER have completed and submitted preliminary work on both the dynamics and the horizongrowth (causality) of inflationary universes with positive spatial curvature. In such universes thecurvature will always dominate at early enough times. This puts limits on the number of inflationarye−foldings that can have occurred, without regard for what may have happened in the Planck era. Thisalso means that causality will almost never connect the entire spatial extent of the universe. Anysolution to the horizon problem, it turns out, really must be solved in the Planck era. Inflation merelyserves to blow up to a very large scale whatever causally self−connected patch emerges from thePlanck era. It does not determine the causal self−connectivity of the original patch, nor how large thatpatch is. Those characteristics must be determined by quantum−gravity processes in the Planck eraitself. STOEGER and the Cape Town group are continuing their investigation of these issues, inparticular, by deriving more precise constraints on inflationary effects in these models (e−foldings andhorizon sizes). They are doing this by treating carefully the mixed−radiation and vacuum−energydominated pre−inflationary phase of the universe's evolution, and by determining the effect of Planckera processes on the size and homogeneity of the pre−inflationary patch, according to what quantumcosmologists are discovering.

LISZKA (Swedish Institute of Space Science, Sförs), PACHOLCZYK (Steward Observatory, Universityof Arizona), and STOEGER are continuing their work on ROSAT and Chandra X−ray data sets ofSeyfert galaxies to separate out deterministic signals, which may be due to processes in the sourcesthemselves, from both extrinsic and intrinsic stochastic processes. This work is directed toward a moreprecise understanding of the central engine of active galactic nuclei, in particular, whether or not thereis just a single central black hole or rather multiple black holes (e.g., a cluster of black holes).STOEGER and PACHOLCZYK are also beginning to study how black holes may be involved ingamma−ray bursts, and how initial gamma−ray bursts from ballistic black−hole events can bedegraded in some cases to X−ray energies through their interaction with surrounding matter and highenergy radiation fields (photon−photon pair−production processes).

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JUST (Department of Physics, University of Arizona) continues to work in quantum field theorytogether with STOEGER, particularly on developing and refining the quantum induction program.

WHITMAN continues to work on the holonomy problem. This seeks to identify the possible geometricstructures, one of which being the structure of our universe, that are described by Einsteiniangeometry. Within this problem is an older one, first solved around a hundred years ago: the problem ofclassifying the real, irreducible representations of real forms of the simple complex Lie algebras. Overthe century more understanding and sharper results were reported with respect to this problem.However, this literature is diffused throughout many journals and books, and it is difficult to understandthe larger picture. Thus WHITMAN is now working to give an exposition of this development from itsbeginnings in the theory of Lie algebras. He has also presented another exposition of a part of theholonomy problem. Complex representations of simple complex Lie algebras is the basis for thebeginning of the solution of this problem. Among these representations appear the rather surprisingspin representations. In order to show how these spin representations might have been discovered,WHITMAN prepared a detailed analysis of the isomorphisms of the low dimensional Lie algebras inwhich these spin representations naturally appear. With this foundation it became much easier to showthe structure of these spin representations as coming from certain Clifford algebras. In particular, thesurprising difference between the even−dimensional and odd−dimensional spin representation becamevery clear. This material was assembled into a set of notes by WHITMAN, "Low DimensionalIsomorphisms of Simple Complex Lie Algebras and Spin Representations."

Extragalactic Research

These images of NGC 628, a spiral galaxy at a distance of 9.7 Mpc (32 million light years), were taken by VaticanObservatory astronomer Jos‚ Funes, S.J. and Sanae Akiyama with the University of Arizona. The images, obtained at theVATT in November 2001, illustrate the H−alpha survey of star formation in the local universe. The R−band image is at left;the H−alpha image at right. The H−alpha image reveals those regions where stars are forming.

Understanding star formation rates (SFR) is crucial for the comprehension of galaxy formation andevolution. A key question is: How does the distribution of SFR evolve with redshift? To answer thisquestion, other researchers (Madau and collaborators) attempted in 1996 to measure the redshiftevolution of the co−moving SFR density. The result is the so−called "Madau plot." However, this plot isinfluenced by systematic uncertainties in the underlying SFR scales (extinction and incompletenessbiases). To address the incompleteness and environmental effects, FUNES along with KENNICUTT(Steward Observatory, University of Arizona), SAKAI (University of California, Los Angeles), andAKIYAMA (University of Arizona) are obtaining H−alpha images to complete a volume−limited surveyof integrated SFRs for a complete sample of nearby galaxies within the local 11 megaparsec volume.In order to probe the population of field galaxies, they are compiling and measuring the integratedH−alpha luminosities and SFRs for a complete sample. The data will be used to: (1) construct the localSFR distribution function as a reference for cosmological look−back studies; (2) develop newdiagnostic measures of the rate and distribution of star formation in galaxy populations; (3) quantify therole of starbursts in the evolution of low−mass galaxies; (4) quantify the incompleteness biases in star

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formation surveys; (5) study the environmental dependence of the SFR distribution function; and (6)provide a reference catalog and image database for use by workers in the field. The observations forthis program are being obtained with the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope (VATT) at Mt.Graham, the Steward Observatory 90−inch Bok Telescope at Kitt Peak, and the Cerro TololoInteramerican Observatory 0.9−m telescope at Cerro Tololo, Chile.

FUNES continues to seek an accurate determination of the black−hole mass in early−type diskgalaxies by studying the gaseous kinematics in the inner regions of these galaxies. This work is beingdone in collaboration with BERTOLA, CORSINI, PIZZELLA (University of Padua, Italy), SARZI(University of Durham. U.K.), and VEGA BELTRAN (Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, CanaryIslands). It is now commonly accepted that almost every galaxy hosts in its center a supermassiveblack hole (BH). Supermassive BHs may have played a major role in galaxy evolution, as recentlyindicated by the correlation between the black−hole mass and the bulge stellar velocity dispersion.However, it should be kept in mind that the current demography of supermassive BHs suffers fromimportant biases related to the limited sampling over the different basic properties of their hostgalaxies. In particular, it is evident that the number of BH mass estimates in spiral galaxies is stronglyunder−represented. New spectroscopic observations with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrographhave been scheduled to map the ionized gas velocity field of three early−type disk galaxies, for whichwe will be able to derive high precision BH mass measurements. Indeed, the sample galaxies havebeen selected from among 37 observed objects by means of ground−based, high−resolutionspectroscopy, whereby we recognized in the central regions of the selected galaxies the clearpresence of a circum−nuclear Keplerian disk of ionized gas suitable for dynamical modeling.

OMIZZOLO and CRISTIANI (European Southern Observatory, Munich) are determining the luminosityfunction for a sample of about 800 X−ray emitting, bright quasar candidates. Low−resolution red regionspectra were obtained in collaboration with CORBALLY at the Steward Observatory Bok Telescope onKitt Peak, and reduction of the data was completed at the Department of Astronomy of the Universityof Padua. OMIZZOLO and CRISTIANI are also studying the spectral data for NGC 526, an activegalaxy, to determine the kinematics of this interesting object. The spectra were taken at the ESOobservatories in Chile and at the Galileo Italian National Telescope in the Canary Islands.

The Galaxy and Galactic Objects

CORBALLY and GRAY (Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina) completed theirspectroscopic search for lambda Boötis stars among late B, A, and early F−type stars in 12 young andintermediate−age open clusters. Numerous classical Ap (three notably extreme) and Am stars werefound among the 130 stars observed. In addition, three emission−line stars and two candidate lambdaBoötis stars were found. Neither of these lambda Boötis candidates turned out to be members of theirrespective clusters. When combined with 184 stars previously classified in 10 other intermediate−ageopen clusters, also devoid of lambda Boötis stars, and correcting for cluster membership probabilities,a statistically significant null result was obtained. Since the frequency of lambda Boötis stars in the fieldamounts to 2%, a small but significant percentage, the null result from clusters suggests some factor(s)external to the star and related to membership in open clusters that prevents the operation of thelambda Boötis mechanism.

The investigation of heavily reddened stars in clusters and of peculiar stars continues. These wereselected by STRAIZYS (Institute of Theoretical Physics and Astronomy, Vilnius, Lithuania) fromphotometric classifications in the Vilnius seven−color system. Heavily reddened stars in the areaaround Nova V1500 Cygni, in the Camelopardalis dark clouds, and in the dark cloud between theNorth American and Pelican Nebulae have been classified by CORBALLY from spectra he obtainedwith the Steward Observatory's Bok Telescope.

RUEGER (Diocese of Brooklyn), with the help of RECCA (Manhasset, NY), has finished processingthe UBVRI observations obtained with the VATT of two fields in the North Galactic Pole (NGP). WithCORBALLY, they are using these fields to calibrate new, direct images of the NGP that were takenwith the MDM 1.3−m McGraw−Hill Telescope in the spring. These images, each 45 arcmin square,were acquired through a collaboration with CROTTS (Columbia University), whose MDM 8K CCD

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array camera was used to considerably enlarge the search area for G−dwarf stars in the Galactic Halo.

CORBALLY, GRAY and McFADDEN (Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina), andGARRISON (David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto) have been joined by O'DONOGHUE(Vatican Observatory Research Group visiting scholar) this year in their project to obtain spectra,spectral types, and basic parameters of the 3600 stars within 40 parsec of the sun and earlier than M0spectral type. This is part of the Nearby Stars (NStars)/Space Interferometry Mission PreparatoryScience program, and its goals were described in the Annual Report of 2000. Progress has beensteady since the project began in July 2000. Some 60% of the spectra have been observed, some20% have been classified, and the analysis technique was refined for late−type spectra and is beingapplied down to K5. To help with the analysis, O'DONOGHUE traveled to Appalachian State Universityin July to work with GRAY. While there, she acquired data that had already been obtained by theproject as well as the computer programs GRAY had written for analysis of the spectra. When shearrived at the Vatican Observatory Research Group in September, she brought with her familiarity andexperience with the programs, as well as the programs themselves.

In the age of "big glass," the future of smaller telescopes (up to 4−m aperture) might be questioned. Atthe prompting of OSWALT (Florida Institute of Technology), the general editor of a book on this topic,CORBALLY, GARRISON, and GRAY collaborated in thinking through which spectroscopicobservations from smaller telescopes would best provide the high priority projects for stellar physics inthe present decade. Various kinds of surveying and monitoring of stars were proposed, along with therefinement of digital and automated techniques in the classification and analysis of stars. In all of theproposed projects, the complementarity between data obtained with small and large telescopes wasstressed, since astronomy of the future will require that both kinds of telescopes be used efficiently tounderstand the most interesting stars.

Stellar population survey work, long a mainstay of astronomy at the Specola, continues today with aninnovated combination of electronic data collection and computerized data reduction. A historicalperspective of the evolution of this work is found in the "From the Director" section of this AnnualReport. At present, the work facing the astronomers is threefold: (1) to understand and learn to correctfor all the fluctuations inherent in the electronic gathering of faint light with CCD chips; (2) to collectoverlapping data sets that can serve to tie together the existing Strömgren and Vilnius data with thenext generation of Stromvil data sets; and (3) to address the need that arises from all these data for arepeatable, automated system where computer analysis of the electronic images can help speed upthe enormous work of classifying hundreds of stars in hundreds of CCD images. Work on all three ofthese issues was carried forward by BOYLE, in collaboration with PHILIP (Union College,Schenectady, New York), JANUSZ (Cracow, Poland), DASGUPTA (Cardiff, Wales), SMRIGLIO(University of Rome), and KAZLAUSKAS, LAUGALYS, and STRAI_YS (Vilnius, Lithuania).

During the course of the year, BOYLE spent 23 days in separate runs at the VATT with PHILIP toobtain images of globular clusters and open clusters with the Stromvil filter system. KAZLAUSKAS andLAUGALYS spent 39 nights observing standard stars at the Mt. Lemmon 60−inch telescope in Tucsonand 7 nights at the United States Naval Observatory 1−m telescope in Flagstaff, Arizona. The goal ofthis work was to calibrate the Stromvil system by taking photoelectric standards in selected fieldsincluding open and globular clusters, and also for field stars.

JANUSZ has developed an automated system for data reduction of these CCD images that allows thecomputer to recall the complex sequence of steps needed to remove known artifacts and errors (flatfielding) from each image, and that can even automatically identify stars of interest within the field. Thisspeeds up the reduction process by a large factor. BOYLE and JANUSZ tested and refined thissystem, and DASGUPTA then applied it to real−world cases, comparing the reductions done with theautomated system with those performed by hand using traditional methods. The final version of thissystem promises to greatly reduce the time and effort needed to classify stars in a set of CCD images.

The goal of all the work described above remains the classification and characterization of stars invarious regions of the galaxy. This stellar census will contribute to our understanding of how the MilkyWay galaxy, and other spiral galaxies, develop over time.

IGEA, in collaboration with HUGGINS (Physics Department, New York University) is studying dustscattering in multiple−shell circumstellar envelopes. When a star ejects matter periodically or

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episodically, it forms a series of nested, concentric shells. Such a phenomenon has been recentlyobserved around a number of asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars and around some post−AGB stars.It may prove to be an important phenomenon in the later stages of stellar evolution. Radiative transferof scattered light in spherical geometry is fairly well understood, but little is known about transfer issuch multiple−shell envelopes. IGEA and HUGGINS are carrying out Monte−Carlo calculations for dustscattering in such shells, which are illuminated by both external and internal radiation. The principalvariables in the calculations to reproduce the observations are the dust grain properties and the shellgeometries.

Planetary Sciences

Meteorites

In recent years, CONSOLMAGNO along with STRAIT (Alma College, Michigan) and BLAND (OpenUniversity, Milton Keynes, England) have studied microcrack porosity in meteorites, correlating themeasured porosity in a hand sample with the amount of volume taken up by cracks in a thin section ofthe same meteorite. A problem with meteorite thin sections has been that previously only a tiny fractionof an entire section typically was imaged; at times, as few as two images were used to characterize theentire section. This past year, however, the researchers worked with a thin section of Knyahinya (L/LL5), which fell in Ukraine in 1866, that has been imaged over much of its surface using a JSM 840ASEM at Central Michigan University. Several hundred digital backscatter electron microscope imageswere generated that covered approximately 50% of the surface. Porosity in the thin section imageswas measured using NIH Image software. The data, averaged over the areas, indicate an averageporosity of 6.0%, with about 0.5% of the cracks filled. This was in agreement with the porositypreviously measured by CONSOLMAGNO and BRITT (University of Tennessee) in the whole rock.

In evaluating the porosity distribution in the thin section of the Knyahinya meteorite, the researchersobserved that the porosity tended to be higher at the edges of the section, where larger cracks wereevident; several areas had significantly higher porosity (10−15%). These areas tend to have majorcracks through the fabric of the section, large holes, or gaps at the edges of large inclusions. Therewas a gradual transition into and out of these high−porosity areas, so it was not an artifact of themeasurements. This may be consistent with the idea that these cracks are the result of a shock havingpassed through the meteorite, with a greater effect near its edges. When did this shock afflict the rock?It could have occurred at any timewhen the rock was residing on its asteroidal parent body; during theevent that ejected the rock into Earth−crossing orbit; or even during the shock it experienced whenhitting the Earth. Telling the difference will require measuring the microcrack porosity of different typesof meteorites, including meteorites that came from rocks known to have been fractured while on thesurface of an asteroid and those that appear to have remained relatively intact before arriving at Earth.The one event that all meteorites have in common is their arrival at Earth; if all meteorites showidentical microcracks, regardless of type or previous history, that would suggest the cracks were allmade at this time, while differences among types would be consistent with cracks occurring in theasteroidal parent body.

In other meteorite−related activities, ROCHETTE (Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica, Rome and Universityof Aix−Marseille, France) visited the Vatican meteorite collection, housed at the Vatican Observatory'sheadquarters in Castel Gandolfo, in January to make measurements of the magnetic susceptibility ofmore than three hundred stony meteorites in the collection. Measurements of the magnetic property ofmeteorites, which is controlled by their iron content, may provide a rapid nondestructive technique tocharacterize meteorite samples and probe their homogeneity in the 1 to 100 cc volume ranges.Moreover, the knowledge of average magnetic properties for a given meteorite class is needed tointerpret spacecraft magnetic data, such as provided in possible future follow−ons to the NEARmission to asteroid Eros. Magnetic susceptibility is the most suitable parameter to measure, as it canbe measured on various volumes and shapes, and it is also nondestructive of the paleomagneticnatural remnant magnetization. This work was part of a larger effort, involving ROCHETTE,SAGNOTTI (Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica, Rome), FOLCO and MELLINI (Antarctic Museum of Siena,Italy), MARAS and PANZARINO (University of Rome), PESONEN and TERHO (University of Helsinki),

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and SERRA (Museum of San Giovanni in Persiceto, Italy), to characterize the magnetic properties ofmeteorites held in collections throughout the Italian peninsula. The researchers merged this databasewith previous data from Finnish and Czech collections, allowing them to analyze about 750 differentordinary chondrites, including both those seen to fall and collected while still fresh, and those found inplaces like hot deserts or Antarctica. For a large number of meteorites, especially falls (thoserecovered after having been observed falling to Earth), numerous samples from various collectionswere measured, allowing the team to see if the susceptibility values were the same from sample tosample. Falls turn out to be quite homogeneous; finds (meteorites not observed falling to Earth) areless so, as are some brecciated or veined falls where one would expect to see locally variable metalconcentrations. After separating falls from finds, a very narrow range of susceptibility values cancharacterize H, L, and LL ordinary chondrite classes, with practically no overlap (except for somebrecciated or veined samples). On the other hand, finds show a variable decrease of susceptibilitycorrelated to the degree to which Earth's water and air have caused the iron in the meteorites toweather and rust. Previous studies had neglected to separate falls from finds, and so had missed thisseparation of magnetic properties in different ordinary chondrite classes.

From this analysis of a large number of samples, it is clear that finds, even from Antarctica, have to beexcluded from efforts to define mean magnetic properties of asteroids related to ordinary chondrites.When finds are excluded, the magnetic properties of meteorites remain in a very narrow range for agiven class. The standard deviation for all falls of a given class is only about two times the standarddeviation for multiple pieces of the same fall. This supports the hypothesis that all falls from a givenordinary chondrite class (H, L, LL) may come from the same, rather small−sized object. Althoughmagnetic susceptibility cannot be used to classify finds (a weathered H, for example, gives the samevalue as a fresh L), the magnetic susceptibility of finds can be used to probe weathering stage and todetermine if two meteorites found at different locations are part of the same fall ("pairing"). This is aquick way to classify a large number of specimens, for instance, to confirm the identification ofmeteorites within a large collection.

As a result of these measurements, the classification of about half a dozen samples in the Vaticancollection is now being reevaluated. Intriguingly, the work described above suggests that by measuringthe magnetic properties of rock remotely, spacecraft may be able to determine with great precision theiron content of asteroids or even materials on the surface of terrestrial planets.

Asteroids

The number of asteroid bulk−density measurements has been rapidly increasing, thanks to spacecraftmissions, observations of asteroid satellites, and observations of asteroid mutual gravitational events.In most cases, asteroid bulk densities tend to be substantially below likely meteorite analogs, indicatingsignificant porosity (as described in previous Annual Reports). The bulk porosity of these asteroids canbe estimated by using the grain density data of the analog meteorites to constrain the amount of porespace that would be required for an object of that composition and measured bulk density. Forexample, 433 Eros has a measured bulk density of 2.67 ± 0.03 g/cm3 and probably has an L−chondritecomposition, which implies a grain density of 3.75 g/cm3. To make the L−chondrite grain densityconsistent with the asteroidal bulk density would require a bulk porosity of 28.8%. To better assessasteroidal structure, BRITT (University of Tennessee), CONSOLMAGNO, YEOMANS (Jet PropulsionLaboratory, Pasadena, California) and HOUSEN (Boeing, Seattle, Washington) took the analysis astep further this past year by recognizing that most meteorites have some level of micron−scalemicroporosity that does not seriously affect the meteorite's cohesive strength. This implies thatmicroporosity would also not affect the parent asteroid's coherent strength. By subtracting the averagemeteorite analog microporosity from the bulk porosity of an asteroid, we can estimate the asteroid'slarge−scale macroporosity. An asteroid's macroporosity are the fractures, cracks, and voids that arelarge enough to affect its coherent strength and define its internal structure. Note that this estimaterequires two assumptions: first, that we know the asteroid's meteorite analog and, second, that themeteorites delivered to Earth are a representative sample of that material. Both assumptions are opento debate.

Estimated macroporosities for the asteroids measured so far appear to divide into three rough groups.The first group includes the large asteroids 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, and 4 Vesta. Their bulk densities arevery close to the bulk densities of their analog meteorites, indicating essentially zero macroporosity.

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These asteroids are probably strong, coherent objects that have not been disrupted throughout solarsystem history. It is interesting that all three asteroids with diameters >500 km all fall in the zeromacroporosity group. The second group includes the S asteroids 433 Eros and 243 Ida, as well as 762Pulcova and 121 Hermione. These asteroids have between 15 and 25% macroporosity, indicating thatthey have been extensively fractured. However, this fracturing was probably not extensive enough todisrupt the object, and asteroids with less than approximately 25% macroporosity probably have somemeasure of coherent strength. In terrestrial geology, well−sorted sedimentary rocks can have up to30% porosity and still be coherent. However, greater than 30% porosity usually indicates loose rubbleor soils. The third group are those asteroids with greater than 30% macroporosity. These objects areprobably pervasively fractured and may have been disrupted and reassembled by mutual gravity.

Asteroid 16 Psyche is likely the most porous object obser ved so far. Its reflectance spectra and radaralbedo strongly indicate a metallic surface composition. Assuming an iron meteorite grain density of7.4 g/cm3, the asteroid's inferred low bulk density would require a bulk porosity of 75%, which suggestsa pervasively disrupted object that has been loosely reassembled and held together by mutualgravitation. Simulations of impacts into porous materials indicate that porosity can dramatically affectthe evolution of asteroid regoliths, impact ejecta, and structure. Impacts into high−porosity asteroidscreate craters, primarily by compaction and with most ejecta being retained within the crater. Asporosity increases, ejecta velocities tend to drop, the sizes of ejecta blankets are reduced, and theefficiency of asteroid impact gardening (the churning up of soil by repeated impacts) is significantlyreduced. Because the compaction process dissipates impact shock more effectively, highly porousasteroids may be significantly more resistant to impact disruption and, as a result, have increaseddynamical lifetimes.

This new understanding of asteroid structure changes the way we think about how planets wereformed from the accretion of small bodies. More importantly, it also changes the way we must thinkabout how to move, or destroy, any "killer" asteroids on a path aimed at Earth. Such rubble pilescannot be simply disrupted by a single well−placed bomb (a la Hollywood), since the rubble will simplydissipate the energy of the explosion. Nor can "pushing" on one end of the asteroid necessarily resultin the entire body moving into a new path. On the other hand, one could expect to find a large amountof loose material on such a rubble−pile asteroid. This material could easily be launched from thesurface, either to act as "reaction mass" to nudge the body in the opposite direction, or to exploit thematerial for its mineral wealth.

The Moon

Since the early 1970s our understanding of lunar formation has been dominated by the magma oceanmodel, that is, that the early Moon started with a layer 400 km thick of completely molten rock, whosestratified freezing gave rise to the different rock types seen in the samples returned by the Apollomission. However, recent work, spurred in part by the results of the Clementine and Lunar Prospectorspace missions of the 1990s, has challenged this model on a number of grounds. DYAR (MountHolyoke College, Mt. Holyoke, Massachusetts) and CONSOLMAGNO have begun a collaboration toexplore three specific questions raised by this model.

(1) Is the magma ocean model consistent with the giant−impact origin for the Moon? In the 1980s, tenyears after the magma ocean model was proposed, a new theory for the Moon's origin was put forth.This suggested that the Moon formed from material splashed into space by the impact of a largeplanetesimal onto Earth early in our planet's history. But such an impact−formed Moon, depleted inthose elements normally found in an iron core, must have been well mixed and probably completelymeltednot to just a depth of 400 kmduring the initial impact and core formation. DYAR andCONSOLMAGNO, along with other workers, have noted that the geophysical constraints on thecomposition and evolution of such a Moon are difficult to reconcile with the standard magma oceanmodel.

(2) Did a chilled anorthosite crust exist? The magma ocean model predicts that the upper 60 km of theMoon would be made primarily of the calcium− and aluminum−rich mineral anorthite, the mainconstituent of anorthosite rocks. But data from the recent lunar orbiters indicate that the averagecrustal composition of the Moon is significantly different from the composition of the limited Apollosamples on which the magma ocean hypothesis was based. Lunar anorthosites may have formed over

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too long a period to be consistent with a rapidly chilled crust. And the thorough melting of asteroidVesta, believed to be the source of basaltic meteorites, apparently did not form anorthosite meteorites;none have ever been found. CONSOLMAGNO and DYAR have begun to look at models of the Moonanalogous to the successful chemical models of Vesta, which include more pervasive equilibrium andsignificant mixing during melting, rather than the stratified layers implied by the lunar magma oceanmodel.

(3) Is the depletion of volatiles in both the Moon and Vesta (the basaltic meteorite parent body)primordial? We know that both the Moon and the basaltic meteorites are depleted in water, oxygen,and elements like sodium and potassium. The standard magma ocean model assumes that thesevolatiles were never present once the Moon was formed. Some authors suggest that they were lostduring the giant impact formation of the Moon. But this would not explain why they are lost in the sameway on Vesta, which presumably was not the result of a giant impact. Other authors have suggestedthat the loss of volatiles could have occurred during fire−fountain volcanism. DYAR andCONSOLMAGNO note that the abundant vesicles ("frozen bubbles") seen in pristine lunar basalts andbasaltic meteorites (including samples in the Vatican collection at Castel Gandolfo) suggest both theMoon and Vesta were much richer in oxygen and other gases than the magma ocean modelsupposes. New Mossbauer and micro−XANES measurements by DYAR have found ferric (oxidized)iron in lunar anorthosites, which also suggests that the early Moon was originally more oxygen richthan seen today. DYAR's work suggests that large−scale shock reduction and dehydrogenation arealso possible for these rocks. Further measurements of both additional lunar samples and basalticmeteorite samples from the Vatican collection should help us understand this problem further.

The significance of this work extends far beyond the Moon. The concept of a "magma ocean" has beenborrowed to explain terrestrial bodies from Mercury to Vesta. Until these basic challenges to the lunarmagma ocean model are resolved, we will not be able to make progress in understanding the otherterrestrial planets. If the magma ocean hypothesis survives these challenges, it will be a theory we canuse with greater confidence; if it fails, everything we know about the origin of the terrestrial planets willneed to be rethought.

Small Outer Solar System Objects

Observations of Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs) continued at the VATT through 2001. ROMANISHIN(University of Oklahoma), TEGLER and BOTTHOF (Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff), RETTIG(University of Notre Dame), and CONSOLMAGNO obtained optical (B, V, and R filter) photometry ofKBO (26308), 1998 SM165, over eight nights in the fall observing seasons of 1999, 2000, and 2001.These data were analyzed to show a light curve with a large amplitude and a rotational period of 7.98hours (assuming the brightness variations are due to shape). If this is an ellipsoidal body with auniform albedo of 0.04, typical of KBOs, it must have dimensions of 600 × 360 × 360 km. That wouldmake (26308) one of the largest, significantly non−spherical bodies in the solar system. Data from1999 and 2000 show no evidence of color variations with rotational phase. Color versus phase data,obtained during a second run at the VATT in the fall of 2001 by TEGLER and ROMANISHIN, mayshed further light on the nature of this object's surface materials.

History and Philosophy of Science; Interdisciplinary Studies

IGEA has finished a paper on the religious implications of the origin of the universe in preparation for aconference on science and religion that will be held in Puebla, Mexico. He explores the possibility ofhaving a self−explanatory theory of the universe and its knowledgeability by human reason.

Recent work by STOEGER on the philosophy of cosmology has yielded an article in Philosophy inScience describing, from a philosophical point of view, "the universe which cosmology studies." WithPACHOLCZYK (University of Arizona), he has also written a paper treating problems connected withcorrespondence, the succession of acceptable theories (e.g., Newton's theory of gravity and Einstein'sgeneral relativity), and the notions of truth associated with them.

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STOEGER has been continuing his work in formulating a theology of creation in light of contemporaryscientific knowledge. As part of this effort, he is in the preliminary stages of developing a philosophy ofrelations and causes, which would more adequately delineate and connect these concepts at thescientific, ontological, and theological levels, relying on the insight that relations are more basic thancauses.

CARUANA has published a textbook entitled Fondamenti Filosofici delle Scienze Naturali(Philosophical Foundations of the Natural Sciences), directed primarily at philosophy undergraduates.It includes a presentation of the basic philosophical arguments on scientific methodology and on thegeneral nature of things. This Italian edition is meant primarily for students attending the PontificalGregorian University.

RIBEIRO, a Vatican Observatory Research Group visiting scholar, with VIDEIRA (both fromDepartment of Philosophy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro) is working on a Brazilian Portugueseedition of the book by STOEGER, The Laws of Nature, the Range of Human Knowledge and DivineAction, which was originally published in Poland by Biblos in 1996. It will be published by the PaulinasPublishing House in São Paulo.

CARREIRA has prepared a study on the interpretation of the anthropic principle as an indication of adesign at the origins of the universe. The study is being readied for publication in La Civiltà Cattolica.

As described in the "From the Director" section of this Annual Report, MAFFEO has written TheVatican Observatory: In the Service of Nine Popes, a revised and enlarged edition of his earlier historyof the Vatican Observatory. The new book has been published in both English and Italian.

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THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

Observatory Operations and Activities

Steward Observatory's Randall Swift (left) and Gary Rosenbaum (centerreflection and right) prepare to wash the VATT's primary mirror prior to thestart of the new observing season in September. (Photo by ChristopherCorbally, S.J.)

The Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope (VATT), part of the Mount Graham InternationalObservatory (MGIO) in Arizona, has benefited substantially from the involvement over the last twoyears of Ned FRANZ at Steward Observatory. Many projects have come near to completion due to hisefforts, including a new dome encoding system, primary mirror metrology, fixes to the secondarymounting, and new encoder mounts for the telescope. Also, Randy SWIFT of StewardObservatory/MGIO has continued to expand his involvement with the VATT and has taken over themajority of the site maintenance and operations, in addition to continued involvement with variousobservatory improvements, most notably the telescope hydraulics and dry air supply.

Improvements at the VATT continue, now under the leadership of scientist Matt NELSON, sinceRichard CROMWELL is now part−time on the project. The VATT/MGIO weather system now monitorssite weather full time. Improvements to standard weather information, which help observer planningand observations, include the availability of a boundary−layer seeing estimation and a cloud sensor.After nearly a year of experience with the repaired secondary mount, it is becoming clear that imagequality has improved by 0.2−0.4 arc seconds at the VATT, resulting in regular reports ofsub−arcsecond seeing from observers. Finally, progress is being made on improving the pointing ofthe telescope though improvements both in the pointing model used and in the encoder mounts. Thisresults in more consistent feedback to the mount motion control system.

The project to provide VATT with a medium−resolution optical spectrograph, last worked on in 1995,has been revived by CORBALLY, CROMWELL, HARMER (National Optical AstronomyObservatories), and NELSON. The optical barrels for the camera and collimator have beenmanufactured, and the optical testing of these lens assemblies is nearly completed. Thespectrograph's mechanical specifications are under review.

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CORBALLY continued to maintain the World Wide Web site of the Vatican Observatory and itsFoundation. He added dedicated target windows for off−site links, and he implemented index framesfor the Annual Reports, including that of 2000, to ease navigation through them. CORBALLY andKNOCHE (Vatican Observatory Foundation Development Director) worked with MacIVER (SandlineProductions) to allow accepting credit card contributions for calendars or making donations directlyfrom the Foundation's web pages. The home page is at http://clavius.as.arizona.edu/vo/

At Castel Gandolfo, a new Alpha Station 64−bit workstation running Unix has been installed, providedby the International Center for Relativistic Astrophysics. During the summer, BOYLE installed theastronomical image processing software package IRAF and the DS−9 Image Display System as wellas other software needed for image processing. With ever−heightening levels of security at both theVatican and the University of Arizona internet offices, the Secure Shell environment for the Specola'snetwork of computers has also been installed.

Under the care of MAFFEO, the dome of the Zeiss visual telescope at Castel Gandolfo has beencompletely restored. This was accomplished through generous donations from the Fondazione Cassadi Risparmio della Banca di Roma, the Compagnia di S. Paolo di Torino, and SARAS, RaffinerieSarde.

A new H filter for use with the telescopes at Castel Gandolfo has been generously donated to theObservatory by David Lunt and Geraldine Hogan of the Coronado Technology Group, Tucson,Arizona.

OMIZZOLO and BARBIERI (University of Padua) carried out a preliminary study of the feasibility of thedigitization of the Vatican Observatory's archival astronomical plates. With the collaboration ofCASANOVAS, they are at the same time creating a digital catalogue of the plate collection at CastelGandolfo.

CASANOVAS, with the assistance of library volunteer FORNINO, is creating an electronic file of theVatican Observatory's library holdings at Castel Gandolfo.

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THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

Conferences

During the week of 10−14 September, nearly 600 meteoriticists from around the world gathered for the64th annual meeting of the Meteoritical Society, hosted by the Observatory and held at the PontificalGregorian University in Rome. CONSOLMAGNO served as chair of the local organizing committee;COYNE also served on the organizing committee, while MAFFEO, LORI, ROSSI, and IGEA providedsignificant support before and during the meeting.

The conference was the largest in the history of the Meteoritical Society with attendees from more than20 nations. The scientific discussions took place during 30 oral sessions, with a total of 221 paperspresented. During the coffee breaks, another 201 poster papers were presented. Sessions were heldconcurrently in the Aula Magna and another ground−floor classroom, while the Main Atrium was filledwith posters and displays. Other classrooms were used for special meetings, and one room wasdedicated to an Internet Point, arranged and staffed through the efforts of Alenia, a major conferencesponsor. The Internet Point, filled with more than a dozen computers provided by Compaq Italia,helped the international assembly keep in touch with home, which was especially appreciated duringthe days following 11 September.

Special sessions at the meeting centered on understanding Mars from the meteorite perspective;spacecraft observations of near−earth objects; and laboratory simulations of circumstellar dust.Welcoming remarks were given by Father Franco IMODA,

Guy Consolmagno (right) holds a 70 gpiece of the Fermo meteorite, which fellon 25 September 1996 near Fermo incentral Italy. Through the efforts ofGiordano Cevolani (left), with Italy'sNational Research Council, the samplewas donated to the Vatican meteoritecollection by the city of Fermo. Anordinary chondrite type H5 with H3 clasts,the specimen was presented to theVatican Observatory during theMeteoritical Society meeting in Rome.(Photo by Judith Britt)

President of the Pontifical Gregorian University, and by Archbishop Giuseppe PITTAU, Secretary ofthe Vatican Congregation for Catholic Education. Invited talks were given by COYNE on the history ofthe Vatican Observatory, and by OLSON (New York Academy of Arts) and PASACHOFF (WilliamsCollege, Massachusetts), who described the artist's interpretation of meteorite impacts in a talk entitled"Meteoritics as Visual Metaphors." And after the meeting, MONTANARI (Osservatorio Geologico diColdigioco) guided a field trip to meteorite impact sites in Italy, including the famous Gubbio K/Tboundary, where he had been part of the team to first discover the iridium layers hinting at a giantimpact cause for mass extinctions 65 million years ago.

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For all of its scientific accomplishments, however, the meeting will be remembered most by theattendees for an event that happened thousands of miles away from Rome: the tragic terrorist attacksin the United States on 11 September, the Tuesday of the meeting week. The sad news wasannounced to conference participants at 17:00 hours, Rome time. The next day, Wednesday, hadalready been set aside for a morning Papal Audience. More than 400 conference attendees, familymembers, and guests joined a silent crowd of 50,000 gathered in St. Peter's Square as prayers forpeace were offered by the Pontiff. Listening to the Pope, surrounded by monuments to the tragediesand triumphs of Rome's two−thousand−year−old history, helped put the terrible news in perspective.

At the meeting banquet held Thursday in Rome's Trastevere section, Dava SOBEL lectured on herhighly acclaimed book, Galileo's Daughter, and reminded the attendees of the significance of sciencein a world of good and evil. The era of Galileo was one of terrible plagues and bitter conflictthe ThirtyYears' War was the backdrop of his famous trialand yet the achievements from those days that remainfixed in our memory are those of the great artists and scientists: Shakespeare and Milton; Caravaggioand Bernini; Galileo and Kepler. She reminded the assembled scientists and their guests that tounderstand the natural universe and our place in it represents a part of the highest achievement of thehuman spirit; one that remains when wars and hatred are long forgotten.

The Large Binocular Telescope Board met at the Vatican Observatory at Castel Gandolfo from 29June to 1 July.

The Clavius Group of Mathematicians, a community of Jesuits, other religious, and lay personsco−founded by WHITMAN in 1963, held its 39th meeting from 1 to 28 July at the Institute for AdvancedStudy in Princeton, New Jersey. WHITMAN gave a series of 10 lectures on "Low DimensionalIsomorphisms of Simple Complex Lie Algebras and Spin Representations."

In October the Vatican Observatory at Castel Gandolfo hosted the meeting of the InternationalPlanetarium Society with the participation of 21 regional associations. The meeting was coordinated byCONSOLMAGNO.

Presentations and Academic Activities

BOYLE Worked in January with PHILIP at Union College in Schenectady, New York, and he presenteda colloquium there on "From the Colors of the Stars." Presented several lectures on data reduction andCCD image processing techniques and coordinated the expanded computer network for the studentsat the Vatican Observatory Summer School. Taught at a summer school on "CCD Observing andImage Processing" in Antalya, Turkey from 25−29 June at a national school for 49 graduate students inastronomy who came from five regions of Turkey. He was part of a faculty that included threeAmericans, a Russian, and a Lithuanian. During the school he also visited the Turkish nationaltelescope in the mountains outside of Antalya.

CARUANA Gave a paper entitled "Possible Responses of Jesuits in Science to Critical Post−ModernCulture" at the First International Conference for Jesuits in Science, Chennai, India in January.Participated in the Seventh European Meeting of Jesuits in Science held at Malaga, Spain. Presentedthe annual course "Philosophy of Science and Nature" at the Philosophy Faculty, Pontifical GregorianUniversity, Rome. Directed a seminar on the nature of science according to Pierre Duhem and AlfredNorth Whitehead for graduate students at the same university.

CASANOVAS Lectured in Livorno, Italy, at the Museum of Natural History on the Star of Bethlehem.Participated in the dedication of a new solar telescope in the Observatorio del Ebro, Spain. Conducteda survey of the Greek island of Tynos for the installation of a solar telescope for the measurement ofsolar oscillations. Lectured on Fr. Angelo Secchi on the occasion of the publication of thecorrespondence between Secchi and astronomer Tacchini. Participated in the Workshop on the SolarOrbiter Satellite held in Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Spain. Gave a paper on the problem of precessionin the Alfonsine Tables at the meeting on "Cosmology Through Time," held in the observatory of MontePorzio, Italy. Gave a course in Solar Physics for PhD candidates in the Observatorio del Ebro of theUniversity Ramon Llull, Barcelona. Participated in the conference on Tycho Brahe, Prague, CzechRepublic.

CONSOLMAGNO Continued to serve as secretary of Commission 16 of the International Astronomical

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Union. As part of his duties he created and maintained the Commission 16 web site. Continued toserve as a member of the Division of Planetary Sciences (DPS) Committee of the AmericanAstronomical Society (AAS) Committee. In addition to his regular duties on this committee, he alsovisited Cambridge, England, from 31 January to 2 February to inspect the proposed site of the 2005DPS meeting, and from 14−15 August attended a special meeting of this committee at the AASheadquarters in Washington, DC, including a meeting at NASA headquarters with Code Sadministrators. Spoke on "Asteroid Densities and Porosities" at the following venues: Inter−UniversityCenter for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune, India; Northern Illinois University, Department ofPhysics; American Museum of Natural Science, New York; California Institute of Technology, Divisionof Geological and Planetary Sciences, Pasadena, California; Physics Department, Purdue University,Lafayette, Indiana. Spoke on "Rethinking the Lunar Magma Ocean" at the following venues: PhysicsDepartment, Drexel University; Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institute of Washington.Worked at the Field Museum in Chicago with BRITT (University of Tennessee), WADHWA (FieldMuseum), and WILKISON (Northwestern University) to set up the helium pycnometer described inprevious annual reports, in order to begin measurements of the grain densities and porosities in theField Museum Collection. Paid a working visit to the University of Texas (Austin) to work withCOCHRIN, SCHAEFER, and SCHAEFER. Worked on the measurement of meteorite bulk densitieswith MCCOY and MACPHERSON at the Smithsonian Institution, Natural History Museum,Washington, DC. Visited the Natural History Museum, London, to prepare meteorite sample thinsections and consult with RUSSELL.

CORBALLY Was reappointed President of the Institute on Religion in an Age of Science for the year2001−2002. He chaired council meetings in January at Manchester Village, Vermont, and in July atDurham, New Hampshire, and he chaired the annual meeting on Star Island, New Hampshire.Presented a lecture on "The Stars of Yesterday and Today: Young and Old" at the VaticanObservatory Foundation seminar in February. Visited the Raytheon Optical Discussion Group, Tucson,to talk on "The Vatican's Little−Big Telescope." Collaborated with Steward Observatory and Mt.Graham International Observatory personnel to improve outdoor lighting code in the Gila Valley.Continued on the Board of the St. Albert the Great Forum at the Catholic Newman Center, Universityof Arizona.

COYNE Served on the Organizing Committee and participated in the Third Meeting on the Inspirationof Astronomical Phenomena in Palermo, Sicily. On the occasion of the meeting he gave a publiclecture entitled, "Modern Cosmology and the Image of God, Creator of the Universe." Participated inthe Council meetings and in the Plenary Session of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences where hepresented a paper entitled, "Modern Cosmology, A Source for Elementary School Education." As amember of the Board met with the International Center for Relativistic Astrophysics at StanfordUniversity. Was confirmed for another three−year appointment on the Advisory Council of the Centrefor Studies in Religion and Society, University of Victoria, Canada and participated by teleconferencein the Council meeting. Met at Georgetown University with the founding members of the Institute forAdvanced Catholic Studies. As a member of the Advisory Board of the Peter Gruber FoundationCosmology Prize participated at Bern, Switzerland, in the Prize Award to Martin Rees. Gave a seminaron "Big Telescopes of the Future" at the Astronomy Department of the University of Minnesota. Gave apaper on "Galileo: The Myth and Attempts by the Church to Dispel Them" at the meeting at theObservatory of Rome at Monte Porzio Catone, Italy, on "Cosmology Through Time." Gave a paper on"Science and the Search for Ultimate Meaning in the Thought of John Paul II" at the TempletonFoundation Workshop on Science and Religion at Pune, India. Continues to serve on the "Science andHuman Values Program" of the European Science Foundation. Taught the course, Natural Sciences102, during Spring Semester at the University of Arizona.

FUNES Observed at the 0.9m telescope at Cerro Tololo Inter−American Observatory, Chile, in Mayand September. Eleven nights in total were awarded to the project on "Star Formation in the LocalUniverse." Gave a talk on that project at the 18th Steward Observatory Internal Symposium, held inTucson on 1−2 November. At the Universidad Catolica de Cordoba, Argentina, he lectured on"Astronomy and Faith" to the faculty and gave lectures to students of the School of Engineering,School of Philosophy, and the School of Agriculture and Animal Sciences.

HELLER Participated at the following meetings in Cracow, Poland: Seventh Cracow MethodologicalConference "Chance and Necessity" with a paper on "Origin of Probability"; International Conference"Quantum Theory and Symmetries" with a paper on "Generalized Symmetries and Time"; Historians of

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Science Conference with a paper on "Remarks on the History and Philosophy of Science." At Warsawat the International School he spoke on "Noncommutative Geometry and Quantum Groups" and gavethe Staszic Memorial Lecture on "Structure of the Initial Singularity." For the symposium at Lublin,Poland, on "Limits of Naturalism" gave a paper on "Is Christian Naturalism Possible?" For thesymposium at Toruñ, Poland, on "Logos and Chaos" gave a paper on "The Universe as a Whole."

MAFFEO Gave a talk on "Father Angelo Secchi and Meteorology" to the Central Institute of AgrarianEcology at the Institute's offices in the one−time Roman College where Secchi carried out hisresearch. Completed further research in the Observatory archives that resulted in a much enlargededition of his original history of the Observatory (see Sec. IV. Publications, under MAFFEO).

O'DONOGHUE Participated in January at a workshop of the Science and the Spiritual Quest IIprogram in Paris, France. She gave a short talk and engaged in three days of intense discussions withthe physics and cosmology group. In October, attended a public conference held at Harvard MemorialChurch, Boston, entitled "The Quest for Truth, Knowledge, and Values in Science and Religion."

OMIZZOLO Is working as representative of the bishop of Padua, Italy, to create a group to investigatethe relationship between faith and science. The group will include the Diocese of Padua and variousdepartments of the University of Padua. The group's coordinator is RAFANELLI, director of theuniversity's Department of Astronomy.

STOEGER Continues to team−teach the "Science and Theology" course in the Molecular and CellularBiology Department, University of Arizona, with professors LINDELL and HEWLETT. Convened andchaired the Theology and the Natural Sciences continuing group session at the Catholic TheologicalSociety of America meeting in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, June 7−10. Attended in January the workshop ofthe Science and Religion Course Program of the Center for Theology and Natural Sciences at LutherCollege in Adelaide, Australia, where he gave two invited presentations: "Cosmology and a Theologyof Creation" and "Science, the Laws of Nature and Divine Action." Participated in a panel at FlindersUniversity, Adelaide. On February 26 participated as an examiner in a dissertation defense on theologyand science at St. Paul's University in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Gave lectures on "General Relativityand Black Holes" during the first ten days of the Vatican Observatory Summer School in CastelGandolfo, Italy. Attended the 16th International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation at theInternational Conference Centre in Durban, South Africa, July 15−21, presenting a paper there withARAÚJO on "Perturbed Spherically Symmetric Dust Solution of the Einstein Field Equations inObservational Coordinates with Cosmological Data Functions." Afterwards he participated in the "EarlyUniverse Cosmology" workshop in Cape Town, South Africa, July 22−26. In late August was an invitedparticipant at the "Anthropic Arguments in Cosmology" workshop at the home of Sir Martin REES inCambridge, U. K., where he presented a paper, "Are Anthropic Arguments Legitimate?"

Public and Educational Outreach

CARREIRA Gave a series of six lectures, sponsored by the Physics Department of John CarrollUniversity in Cleveland, Ohio, on milestones in the development of the physical world from the"Beginning of Time" to "The Space Age."

CARUANA Gave a talk entitled "Natura e Divinità: loro mutua implicanza" at the Sala Convegni dellaCassa di Risparmio, Florence, as part of an ongoing cultural seminar on Nature and Culture, organizedby the group Eumeswil.

CONSOLMAGNO Gave popular astronomy presentations at the following venues: Capricon ScienceFiction Convention, Chicago, Illinois; Library of Science and Technology, New York City; AstronomicalSociety of Long Island, New York; Vatican Observatory Foundation Seminar, Tucson, Arizona; RoseCenter/Hayden Planetarium, New York City; Adler Planetarium, Chicago; Web Broadcast fromUniversity of Wisconsin and a presentation at the Madison, Wisconsin, "Space Place" Museum;Amateur Astronomy Association of New York City; Windycon Science Fiction Convention, Chicago;Sun City Astronomy Club, Tucson, Arizona. Gave presentations on the interrelations between scienceand religion at the following venues: De Nobili College, Pune, India; Harvard University Society ofPhysics Students, Cambridge, Massachusetts; MIT Catholic Community, Cambridge, Massachusetts;Templeton Lecture, Loyola University of New Orleans, Louisiana; Stonyhurst College, England; DrexelUniversity, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Templeton Lecture, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.

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CORBALLY Spoke in Tucson on three occasions sponsored by the Knights of Columbus: to St.Thomas the Apostle parish on "Stars and the Vatican"; to St. Joseph and to St. Francis de Salesparishes on "The Pope's Scope in Arizona." Gave talks to the sixth and seventh grade students ofImmaculate Heart Middle School, Tucson, also on "The Pope's Scope in Arizona." Spoke to threeclasses at Marana High School, Arizona, for the careers awareness program. Gave lunchtime talks tothe Optimists Club, Tucson, on "The Vatican Observatory" and to the Serra Club, Tucson, on "TheHeavens Declare the Glory of God." Gave a public lecture on "The Coolest, the Oldest, and thePrettiest Stars in Our Galaxy" for the Lyceum series sponsored by the New Mexico Military Institute,Roswell, New Mexico. Continued as an advisor to the Earth & Sky radio series. Was interviewed fortwo astronomy projects at University of Arizona. Hosted various visits to the VATT on Mt. Graham: withO'DONOGHUE, a nighttime visit by the docents of Discovery Park, Safford; two Dark Sky Parties forcivic leaders from Graham County and local cities; and a daytime visit with COYNE for clergy and stafffrom the Diocese of Tucson Chancery. Hosted various visits to the Steward Observatory MirrorLaboratory, including one for the Vice−Rector for Science from the Silesian University of Technology,Gliwice, Poland, and another for sixty fifth−grade students from Lafe Nelson Elementary School,Safford.

COYNE Gave two lectures at the Istituto L. Murialdo, Albano, Italy, on "Modern Cosmology and theImage of God the Creator." Spoke at the Capitoline Museum, Rome, on the search for extra−solarplanets. Spoke on the "Origins of Life in the Universe" at the annual meeting of Las Servidoras, SantaMaria de la Armonía, Cobo and Buenos Aires, Argentina. Gave talks in Scutari and Tirana, Albania, onthe most recent developments in astrophysics. Talked to the "Spirit of the Senses Salons" in Phoenix,Arizona, on "Will the Universe Expand Forever?" Discussed "God and the Big Bang" with the physicsseminar of that same title at Brophy Preparatory School, Phoenix. Spoke about the Galileo case to theItalian Cultural Society, Sun City, Tucson, Arizona. Gave a talk on "Wayfarers in the Universe" to theCentro Culturale Guglielmo da Volpiano, San Benigno (Turin), Italy. Presented the talk, "When theSacred Cows of Religion and Science Meet," at the following venues: the Pierson Lecture at Mt. OliveCollege, North Carolina; Fraternità Sacerdotale dei Missionari di San Carlo Borromeo, Rome; keynoteaddress at the meeting of the Association of Science−Technology Centers in Phoenix, Arizona; ChristPresbyterian Church, Tucson, Arizona; Santa Clara University, California; Tucson Children's MuseumMars Quest, Tucson, Arizona; Cosmos Club of Washington; Community School of Naples, Florida; Mt.St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Maryland; University of L'Aquila, Italy; the Phoenix Country Club,Arizona; Science and Culture Class, University of Arizona; Movimento Ecclesiale Impegno Culturale,Vercelli, Italy; Association of Amateur Astronomers, Rome, Italy; St. Thomas University, St. Paul,Minnesota.

FUNES Gave a public lecture on "The Origin of the Universe" at the Universidad Nacional delNordeste, Corrientes, Argentina. Gave lectures to the general public with the title "Astronomía y fe:Dos aventuras del Espíritu" at the Iglesia Jesús Nazareno, Corrientes, Argentina and to Saint Cyril'sParish, Tucson.

HELLER Lectured on various occasions to the general public in Poland on recent developments incosmology and on the philosophical and religious aspects of science.

O'DONOGHUE For the past two years, has written a semi−monthly column for the magazine of theAdirondack Mountain Club, Adirondac. Aimed at those with enthusiasm and interest, but little or noformal education in astronomy, the primary purpose of the column is to familiarize readers with the skyand keep them informed of the positions and motions of the planets and events such as conjunctions,eclipses, and other sky phenomena such as the Aurora. As the faculty advisor for the Saint LawrenceUniversity Habitat for Humanity chapter, spent a week building houses in Anniston, Alabama, with acrew of 12 university students and 60 other students and advisors from other high schools andcolleges, who chose to spend their spring break working to provide interest−free housing foreconomically challenged families.

STOEGER Spent 10 days in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia, during which he gave a 5−dayretreat−seminar on theology and science to the priests, religious, and seminarians of the two diocesesof Saba; a day−long seminar on the same subject to the Catholic students at the University ofMalaysia, Sabah; and a two−day series of lectures on theology and science to the Catholic laity of KotaKinabalu. At Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington, gave a Templeton Lecture, "Cosmology,Theology and Creation," and participated in both faculty and student colloquia. Gave a public lecture

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on "Black Holes" at the Arizona Science Center in Phoenix.

TERES Gave lectures at many Hungarian universities and colleges on: "Modern Cosmology andScripture," "Solar−Terrestrial Relations," and "History of the Vatican Observatory."

WHITMAN Continues to advise the Jesuit Social Center Presidente Kennedy in the city of Campinas inthe State of São Paulo, Brazil. This work is part of the outreach of the Jesuit's mission to serve theFaith and Justice Apostolate of the Third World. The Center is doing a thorough revision of its mission,and in particular, is tooling up for a move into the twenty−first century in order to initiate a program indistance learning. This new program should be in place by early 2002.

News Media Contacts

BOYLE Was host to MOYNIHAN (Inside the Vatican magazine) during a visit to Castel Gandolfo.

CONSOLMAGNO Appeared in January on Italian television discussing Space in the Year 2001. Wasfilmed in February in Oxford, England, for a BBC/PBS Nova special based on the book Galileo'sDaughter by Dava Sobel. Appeared with the author TIMOTHY FERRIS on the PBS television showUncommon Knowledge, which was taped in February at the Hoover Institute of Stanford University,and aired in May. Was filmed at the VATT for the National Geographic Channel in April. Wasinterviewed in September by RAI (Italian National Television) discussing meteorites. Appeared on thesyndicated radio programs "Religion with Brother Bernard Seif" on February 14, and "Dr. Sky" on May31. Was interviewed in August for the series The DNA Files, which aired on Public Radio in Novemberand December. Was interviewed by the Times of India in January; by Catholic New World (ChicagoDiocese Catholic Newspaper) in March; and in Corriere della Sera (Milan daily) in September.

CORBALLY Provided interviews to the following journalists: Renée Houghton, Texas Catholic;Alexandra Foldarait, Noticias, Argentina, on the Christmas Star; Tim Dill, KINF, Roswell, New MexicoAnswered questions from: Cara Conway, Georgetown University; Tom Stauffer, Arizona Star; AlisonRose for PTV Productions, Toronto, Canada; Alison Cherry, BBC Radio Scotland; Neal Buckley,London Weekend Television; Craig Smith, National Geographic Cable Television.

COYNE Provided interviews to the following media and journalists: RAI UNO "A Sua Immagine";Roberta Rose of Cicada Film, Discovery Channel; Renée Horton for the Texas Catholic; Alison Rosefor PTV Productions, Toronto, Canada; Vincent Gielly for TV 2 France, Paris; Fred Guterl, NewsweekInternational; Claudia Windisch−Graetz, Global Satellite Broadcasting Network; Axel Schnuch, DerSpiegel, Germany; Charles Seife, Science, Magazine of the American Association for theAdvancement of Science; Marie−Pierre Olphand, Ciel & Espace, Paris; Allan Chapman, Kugelblitz,London; Patricia Briel, Basel Switzerland; Ralph Breier, Berlin, Germany; Klaus Bachman, GEOMagazine, Hamburg, Germany. Participated in the presentation by Gruppo Ugo Mursia Editore of thebook by Giovanni Bignami, La Storia nello Spazio.

FUNES Provided interviews to the San Diego Union Tribune, to the weekly magazine Noticias ofBuenos Aires, Argentina, and to Canal 13, Corrientes, Argentina.

HELLER Gave several interviews to various Polish newspapers, journals, radio, and television on theinteraction among science, philosophy, and theology.

MAFFEO Provided assistance to Alison Rose for PTV Productions, Toronto, Canada during her filmingat Castel Gandolfo in June and July.

O'DONOGHUE Has come to be familiar to listeners of North Country Public Radio (NCPR) of Canton,New York, which regularly invites her for short chats about astronomical and sky phenomena.Participated as a guest host for the NCPR "Readers and Writers on the Air" series of call−indiscussions with authors of current books. She discussed Galileo's Daughter with the author DavaSobel and the NCPR station manager and series director, Ellen Rocco. Annibale Fantoli, author of theVatican Observatory Publication "Galileo: For Copernicanism and for the Church" also contributed tothe discussion by phone from Victoria, Canada.

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STOEGER Gave a radio interview in Adelaide, Australia, on the interaction between science andtheology.

TERES Provided interviews to: Dunat TV and Zenit TV, Budapest; Local TV, Kecskemet; RemenyRadio, Pecs; Miskolc Radio; Vatican Radio, Rome.

International Meetings

31 December−6 January: Palermo, Sicily, Italy. Third Meeting on the Inspiration of AstronomicalPhenomena. GEORGE V. COYNE, S.J. served on the Organizing Committee and gave a paper.

4−6 January: Chennai, India. International Jesuits in Science Conference. GUY CONSOLMAGNO,S.J. presented a paper.

7−11 January: San Diego, California. 197th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society. RICHARDBOYLE, S.J., and CHRISTOPHER CORBALLY, S.J. gave papers.

9−11 March: Tucson, Arizona. Annual Meeting 2001 of the International Dark−Sky Association.RICHARD BOYLE, S.J., and CHRISTOPHER CORBALLY, S.J. participated.

12−16 March: Houston, Texas. Thirty−second Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. GUYCONSOLMAGNO, S.J. was co−author of two presented papers.

11−15 June: Palermo, Sicily, Italy. Asteroids III. GUY CONSOLMAGNO, S.J. presented a paper.

17−20 June: Monte Porzio Catone, Italy. International Conference on "Cosmology Through Time."JUAN CASANOVAS, S.J. and GEORGE V. COYNE, S.J. gave papers.

28 July−4 August: Star Island, New Hampshire. Annual Conference of the Institute on Religion in anAge of Science. CHRISTOPHER CORBALLY, S.J. participated and chaired the IRAS Council andAnnual Meeting.

5−9 September: Malaga, Spain. European Jesuits in Science. LOUIS CARUANA, S.J. and GEORGEV. COYNE, S.J. participated.

10−14 September: Rome, Italy. 64th Annual Meeting, Meteoritical Society. GUY CONSOLMAGNO,S.J. chaired and GEORGE V. COYNE, S.J. served on the Local Organizing Committee.CONSOLMAGNO was co−author on two papers.

5−8 November: Boston, Massachusetts. Geological Society of America, Annual Meeting. GUYCONSOLMAGNO, S.J. was co−author of a paper.

17−20 November: Denver, Colorado. Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Religion.CHRISTOPHER CORBALLY, S.J. presented awards at the Institute on Religion in an Age of Science'sreception during the meeting.

19−21 November: Vatican City. Plenary Session of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences on theChallenges for Science Education for the Twenty−First Century. GEORGE V. COYNE, S.J. gave apaper.

27 November−1 December: New Orleans, Louisiana. Annual Meeting, Division for Planetary Sciences,American Astronomical Society. GUY CONSOLMAGNO, S.J. was co−author of two papers.

29 December−2 January: Pune, India. Workshop on Modern Science and Contemporary Religions.GEORGE V. COYNE, S.J. participated and gave a paper.

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THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

Publications

ARAÚJO, M. E., ARCUTRI, R. C., BEDRAN, M. L., DE FREITAS, L. R., and STOEGER, W. R.."Integrating Einstein Field Equations in Observational Coordinates with Cosmological Data Functions:Nonflat Friedmann−Robertson−Walker Cases," 2001, ApJ, 549, 716−720

ARAÚJO, M. E., REVEDA, S. R. M. M., and STOEGER, W. R.. "Perturbed Spherically Symmetric DustSolution of the Field Equations in Observational Coordinates with Cosmological Data Function," 2001,ApJ, 560, 7−14

BOYLE, R. P., PHILIP, A. G. D., SMRIGLIO, F., DASGUPTA, A., KAZLAUSKAS, A., and STRAIZYS,V. "Calibrating the Stromvil Photometric System by M 67 at VATT," 2000, BAAS, 32, 1428

BRITT, D. T. and CONSOLMAGNO, G. J. "Asteroid Bulk Density: Implications for the Structure ofAsteroids," 2001, Lunar Planet. Sci., XXXII, 1611

. "Modeling the Structure of High Porosity Asteroids," 2001, Icarus, 152, 134− 139

BRITT, D. T., YEOMANS, D. K., and CONSOLMAGNO, G. J. "The Porosity of 433 Eros," 2001, LunarPlanet. Sci., XXXII, 1212

BRITT, D. T., YEOMANS, D. K., CONSOLMAGNO, G. J., and HOUSEN, K. R. "Asteroid Porosity andInternal Structure," 2001, Asteroids 2001 Abstract Volume, 74−75

BRITT, D. T., YEOMANS, D. K., HOUSEN, K. R., and CONSOLMAGNO, G. J. "Asteroid Porosity andStructure," 2001, in Asteroids III, ed. W. Bottke and R. Binzel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press),submitted

CARUANA, L. Fondamenti Filosofici delle Scienze Naturali, 2000 (Rome: Pontificia UniversitàGregoriana)

. "Onniscienza divina e scienza moderna,," 2001, in Appunti di Teologia, Notiziario del CentroPattaro di Venezia, XIV, no. 2, 11−12

CASANOVAS, J. "La Determinazione della Pasqua," 2001, Rivista Liturgica, 12, 177−188

. "G. D. Cassini, élève de la Compagnie de Jésus," 2001, in Sur les traces des Cassini, Congrèsnational des sociétés historiques et scientifiques, ed. P. Brouzeng and S. Débarbat (Paris: Éditions duCTHS), 27−32

CONSOLMAGNO, G. J. Book review of Turn Right at Orion, by Mitchell Begelman, 2001, MeteoriticsPlan. Sci., 36, 187−188

. Book review of Asteroids: A History, by Curtis Peebles, 2001, Sky and Telescope, 101, 84−85

. Vatican Observatory Meteorite Collection Catalogue, 2001 (Vatican City: Libreria EditriceVaticana), 64 pages

. "When Physics Meets Philosophy: Reflections on the Role of World−Views in Science andReligion," 2001, Zagadnienia Filozoficzne w Nauce (Philosophical Problems in Science), in press

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CONSOLMAGNO, G. J. and BRITT, D. T. "Classifying Asteroids by Macroporosity," 2001, BAAS, inpress

CONSOLMAGNO, G. J. and DYAR, M. D. "Rethinking the Magma Ocean," 2001, Program andAbstracts, Geological Society of America Annual Meeting

CORBALLY, C. J., GRAY, R. O., McFADDEN, M. T., ROBINSON, P., and GARRISON, R. F. "TheNearby Stars (NStars) Program at Appalachian State University, Vatican Observatory, and DavidDunlap Observatory," 2000, BAAS, 32, 1392

CORSINI, E.M., PIZZELLA, A., PIGNATELLI, E., VEGA BELTRAN, J.C., BECKMAN, J. E.,SCARLATA, M. C., BERTOLA, F., FUNES, J.G., and ZEILINGER, W.W. 2001, "Non−Circular GasMotions in Bulges of S0−Sb Galaxies," 2001, in Galaxy Disks and Disk Galaxies, ed. José G. Funes,S. J. and Enrico Maria Corsini (San Francisco: ASP Conference Series, Vol. 230), p. 275

COYNE, G. "Introduction: Eschatology from a Cosmic Perspective," 2001, in The Far Future Universe,ed. G.F.R. Ellis (Philadelphia and London: Templeton Foundation Press)

."Origins and Creation," 2001, in First Steps in the Origin of Life in the Universe, eds. J.Chela−Flores, T. Owen, and F. Raulin (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers), 359−364

."Direzione della Specola Vaticana," 2001, in Attività della Santa Sede 2000, 1429−1439

."L'Immagine di Dio, autore della vita, nella cosmologia moderna," 2001, Giornale di Astronomia,27, No. 3, 2

."L'Immagine di Dio, autore della vita, nella cosmologia moderna," 2001, in Anthropotes (Rome:Mursia), 327

."From Modern Research in Astrophysics to the Next Millennium for Mankind," 2001, in Scienceand the Future of Mankind: Science for Man and Man for Science (Vatican City: Pontifical Academy ofSciences Scripta Varia 99), 100

."Ferdinand Verbiest," 2001, in Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, ed. Thomas Hockey(Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers), in press

."Religion and Science: Roman Catholic Issues," in Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, ed. J.Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen (New York: Macmillan Reference USA), in press

COYNE, G. and OMIZZOLO, A. Wayfarers in the Cosmos: The Human Quest for Meaning (New York:The Crossroads Publishing Company), in press

DEMARET, J., HELLER, M., and SASIN, W. "Noncommutative Unification of General Relativity withQuantum Mechanics and Canonical Gravity Quantization," 2001, Revue des Questions Scientifiques,172 (4), 357−370

ELLIS, G. F. R., STOEGER, W. R., MCEWAN, P., and DUNSBY, P. "Dynamics of InflationaryUniverses with Positive Spatial Curvature," 2001, submitted for publication

ELLIS, G. F. R., MCEWAN, P., STOEGER, W. R., and DUNSBY, P. "Causality in InflationaryUniverses with Positive Spatial Curvature," 2001, submitted for publication

FUNES, J. G. "Kinematics of the Ionized Gas in the Inner Regions of Disk Galaxies," 2001, PASP,113, 257

FUNES, J. G. and CORSINI, E. M., ed. Galaxy Disks and Disk Galaxies, 2001 (San Francisco: ASPConference Series, Vol. 230), 671 pages

FUNES, J. G., PIZZELLA, A., CORSINI, E. M., CAPPELLARI, M., SCARLATA, M. C., BERTOLA, F.,and VEGA BELTRAN, J. C. "Position−Velocity Diagrams in the Inner Regions of Disk Galaxies," 2001,

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in Galaxy Disks and Disk Galaxies, ed. José G. Funes, S. J. and Enrico Maria Corsini (San Francisco:ASP Conference Series, Vol. 230), 277

FUNES, J. G., RAFANELLI, P., RICHTER, G., and VENNIK, J. "Interaction and Activity in SeyfertGalaxies," 2001, in Galaxy Disks and Disk Galaxies, ed. José G. Funes, S. J. and Enrico Maria Corsini(San Francisco: ASP Conference Series, Vol. 230), 501

GRAY, R.O. and CORBALLY, C. J. "A Spectroscopic Search for lambda Boötis and Other PeculiarA−Type Stars in Intermediate−Age Open Clusters," 2001, AJ, submitted

HAMUY, M., et al., with CORBALLY, C. J. "The Distance to SN 1999em from the ExpandingPhotosphere Method," 2001, ApJ, 558, 615

HELLER, M. Quantum Cosmology, 2001 (Warsaw: Prószyÿski i Ska), in Polish

. "The Image of the World: Unique or One of Many?" in Changing Concepts of Nature at the Turnof the Millennium, Proceedings of the Plenary Session of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, 2000(Vatican City: Pontifical Academy of Sciences Scripta Varia 95), 37−44

. "The Limits of Scientific Understanding," 2001, The UNESCO Courier, May 2001, 3 (republishedin the German, Spanish, Italian, and Arabic versions of The UNESCO Courier)

. "Illicit Jumps, the Logic of Creation," in Science and the Future of Mankind, 2001 (Vatican City:Pontifical Academy of Sciences Scripta Varia 99), 501−506

. "Mathematics, the Language of Physics?," 2001, in Images of the World, Science, Humanities,Art, ed. A. Koj and P. Sztompka (Cracow: Jagiellonian University), 75−82

. "Generalizations from Quantum Mechanics to God," in Quantum Mechanics: ScientificPerspectives on Divine Action, 2001, ed. R.J. Russell, P. Clayton, K. Wegter−McNelly, and J.Polkinghorne (Vatican: Vatican Observatory Publications), 193−210

HELLER, M., LOANA, Z., MYCZKA , J., and SKOCZNY, W. Natural Sciences and Theology:Confrontation and Coexistence, 2001 (Cracow: OBI−Biblos), in Polish

HELLER, M., SASIN, W., and ODZRYGÓYDY, Z. "Noncommutative Quantum Dynamics," 2001,Gravitation and Cosmology, 7, 1−10

MAFFEO, S. La Specola Vaticana: Nove Papi, Una Missione, 2001 (Vatican City: Vatican ObservatoryPublications), 398 pages with 99 figures; revised and enlarged edition of Cento Anni della SpecolaVaticana: Nove Papi, Una Missione, 1991 (Vatican City: Vatican Observatory Publications)

. The Vatican Observatory: In the Service of Nine Popes, 2001, trans. George V. Coyne (VaticanCity: Vatican Observatory Publications), 429 pages with 99 figures; revised and enlarged edition of Inthe Service of Nine Popes: 100 Years of the Vatican Observatory, 1991 (Vatican City: VaticanObservatory Publications)

MAGRI, C., CONSOLMAGNO, G. J., OSTRO, S. J., BENNER, L. A. M., and BEENY, B. R. "RadarConstraints on Asteroid Regolith Properties Using 433 Eros as Ground Truth," 2001, Meteorit. Planet.Sci., in press

PACHOLCZYK, A. G. and STOEGER, W. R. "Theory Transitions in Science: Correspondence,Archival Theories and Misnerian Truth," 2001, in Philosophy in Science, Vol. IX, 57−73.

PIGNATELLI, E., CORSINI, E. M., VEGA BELTRAN, J. C., SCARLATA, C., PIZZELLA, A., FUNES, J.G., ZEILINGER, W. W., BECKMAN, J. E., and BERTOLA, F. "Modelling Gaseous and StellarKinematics in the Disk Galaxies NGC 772, 3898 and 7782," 2001, MNRAS, 323, 188

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THE VATICAN OBSERVATORY2001 ANNUAL REPORT

Observatory Visitors

The Vatican Observatory at Castel Gandolfo and the Vatican Observatory Research Group in Tucson,Arizona, hosted a number of visitors during the year. Noteworthy were the number of school groupsand cultural groups received by MAFFEO at Castel Gandolfo.

Among the groups who visited the Observatory at Castel Gandolfo were: friends of Cardinal AveryDulles, S.J., who visited with the Cardinal on the occasion of his becoming a Prince of the Church; apilgrimage group from the Diocese of Down and Connor, Ireland, led by Bishop Patrick Walsh, analumnus of the 1991 Summer School in Astrophysics for Bishops; and the alumni group of theUniversity of Dallas, led by Richard Olenick, professor of physics.

We were privileged to have a visit from the newly appointed Ambassador to the Holy See from theUnited States, R. James Nicholson.

In connection with the annual meeting of the Meteoritical Society held in Rome 10−14 September, 65members of the Meteoritical Society visited the Observatory in Castel Gandolfo.

The following individuals paid extended working visits to the Observatory:

AJOY K. DASGUPTA, South Glamorgan Education Department, Cardiff, UK

ROBERT JANUSZ, S.J., Cracow, Poland

ALGIS KAZLAUSKAS, Institute of Theoretical Physics and Astronomy, Vilnius, Lithuania

VYGANDAS LAUGALYS, Institute of Theoretical Physics and Astronomy, Vilnius, Lithuania

A. G. DAVIS PHILIP, Union College and Institute for Space Observations, Schenectady, New York,USA

STEPHEN J. SHAWL, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Kansas, Lawrence,Kansas, USA

Among other professional guests at either Castel Gandolfo or Tucson during the year were:

DAN BRITT, University of Tennessee; GIOVANNI DEMARIA, University of Rome; DANIELHEYNDERICKX, Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy, Brussels, Belgium; C. RENEE JAMES, SamHouston State University, Huntsville, Texas; OMAR KURTANIDZE, Republic of Georgia; JONATHANLUNINE, University of Arizona; G. MACPHERSON, Smithsonian Institution, Natural History Museum;ADRIANA MARAS, University of Rome; DMITRI PAPANASTASSIOU, California Institute ofTechnology; ANNA GANNON RECCA, Manhasset, New York; PIERRE ROCHETTE. University ofAix−Marseille; WILLIAM RUEGER, Diocese of Brooklyn; FILIPPO SMRIGLIO, Department of Physics,University of Rome; RAMON D. WOLSTENCROFT, Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, UK; FRANKYOUNGER, Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, Victoria, Canada.

Last Updated : April 19, 2002, by Chris Corbally, S.J.

Designed by Adrian Design

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