The Value of PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SERIESProfessional Development Series SADLIER-OXFORD...

Thank you for taking the time to download our Middle School Vocabulary Digital Kit. Enclosed in this kit are the following materials:

-‐ The Value of Direct and Systematic Vocabulary Instruction -‐ Professional Development: Intentional Vocabulary Instruction in the

Middle Grades -‐ Vocabulary Word List (Grades 6-‐8) -‐ Vocabulary Graphic Organizers for Students

§ Concept Circle § Word Square § Word Web

We hope you save time with these vocabulary resources! -‐-‐Sadlier

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According to its assessment of theresearch literature on readinginstruction, the National ReadingPanel has affirmed that the mosteffective teaching does not depend on a single vocabulary instruction method(Report of the National Reading Panel,April, 2000). Instead, the teaching ofvocabulary should be systematic,

repetitive, and eclectic. In introducingnew words, teachers should be guidedby three principles that Stahl (1986)recommends and that other researchsupports: (1) use both a definitionaland a contextual approach, (2) strivefor "deep processing," and (3) providemultiple exposures (Baumann andKameenui, 1991).

lthough independent reading plays a critical role in the acquisition of new vocabulary, the vocabulary growth needed for successful reading

comprehension should be the result of systematic, direct instruction, and not leftto incidental learning alone. Teachers can encourage and facilitate vocabularyacquisition by helping students learn strategies for determining the meaning ofwords independently, by teaching specific words directly, and by playing anactive, directed role in the process.

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byJerome Shostak

The Value of Direct and SystematicVocabulary Instruction

Professional Development SeriesSADLIER-OXFORD

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How Do Students Learn New Words?

We know that students in grades 3 through12 are likely to learn about 3000 new wordseach year (Nagy and Anderson, 1984; Nagyand Herman, 1987). And, as Nagy, Herman,and Anderson (1985) point out, this "massivevocabulary growth seems to occur withoutmuch help from teachers." In other words,students acquire new vocabulary incidentallyand from several sources. They learn newwords from talking to friends and familymembers, from listening to CDs and to theradio, from watching movies and televisionprograms, and, most importantly, from theirreading. In fact, research shows that readingis the single most significant factor in theacquisition of new vocabulary (Anderson andNagy, 1991; Baumann and Kameenui, 1991).

But independent reading alone is not enoughto provide the kind of vocabulary growth anddevelopment students need not only to beable to communicate successfully, but also tosucceed academically and to perform well onstandardized tests. According to Chaffin(1997) and Zechmeister, Chronis, Cull,D’Anna, and Healy (1995), research hasshown that although reading is essential forvocabulary growth and development, it is notsufficient for most students because themeanings they take away from their readingswill not be deep and enduring; nor does ithelp them gain strategies for becomingindependent word learners.

Research tells us that for students who are wellpast the beginning stages of reading, learningnew words fully and deeply means much morethan simply recognizing those that are alreadypart of their oral vocabulary. For thesestudents, learning a word means acquiring a

new meaning (Nagy, 1988) and making theword both "more explicit and employable" andfully conceptualized (Baker, Simmons, andKameenui, 1995a). It means, according toBaumann and Kameenui (1991), being able toidentify a synonym for a word, to generate anoral definition, to place a word within asemantic category, to discriminate between aword’s denotative and connotative meanings,to express the obvious and subtle differences inmeanings among a set of synonyms, and to usea word sensibly in an oral or written context.

Researchers agree that although readingis indeed important, to achieve deeper, richerlevels of lasting vocabulary understanding,direct instruction is more effective and moreefficient than incidental learning (McKeownand Beck, 1988). Planned vocabularyinstruction in specific words is what isneeded, including specialized vocabularyinstruction in the content areas (Baker,Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995b).


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What Kind of Direct Vocabulary

Instruction Works Best?

Traditional vocabulary teaching can becategorized as following two generalapproaches: definitional and contextual. Usingthe definitional method, teachers havestudents look up words in a dictionary, writedown and/or memorize definitions, use thewords in sentences, find synonyms, and thencomplete worksheets or take quizzes. There aresome undeniable advantages to this approach.For one thing, from dictionary definitionsstudents can gain a specific meaning of a wordthey come across in their reading. For another,they can gain key and interesting informationabout the history of the word. Thirdly, theycan gain a better understanding of interrelatedwords in word families. And, in addition, bycombing through dictionaries and all theinformation they provide, students can gain abetter appreciation of language.

Examine the entry to the right for the wordallocate. It is not of the dictionary type, buthas unmistakable advantages. The definitionis brief and simple and designed formaximum usefulness. Its intent is to givestudents a good idea of what the wordmeans without extensive detail or secondaryconnotations. Notice that the entry alsoincludes the word’s part of speech, itspronunciation, an illustrative sentenceproviding a context that clarifies andexemplifies its meaning, and a list ofsynonyms and antonyms.

Although the definitional approach canbe both useful and necessary, learningdefinitions alone can "lead to a relativelysuperficial level of word knowledge [and] doesnot reliably improve reading comprehension"

(Nagy, 1988). Nagy goes on to explain thatalthough definitions can play a key role invocabulary instruction, by themselves theytell little about how a word is actually used.He points out that given only a definition of aword, students may have difficulty using itmeaningfully in a sentence. The definitionalapproach is effective only when a limitedknowledge of new vocabulary is desired(Beck, McKeown and Omanson, 1987).

In the contextual approach, teachers askstudents to infer the meaning of a word byscrutinizing semantic, syntactic cues in asentence or group of words containing thatword, or by examining typographic cluesfrom charts, graphs, pictures and the like.This approach also can be useful, but it

Vocabulary Workshop ©2002, Level E (10)

should be noted that context clues alone mayprovide only a partial meaning of a word andoccasionally may even be misleading (Nagy,1988; Beck, McKeown and McCaslin, 1983).One way, according to Stahl (1985, 1986)and others, to make the contextual approachmore effective in helping the reader tounderstand the meaning of a new word is toimbed it within a rich context of supportiveand indicative information.

Look at the following contextual analysisactivity for the previously introduced wordsophomoric. In this completing-the-sentenceactivity, the student is asked to write theword that logically and meaningfully fits ina given sentence. Notice the clues given forchoosing the right word and that the focus ison the literal meaning of the word.

Both the definitional and contextualapproaches fit in an effective vocabularyprogram (Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986).However, the approach to vocabularyinstruction that researchers have identifiedas being the most successful in providingstudents with fuller, richer word knowledgeand increasing their reading comprehension,is an eclectic, systematic one that not onlyinvolves both of these approaches, but alsocontains three distinct elements: integration,repetition, and meaningful use (Nagy, 1988).

By integration, researchers mean that inorder for learning to occur, new informationmust be integrated with and be built uponwhat the student already knows (Christen andMurphy, 1991). In other words, instructionshould guide students to use words and ideasthey already know to help them associatemeaning with words they do not know. Oneteaching technique that supports this strategyof drawing on students’ prior knowledge is tohave them complete a semantic map, a visualtool that helps to make relationships amongwords more clear. The one shown to the rightis for the word adversary.

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SADLIER-OXFORD SEMANTIC MAP BLACKLINE MASTER

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Repetition is a second key quality ofinstruction. Research shows that repeatedencounters with new words are essential ifvocabulary instruction is to have ameasurable impact on readingcomprehension (Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986;McKeown, Beck, Omanson and Pople,1985). But how do you create aninstructional program that providesmultiple exposures, that is not dull, andthat enriches students’ understanding ofnew vocabulary? For that, we turn to thethird quality of a successful program.

Instructional activities that focus onmeaningful use stem from the idea thatstudents will learn more when they areactively involved in the assignment and whenthe task is similar to one they wouldordinarily encounter in the course of speaking,writing, and reading. Additionally—and whatis perhaps more important—the researchindicates that when students are called uponto process information more deeply, and tomake inferences based on that information,they will be more likely to retain theinformation (Nagy, 1988).

Teachers can use a number of instructionaltasks that require students to process newwords more thoroughly and to thinkcritically about them. For example, choose-the-right-word and sentence-completion activitiesneed not include only those that involveliteral or direct meanings of the words; theycan also focus on sentences or passages inwhich the words covered are used in a morefigurative, extended, or abstract way. Otheractivities, such as the one shown to the right,may challenge students to use their usage-discrimination and critical-thinking skills to

choose, from among two or more taughtmeanings of a word, the only one that thespecific context will reasonably allow. (Notethat activities like this one give studentspractice in the kind of skill assessed in thecritical reading section of the SAT I.)

Similarly, synonym/antonym exercises neednot only reinforce meanings; they can alsoprovide students with further examples ofusage and context. Word-associationactivities can both reinforce and extendmeanings through examples, situations,and allusions. Finally, analogy activitiesprovide a useful way of investigating anddiscussing relationships among meaningsof words. They serve as a means of pinning

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down the precise meanings of words and ofcorrecting misconceptions or uncertaintiesabout how these words are used. Analogiesdeserve special attention in that theyprovide an excellent means for testing andrefining the critical-thinking skills neededfor success on standardized tests and incollege. Furthermore, words that receivethe attention necessary to complete ananalogy successfully are more likely tobecome part of the student’s activeeveryday vocabulary.

In short, successful vocabulary teachingcalls for a multi-faceted approach featuringboth definitional and contextualinstruction. That instruction should besupported by and include a variety ofactivities that provide multiple exposuresof and practice with the new words in ameaningful way and in a way that drawsupon students’ prior knowledge and uponwhat they may already know about theword. But there is still more that a teachercan do to provide a comprehensiveapproach to vocabulary acquisition.

What Other Components Enrich

Vocabulary Instruction?

Another important way to learn new vocabularyis to use morphological knowledge. This isa key strategy that focuses on the structureof a word, its parts. These parts, calledmorphemes, include prefixes, suffixes, androots. According to Aronoff (1994), newvocabulary acquisition can be facilitated formiddle school and high school students witha good understanding of word structure,because many of the new words they arelikely to come across in their reading will be

derivatives of words they already know.Accordingly, effective vocabulary teachingshould include direct instruction in prefixes,suffixes, and roots.

The following activity is an example of onethat practices the strategy of focusing onmorphemic elements. Using the previouslyintroduced word demise, it introduces studentsto English words derived from common Latinstems mis, miss, mit—to send.

A good understanding of morphology,together with an ability to use definitionaland contextual clues, provides a powerfulcombination that will help students uncoverthe precise meaning of words they



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encounter in direct instruction or in theirreading. A firm command of morphologyhelps students become not only betterreaders but better writers, too. It also helpsthem to use words sensibly when speaking.

What Is the Role of the Teacher in

Vocabulary Instruction?

It’s critical. In her book The AcademicAchievement Challenge: What Really Works inthe Classroom, Jeanne Chall (2000) argues forthe importance of the role that a teacher canplay in promoting vocabulary development.She argues for a teacher-centered,curriculum-centered approach.

There is much that teachers can do to enrichvocabulary instruction. Here are some usefulclassroom techniques:

• Establish vocabulary learning objectives foryour students, including those that strive for

independent vocabulary acquisition. Focusinstruction both on "specific words andtransferable and generalizable strategies"(Baumann and Kameenui, 1991).

• Foster an environment that promotesword play and a genuine interest in andenthusiasm for words; encourage studentsto share new words learned inside andoutside of school.

• Guide students to use context clues andmorphological clues like familiar prefixes,suffixes, and roots; and also encourage themto use the dictionary as a way to understandthe precise meaning of words. Invite themto share findings about where words havecome from and how they have evolved.

• Establish what students already knowabout a word through discussion; it is apowerful tool to "engage students inexploration and development of new wordmeanings" (Stahl and Vancil, 1986).

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• Provide students with multipleopportunities and many different ways todemonstrate their knowledge of newwords. For instance, do not hesitate toengage them in word games, boardgames, and puzzles.

• When students write, encourage them touse new words as frequently and asappropriately as possible. Discuss ways inwhich word choice affects their writing.

• Have students keep notebooks in whichthey record interesting new words theyhave come across in their reading andthrough other avenues.

• Frequently evaluate your vocabulary-learning goals and the techniques andprocedures you use; adjust yourobjectives as needed.

• Lastly, be sure to provide extensiveopportunities for reading; encourageindependent reading as a regular part ofevery day, not only every school day.

How Important Is Vocabulary Instruction?

Word knowledge is essential to readingcomprehension; several studies have shownthis strong correlation, among them Baker etal. (1995) and Nagy (1998). In fact, researchhas shown conclusively that a reader’svocabulary knowledge is the best indicator ofhow well that reader will understand what heor she reads (Anderson and Freebody, 1981).In his 1977 study, Becker showed the directlink between vocabulary deficiencies andacademic achievement in his study ofdisadvantaged children in grades 3 through12. Furthermore, Cunningham and Stanovich(1997) have reported that vocabulary

acquisition as assessed in first grade is a farbetter predictor than reading mechanics is ofreading comprehension in grade 11.

Having a strong vocabulary is of particularimportance to students in that it contributessignificantly to achievement both in thesubjects of their school curriculum and alsoon standardized tests. When studentscombine their growing knowledge of wordmeanings with their increasingunderstanding of language structure andtheir developing knowledge of the world,they can flesh out strategies that help themmake meaning of what they read in a varietyof texts. Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui(1995b) have called a strong vocabulary"crucial to academic development."Increasing their word knowledge is a basicpart of students’ learning process.

How important is vocabulary growth? Putsimply, a strong vocabulary improves one’sability to learn; a weak one hinders that ability.

About the Author

Jerome Shostak was an English teacher for 37 years

in the New York City public school system, where he

also served as a grade adviser, college adviser, and

certified guidance counselor. He was twice chosen

Teacher of the Year. Mr. Shostak has been a lecturer

in adult education programs for more than 25 years,

as well as an instructor at Brooklyn College (NY) and

at Palm Beach Community College (FL).

In addition to the Vocabulary Workshop program,

Mr. Shostak has also written a number of other books

for Sadlier-Oxford and for other K-12 school publishers.

References

Allen, J. (1999). Words, Words, Words. York, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

Anderson, R. C. & Freebody, P. (1981). "Vocabulary Knowledge."

In J. T. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and Teaching. Newark, DE:

International Reading Association, 77–117.

Anderson, R. C. & Nagy, W. E. (1991). "Word Meanings." In R.Barr, M. Kamil, P. Monsenthal, and D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbookof Reading Research, Vol. 2. New York: Longman, 690–724.

Aronoff, M. (1994). "Morphology." In A. C. Purves, L. Papa, & S.Jordan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of English Studies and Language Arts,Vol. 2. New York: Scholastic, 820–821.

Baker, S. K., Simmons, D. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (1995a).Vocabulary Acquisition: Curricular and Instructional Implications forDiverse Learners. Technical Report No. 13. University of Oregon:National Center to Improve the Tools for Educators. (1995b).Vocabulary Acquisition: Synthesis of the Research. Technical Report No.13. University of Oregon: National Center to Improve the Toolsfor Educators.

Baumann, J. & Kameenui, E. J. (1991). "Research on VocabularyInstruction: Ode to Voltaire." In J. Flood, J. Jensen, D. Lapp, &J. R. Squire (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teaching the EnglishLanguage Arts. New York: Macmillan, 604–632.

Beck, I. L., McCaslin, E. S., & McKeown, M. G. (1980). TheRationale and Design of a Program to Teach Vocabulary to FourthGrade Students. (LRDC Publication 1980/25). Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research andDevelopment Center.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & McCaslin, E. S. (1983)."Vocabulary Development: All Contexts are Not Created Equal."Elementary School Journal, 83, 177–181.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Omanson, R. C. (1984, April).The Fertility of Some Types of Vocabulary Instruction. Paper presentedat the meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation, New Orleans.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Omanson, R. C. (1987). "TheEffects and Uses of Diverse Vocabulary Instruction Techniques."In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The Nature ofVocabulary Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 147–163.

Becker, W. C. (1977). "Teaching Reading and Language to theDisadvantaged—What We Have Learned from Field Research."Harvard Educational Review, 47, 518–543.

Biemiller, A. (2000). "Teaching Vocabulary." American Educator,Spring 2001, 24–28.

Chall, J. S. (2000). The Academic Achievement Challenge: What ReallyWorks in the Classroom? New York: Harcourt Brace.

Christen, W. L. & Murphy, T. J. (1991). "IncreasingComprehension by Activating Prior Knowledge." ERIC Digest,Bloomington, IN: ERIC (Clearinghouse on Reading, English,and Communication. ED 328 885).

Cunningham, A. E. & Stanovich, K. E. (1997). "Early ReadingAcquisition and Its Relation to Reading Experience and Ability10 Years Later." Developmental Psychology, 33, 934–945.

Drum, P. A. & Konopak, B. C. (1987). "Learning Word Meaningsfrom Written Context." In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis(Eds.), The Nature of Vocabulary Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum, 73–87.

Duin, A. H. & Graves, M. F. (1987). "Intensive VocabularyInstruction as a Prewriting Technique." Reading and ResearchQuarterly, 22, 311–330.

Jenkins, J. R., Stein, M. L., & Wysocki, K. (1984). "LearningVocabulary Through Reading." American Educational ResearchJournal, 21, 767–787.

Manzo, A. & Sherk, J. (1972). "Some Generalizations andStrategies to Guide Vocabulary Acquisition." Journal of ReadingBehavior, 4, 78–89.

McKeown, M. G. (1985). "The Acquisition of Word Meaning fromContext by Children of High and Low Ability." Reading andResearch Quarterly, 20, 482–496.

McKeown, M. G. & Beck, I. L. (1988). "Learning Vocabulary:Different Ways for Different Goals." Remedial and SpecialEducation, 9, 42–46.

McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., Omanson, R., & Pople, M. T.(1985). "Some Effects of the Nature and Frequency of VocabularyInstruction on the Knowledge and Use of Words." Reading andResearch Quarterly, 20, 522–535.

Nagy, W. E. (1988). Teaching Vocabulary to Improve ReadingComprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Nagy, W. E. & Anderson, R. C. (1984). "How Many Words AreThere in Printed School English?" Reading Research Quarterly,19, 303–330.

Nagy, W. E., Anderson, R. C., & Herman, P. A. (1987). "LearningWord Meanings from Context During Normal Reading."American Educational Research Journal, 24, 237–270.

Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A. (1987). "Breadth and Depth ofVocabulary Knowledge: Implications for Acquisition andInstruction." In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The Natureof Vocabulary Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 19–35.

National Council of Teachers of English and the InternationalReading Association. (1996). Standards for the English LanguageArts. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

National Reading Panel Report (April, 2000). Teaching Children toRead: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature onReading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.

Petty, W., Herold, C., & Stohl, E. (1967). The State of the Knowledge ofthe Teaching of Vocabulary. (Cooperative Research Project No. 3128).Champagne, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED 012 395.

Smith, E. E. (1995). "Concepts and Categorization." In E. E. Smith& D. N. Osherson (Eds.), Thinking: An Invitation to CognitiveScience, 2nd Ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 3–33.

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Sadlier-Oxford Professional Development Series

Volume 1: The Role of Grammar in Improving Students’ Writingby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #9542-3)

Volume 2: Beginning Literacy: Research-Based Principles and Practices by Lesley M. Morrow(Code #9577-6)

Volume 3: Nursery Rhymes and Phonemic Awarenessby Research and Development Staff(Code #9597-0)

Volume 4: Word Study Strategies at the Middle Gradesby Richard T. Vacca(Code #9634-9)

Volume 5: The Effective Mathematics Classroom: Research-Based Principles and Practicesby Marie Cooper(Code #9645-4)

Volume 6: Developing Effective Readers PreK–6by Lesley M. Morrow and Richard T. Vacca(Code #9134-7)

Volume 7: The Value of Direct and Systematic Vocabulary Instructionby Jerome Shostak(Code #9147-9)

Volume 8: Using Nonfiction Text to Enhance Reading at the Primary Levelsby Alvin Granowsky, Carmelita K. Williams, and Jerry L. Johns(Code #9292-F)

Sadlier-OxfordA Division of William H. Sadlier, Inc.

www.sadlier-oxford.com

Code # 9147-9

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The Value of Intentional Vocabulary Instruction in the Middle Grades

by

Douglas FisherProfessor of Language and Literacy Education, San Diego State University

and

Nancy FreyProfessor of Literacy Education, San Diego State University

s educators, we understand the power of words to inform, influence, and inspire. We recognize the beauty of a well-chosen word in a speech, marvel at the cleverness of a lyric in a song. Even our daily interactions are peppered with the vocabulary of our discipline and interests. When we open our mouths, we reveal our vocations. When we write a message, we reveal our avocations.

There is power in language. And there is power in the instruction of every new word. But sound vocabulary instruction requires attending to the selection, context, and grouping of words. In addition, teachers must model their thinking about the words, and students must be engaged in activities that get them using the words in the company of their peers. And finally, learners must have multiple experiences with new words so those words can become part of their personal vocabularies. Vocabulary instruction, therefore, must be intentional—that is, explicit—in order for it to be effective.

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Using a Gradual Release of Responsibility in Vocabulary InstructionTelling is not teaching; learners need

to engage in a variety of instructional

experiences that deepen and broaden

their knowledge of the concepts being

taught. Learning theorists have described

the importance of supports being made

available and then gradually withdrawn

as the learner becomes more confident and

assured—a process referred to as scaffolding

(Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). Pearson and

Gallagher (1983) applied this concept to

reading instruction and called it the gradual release of responsibility. We have further

expanded this concept to an instructional-

design process, adding peer interaction as

a key scaffold. Thus, this model includes

teacher modeling, guided instruction,

productive group work, and independent

learning (Fisher & Frey, 2008a).

A corollary progression occurs in vocabulary

learning. Stahl and Fairbanks (1986)

described an initial phase of knowledge,

which they termed the associational level. In

this phase, students know words superficially,

mostly through matching definitions to

terms. As their understanding deepens, they

move into the comprehension level, where

they can sort and categorize. And at the

highest level of word learning, called the

generative level, they apply what they know

about words to new and original situations,

especially in using it in their writing (Stahl

& Fairbanks, 1986). The gradual release of

responsibility model of instruction follows

a similar progression in deepening word

knowledge so that it becomes a permanent

part of students’ working vocabulary.

Teacher Modeling. The power of teacher

modeling as an instructional tool is that it

allows students to witness the way concepts

are used by an expert. In addition, students

are privy to the skilled decision making

used by the expert to make choices about

how words are understood, chosen, and

used in context. Teacher modeling applies

many of the same techniques used when

demonstrating a physical task. For example,

when perfecting the swing of a baseball bat,

the coach (expert) slows down the process,

repeats it, and discusses what she is seeing

and doing as she grips the bat, swings, and

makes contact with the ball. To be sure,

vocabulary learning is a thinking process,

not a motor one, and so the demonstration

comes from explaining one’s thinking as the

vocabulary is used.

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This is essential when modeling how

unfamiliar words are “solved.” Many

adolescents have a monolithic view of

vocabulary—either you know it, or you

don’t—and thus an unknown word in a

text stops them in their tracks. Sometimes

students shrug their metaphorical shoulders

and skip the word; but if this occurs too

many times, they may give up altogether.

Students do not know that when a skilled

reader encounters an unknown word, he or

she uses structural and contextual analyses,

as well as resources such as dictionaries and

thesauri, to problem-solve. Stated differently,

without explicit instruction, students remain

unaware that skilled readers look inside the

word for structural clues, outside the word

for context, and even further outside at

resources such as a glossary (Fisher & Frey,

2008b). They remain unaware that when

the word has multiple meanings, all known

meanings are activated simultaneously, and

the reader must rapidly sort through them

to arrive at the best choice (Swinney, 1979).

Therefore, these problem-solving techniques

need to be brought to the fore in order for

students to begin applying them in their

own learning.

Modeling one’s thinking takes some practice,

as most of us have not witnessed our own

teachers using this technique. However,

we find the concept-development research

of Tennyson and Cocchiarella (1986) to be

helpful in modeling vocabulary (Fisher,

Frey, & Lapp, 2009). Consider how teacher

modeling of the vocabulary term buoyancy is used in a reading about a flood:

• Label and definition: “I know that

buoyancy has something to do

with floating.”

• Context: “I’m going to reread that

sentence. ‘Any object with enough buoyancy floated away, while the heavier items quickly sank to the bottom of the raging river.’ Yes, I can see the

definition right in the sentence.”

• Best example: “I’ve heard of buoyancy

before. When I took scuba diving

lessons, I had to wear a weight belt to

make me less buoyant so I could

go deeper.”

• Attribute elaboration: “I noticed that the

word buoy is in there. That makes me

think of the buoys that are on the bay.

Those buoys float on top of the water

and guide boats safely out to the ocean.”

• Strategy information: “When I first

read that sentence, buoyancy jumped

out at me because I don’t see it very

often. But I reread the sentence,

looked for some context clues, and

used some structural analysis to find

a more familiar word within it. I also

paused to remind myself of a previous

experience I had with the term.”

Speaking in the first person (“I-statements”)

is a hallmark of teacher modeling and differs

from the second-person directives (“you-

statements”) students usually experience.

By sharing their own thinking, teachers

give a learner insight into the ways he or

she considers, and in some cases discards,

possibilities. This practice also opens

the door for students to discuss and use

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vocabulary with their peers in a variety of

learning activities.

Peer Interaction. Modeling alone is

insufficient for learning; if this was all

we needed, we all could play professional

football or occupy the first chair in a

symphony orchestra. Modeling establishes

the initial thinking processes that one uses

when reading, writing, and speaking about

vocabulary, but students need opportunities

to try the words for themselves. In particular,

students need to use target vocabulary in

their spoken language before they can be

expected to use it in more formal written

language. As Bromley (2007) reminds us,

“Language proficiency grows from oral

competence to written competence.” All

students benefit from purposeful use of new

vocabulary within the context of meaningful

and engaging activities. This is even more

critical for adolescent English language

learners who are simultaneously learning

English while learning in English (Fisher,

Frey, & Rothenberg, 2008).

Peer interaction is not a separate activity;

it exists as part of a cohesive instructional

design that follows a gradual release of

Sadlier Vocabulary for Success ©2011, Grade 7, Student Edition

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responsibility (Fisher & Frey, 2008a). In the

same way that the teacher models his or her

thinking processes during the modeling

phase, students now begin to assume some of

the cognitive responsibility as they explain,

discuss, clarify their understanding, and

reflect on their learning. While the students

interact with the content and each other, the

teacher moves from group to group, offering

guided instruction in the form of questions,

cues, and prompts. When a group is stuck

and these scaffolds do not result in increased

understanding, the teacher uses modeling

and direct explanation (Frey, Fisher, &

Everlove, 2009).

The design of the task students engage

in with their peers must be meaningful

in order to promote the kind of cognitive

processes necessary for learning. To increase

learning, many vocabulary researchers

have recommended games and other

activities that capitalize on a sense of play

(e.g., Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002;

Blachowicz & Fisher, 2002; Graves, 2006).

Game-like activities raise word consciousness

and naturally encourage the repeated

and authentic use of the words, thereby

reinforcing new learning (Graves, 2006).

The most effective peer interaction tasks

emphasize comprehension and generative

learning, not just a continuation of

superficial associative learning that is more

temporary in nature (Stahl & Fairbanks,

1986). These peer-interaction tasks prepare

students for the more complex learning

that occurs during the independent phase

of instruction.

Moving to Independent Word Learning. We are often reminded of the

adage, “Practice doesn’t make perfect;

practice makes permanent.” If students

are rushed to the independent phase

of learning, they practice imperfectly

and end up reinforcing inaccurate or

incomplete knowledge. A gradual release-

of-responsibility model of instruction

that provides teacher modeling, guided

instruction, and productive group work

decreases the likelihood that independent

practice will reinforce incorrect

understanding (Fisher & Frey, 2008a).

However, vocabulary instruction should also

deepen conceptual understanding through

a process Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) call

the generative level of word knowledge.

In this phase, students are using targeted

vocabulary in more formal original writing.

These need not be long essays—sentence-

and paragraph-length writing is equally

effective. There is also an increased focus

on using academic language in conjunction

with the academic vocabulary they are using.

Independent activities include the use of

generative sentences that lead students to

consider the grammatical and semantic

features of the word (Fisher & Frey, 2008a).

A generative sentence activity names the

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word, the position of its occurrence within

the sentence, and the condition of the

sentence itself. For example:

• Write a sentence of exactly nine words

in length using the word extend.

• Write a sentence with the word

coordinate in the fourth position.

This last generative sentence might

result in something like this:

I can help coordinate all the details for the school dance, but I can’t do it alone.

Students can further expand their generative

sentences by selecting one that can be

expanded to paragraph length. Generative

activities provide students with the

opportunity to consolidate their word

learning by requiring them to utilize their

associational and comprehension levels of

knowledge. In turn, the vocabulary more

fully becomes a part of their vocabulary as

they become more confident using it in their

spoken and written language.

Selecting Words. The practice of

constructing lists of words for student study

has been a dominant feature in vocabulary

instruction for more than a century. Among

the lists that have influenced the field are

the Dolch Word List of sight vocabulary

for young readers (1936), the Academic

Word List (AWL) (Coxhead, 2000), and the

Background Knowledge Word List (Marzano,

2004). While these lists vary at the word

level, they have one important element in

common: All are derived from what students

are expected to understand. These lists are

not intended to be used in isolation, but

rather as contextually bound to a discipline

or academic behavior. For example, the AWL

is comprised of 570 headwords totaling

3,000 individual words from textbooks in

11 different discipline areas. The researcher

recorded the frequency of words, discarded

the first 2,000 most common English words

among them (the General Service List:

words such as the, make, and together), and

constructed a list composed of high-utility

academic words that occur across disciplines

(such as reinterpret, analyze, and correspond).


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While the AWL draws from textbooks as its

primary source, the Background Knowledge

Word List resulted from an analysis of 28

national standards documents. The nearly

8,000 words on this list tend to be more

discipline-specific (for example, monarchy, tributary, and radiation). One strength of this

approach is that the selected words represent

content-specific knowledge and its inherent

conceptual understanding.

While word lists provide an excellent

starting point for identifying possible words

for direct instruction, their usefulness must

be weighed against other factors, including

their utility, their opportunity for analysis,

and their overall cognitive load. Drawing

from the collective work of Graves (2006),

Nagy and Herman (1987), and Marzano

(2004), we have constructed a decision-

making model for further refining the list of

possibilities (Fisher & Frey, 2008b):

• Is the word representative of an

essential idea or concept?

• Will the word be used repeatedly

within and across units of instruction?

• Is the word transportable across other

disciplines?

• Does the use of the word invite

contextual analysis?

• Does the word offer an opportunity for

structural analysis?

• Do the selected words honor the

learner’s cognitive load?

A key consideration for selecting words is the

way in which they can be clustered to ensure

that terms mutually inform one another, and

that they can serve as “doorway” words for

learning new vocabulary. Given the large

number of words that students need to know

and the relatively small number of words that

can receive direct instruction, it is essential

to choose terms that foster independent word

learning. Although English has earned an

unfair reputation for being unpredictable, the

truth is that approximately 80 percent to 85

percent of printed English is comprised of

common words from the General Service List.

Many of the remaining vexing 15 percent

to 20 percent of words are formed around

a common base, root, or affix. These word

families are constructed using the building

blocks of the language: dis-, -trans-, -norm-,

and -ance. By clustering and teaching these

building blocks, students are better able to

transfer their knowledge of the language

when they encounter unfamiliar words

during independent reading (Baumann, Font,

Edwards, & Boland, 2005).

In sum, the selection of words for direct

instruction involves analysis of research-

based word lists that represent both content-

specific and cross-disciplinary terms. In

addition, the final selection of instructional

vocabulary should feature a decision-making

framework that further considers both the

practical utility of the new words and the

potential for building the skills of learners in

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solving both the targeted vocabulary as well

as the terms they encounter outside of the

vocabulary classroom. Once these words are

identified, they are taught using a gradual

release of responsibility.

The Influence of Vocabulary on Learning. The importance of vocabulary

knowledge has been reported in many

places, but the topic deserves repeating here

as well. A cluster of research studies in the

1980s confirmed what most educators had

long suspected—that vocabulary demand

skyrockets in middle school as students

become immersed in formal discipline-

specific study. Arguably the most widely

reported figures stem from the seminal

research of William Nagy and Richard

Anderson, who reported that by the time

students enter ninth grade, they will have

encountered 88,500 word families in printed

school materials (1984). This staggering

number would give even the most energetic

teacher pause. There is simply no way to

provide direct instruction for all of those

words. But while 500,000 individual words

are too much to contemplate, the good news

is that the operative word—families—gives

us a glimpse of what effective instruction

might look like.

A second cluster of vocabulary research has

focused on vocabulary’s influence on learning.

Most secondary educators are aware of the

importance of vocabulary because it serves

as a proxy for conceptual knowledge in

middle school (Espin, Shin, & Busch, 2005).

Stated differently, the more familiar one is

with the vocabulary of a content area, the

more likely it is that one knows something

about that content. This idea is borne out

in the findings of Baker, Simmons, and

Kame’enui (1998), who found that vocabulary

knowledge was a strong predictor of reading

comprehension. By some estimates,


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vocabulary knowledge accounts for between

70 percent and 80 percent of reading

comprehension (Nagy & Scott, 2000). This

is a significant factor at the middle school

level, where science and history textbooks

and other expository reading materials are

used with increasing frequency and also

contain increasingly dense, abstract, and

technical language (Fang, 2008).

Devoting Time to Word Learning Is Time Well Spent. The third cluster of

vocabulary research concerns what it means

to “know” a word. There is wide agreement

that word knowledge is layered and extends

well beyond definitional knowledge. It

includes knowledge of examples and

nonexamples, adept use in oral and written

communication, and fluent availability

and recall of words (Blachowicz & Fisher,

2000; Cronbach, 1942; Dale, O’Rourke,

& Bamman, 1971; Graves, 1986). Because

knowledge is multidimensional, teaching

of those words must be as well. Effective

vocabulary instruction requires that words

are taught within context, that definitional

and contrastive meanings are provided,

and that students have multiple, authentic

experiences with using words in their spoken

and written language (Beck, McKeown, &

Kucan, 2002; Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000;

Graves, 2006).

Taken together, these three clusters of

vocabulary research provide a road map

for effective vocabulary instruction. First,

adolescents experience a breathtaking rise

in school vocabulary demand. Second, the

increased influence of vocabulary directly

impacts students’ ability to read and converse

in the language of the discipline. And third,

the complex nature of word knowledge

requires an instructional approach that

cultivates an increasingly sophisticated

understanding of the relationship between

words and concepts. An effective vocabulary

program offers carefully selected words

that are presented in context and modeled

by the teacher; associative experiences

that emphasize both the definitional and

contrastive meanings of words, accompanied

by student interaction with words and one

another; and generative experiences that

allow students to make it their vocabulary.

We can lift words from the page and ensure

that vocabulary learning is an interesting

part of students’ instructional day. We can

move beyond the “assign, define, and test”

approach to vocabulary instruction and

develop systems and resources that really do

result in students understanding of word

meanings. As this happens, students will

use their newfound vocabulary regularly and

authentically. When we are intentional in our

vocabulary instruction, students learn words

that they use inside and outside of school.

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About the AuthorsDouglas Fisher, Ph.D., is Professor of Language and Literacy Education

in the School of Teacher Education at San Diego State University and a

classroom teacher at Health Sciences High & Middle College.

He is the recipient of an International Reading Association Celebrate

Literacy Award, the Farmer award for excellence in writing from the

National Council of Teachers of English, and a Christa McAuliffe award

for excellence in teacher education.

He is the author or co-author of numerous professional books on reading

and literacy, differentiated instruction, and curriculum design.

He and Nancy Frey co-authored the Vocabulary for Success middle

school program to be published (©2011) by William H. Sadlier, Inc.

Nancy Frey, Ph.D., is a Professor of Literacy in the School of Teacher

Education at San Diego State University and a classroom teacher at

Health Sciences High & Middle College.

She is the recipient of an Early Career Achievement Award from the

National Reading Conference and a co-recipient of the Christa McAuliffe

award for excellence in teacher education from the American Association of

State Colleges and Universities.

She is the co-author of many professional books and articles. A credentialed

special educator and reading specialist, she teaches courses on elementary

and secondary reading instruction, literacy in content areas, and supporting

students with diverse learning needs.

She and Douglas Fisher co-authored the Vocabulary for Success middle

school program to be published (©2011) by William H. Sadlier, Inc.

N

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Professional Development SeriesNSadlier


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ReferencesBaker, S. K., Simmons, D. C., & Kame’enui, E. J. (1998).

Vocabulary acquisition: Research bases. In D. C. Simmons & E. J. Kame’enui (Eds.), What research tells us about children with diverse learning needs (pp. 183–218). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Baumann, J. F., Font, G., Edwards, E. C., & Boland, E. (2005). Strategies for teaching middle-grade students to use word-part and context clues to expand reading vocabulary. In E. H. Hiebert & M. L. Kamil (Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 179–205). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.

Blachowicz, C. L. Z., & Fisher, P. (2000). Vocabulary instruction. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. III, pp. 503–523). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Blachowicz, C. L. Z., & Fisher, P. (2002). Teaching vocabulary in all classrooms (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Bromley, K. (2007). Nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary instruction. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 50(7), 528–537.

Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213–238.

Cronbach, L. J. (1942). An analysis of techniques for systematic vocabulary testing. Journal of Educational Research, 36, 206–17.

Dale, E., O’Rourke, J., & Bamman, H. A. (1971). Techniques for teaching vocabulary. Palo Alto, CA: Field Educational Publications.

Dolch, E. W. (1936). A basic sight word vocabulary. Elementary School Journal, 36, 456–460.

Espin, C. A., Shin, J., & Busch, T. W. (2005). Curriculum-based measurement in the content areas: Vocabulary matching as an indicator of progress in social studies learning. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 38(4), 353–363.

Fang, Z. (2008). Going beyond the fab five: Helping students cope with the unique linguistic challenges of expository reading in the intermediate grades. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 51(6), 476–487.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008a). Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008b). Word wise and content rich: Five essential steps to teaching academic vocabulary. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2009). In a reading state of mind: Brain research, teacher modeling, and comprehension instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Rothenberg, C. (2008). Content area conversations: How to plan discussion-based lessons for diverse language learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Frey, N., Fisher, D., & Everlove, S. (2009). Productive group work: How to engage students, build teamwork, and promote understanding. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Graves, M. F. (1986). Vocabulary learning and instruction. Review of Educational Research, 13, 49–89.

Graves, M. F. (2006). The Vocabulary Book: Learning and Instruction. New York: Teachers College.

Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement: Research on what works in schools. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Nagy, N. E., & Anderson, R. C. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 303–330.

Nagy, W. E., & Herman, P. A. (1987). Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: Implications for acquisition and instruction. In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 19–36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Nagy, N. E., & Scott, J. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. III, pp. 269–284). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Pearson, P. D., & Gallagher, G. (1983). The gradual release of responsibility model of instruction. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8, 112–123.

Stahl, S., & Fairbanks, M. (1986). The effects of vocabulary instruction: A model-based meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 56(1), 72–110.

Swinney, D. A. (1979). Lexical access during sentence comprehension: (Re)considerations of context effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 645–659.

Tennyson, R. D., & Cocchiarella, M. J. (1986). An empirically based instructional design theory for teaching concepts. Review of Educational Research, 56, 40–71.

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring and problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89–100.

Available online at Sadlier.comFor printed copies, please call Sadlier Customer Service: 800-221-5175.

For additional information, or to request copies of other volumes in the Sadlier Professional Development Series, please call 800-221-5175.

Volume 1: The Role of Grammar in Improving Students’ Writingby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #91337F)

Volume 2: Beginning Literacy: Research-Based Principles and Practicesby Lesley M. Morrow(Code #91347F)

Volume 3: Nursery Rhymes and Phonemic Awareness by Research and Development Staff(Code #91357F)

Volume 4: Word Study Strategies at the Middle Gradesby Richard T. Vacca(Code #91367F)

Volume 5: The Effective Mathematics Classroom: Research-Based Principles and Practicesby Marie Cooper(Code #9645-4)

Volume 6: Developing Effective Readers PreK–6 by Lesley M. Morrow and Richard T. Vacca(Code #91377F)

Volume 7: The Value of Direct and Systematic Vocabulary Instructionby Jerome Shostak(Code #90686F)

Volume 8: Using Nonfiction in the Primary Gradesby Alvin Granowsky, Carmelita K. Williams, and Jerry L. Johns(Code #91387- F)

Professional Development SeriesVolume 9: Vocabulary Instruction

in Elementary Gradesby Jerry L. Johns(Code #9924-F)

Volume 10: Best Practices for Teaching Grammar at the Elementary Gradesby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #90727F)

Volume 11: Effective Strategies for Engaging Middle School Students in Writing and Grammar Instructionby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #908081)

Volume 12: Motivating Middle School Students: The Critical Part of Lesson Planning in Mathematicsby Alfred S. Posamentier(Code #908381)

Volume 13: Best Practices for Phonics Instruction in Today’s Classroomby Diane Tracey and Lesley Mandel Morrow(Code #900891)

Volume 14: Problem Solving: Building Strategic Competenceby Alfred S. Posamentier(Code #904691)

Volume 15: Teaching Meaningful Revision: Developing and Deepening Students’ Writingby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #906991)

Volume 16: The Value of Intentional Vocabulary Instruction in the Middle Gradesby Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey(Code #901801)

Copyright ©2010 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved. 3/10 Code # 901801

Level A Word List

abnormal

abundant

accurate

achievable

adequate

advance

aerial

airborne

ally

alter

anticipated

appalled

apparatus

appeal

appear

approach

appropriate

architecture

area

argument

assault

assess

assist

atlas

atmosphere

authority

barren

barrier

benefi t

bias

bizarre

brink

bulk

buoy

category

cease

challenge

chronology

circumstance

civilization

claim

classic

climate

collide

columns

commenced

compatible

compile

concept

confer

consequence

constellation

construct

consume

contact

control

copious

cornerstone

correspond

counsel

credible

critique

crust

cultivate

culture

cycle

debate

debris

decline

decode

decompose

deed

degenerate

deluge

deplete

despite

detect

devoted

dignity

disperse

distribute

doctrine

document

dominance

downfall

dramatic

duplicate

durable

ecosystem

embark

enable

encounter

energy

enormous

enrich

entrust

erosion

estimate

evident

expand

explanation

factor

feat

feature

formal

foster

foundation

fraught

fulfi ll

fungus

global

haphazard

hardship

hemisphere

host

hypothesis

identical

impact

implicate

impose

inaccessible

incapable

incredible

infection

inferences

ingenuity

initial

intern

interpret

invade

invaluable

invariable

issue

jolt

landscape

latent

legacy

leisure

likewise

mantle

mass

maximum

migrate

minimal

minimum

mobile

mosaic

motive

nevertheless

normal

norms

nuisance

obtainable

ordeal

orient

origin

parasite

pare

photosynthesis

plague

plenty

population

portion

premier

premise

prey

prone

prospect

prow

random

range

ransack

reassess

reconstruct

recreation

recycling

redistribute

reference

region

regulation

reinterpret

report

research

reside

restrict

retire

risk

ritual

robust

scribe

seek

signal

source

species

stern

superlative

theory

trade

transition

translate

transmit

transport

trek

undertake

uniform

variable

vessel

vicinity

widespread

witness

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Level B Word List

accompany

acknowledgment

adaptation

adolescence

allegiance

alternate

amendment

apprentice

approximate

arrogant

assumption

attribute

balance

cell

chance

chivalry

collapse

commission

commitment

commodity

commune

compensation

complement

component

confi rm

confl ict

congestion

considerable

consist

constitution

constrictconsumers

contempt

contract

contrary

contribute

controversial

converse

coordinate

court

credit

critical

cunning

currency

data

defy

demand

denoting

denounce

derogatory

determine

dictate

dimension

diminished

dire

dismal

distinction

distort

division

dynamic

earnest

economy

elect

eligible

emerge

estate

evaluate

experiment

expert

export

exposure

expression

extend

external

famine

fi nal

fi nancial

fl aunt

fl ourish

focus

foliage

frequent

function

fundamental

gain

gender

gene

generalization

generation

genuine

guarantee

heredity

hierarchy

hovel

ignorance

illustrate

immune

import

income

indefi nite

inherit

initiative

instance

intermediate

interrogate

intervene

interview

intricate

isolate

justify

kindle

label

labor

latitude

lend

limitation

link

logic

maintenance

makeshift

maneuver

manipulate

manual

manuscript

marvel

mature

mechanism

medieval

medium

membrane

merge

method

millennia

minor

modify

molecule

monarchy

multicellular

negotiate

noteworthy

notice

notify

notion

novice

obstacle

obstinate

obvious

offspring

opposing

organs

outcome

outlandish

peasant

pitfall

plane

positions

possess

potential

precision

predicament

predominantly

preserve

pressure

presumably

prevail

prevention

previous

protest

purchase

pursuit

radiation

rationalize

react

rebel

refl ection

register

remove

reserve

revenue

sacrifi ce

sample

scenario

selection

sequence

shield

slander

somewhat

squire

stabilize

structure

substitute

succulent

summary

summons

tax

technique

tenant

thrust

tissue

traditional

trait

transfer

triggered

utilize

valid

valor

viewpoint

violate

vocal

windfall

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Level C Word List

8/31/10 11:27 AM


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.

abandon

abstract

accelerate

accentuate

adaptable

adjust

administration

advocate

agency

ammunition

apparel

appreciate

array

assemble

asteroid

attainable

behalf

bond

bondage

brace

calamity

campaign

capital

captivity

captured

celestial

chamber

chasm

civil

civilian

clarify

coincide

combustion

commotion

compound

comprehensive

compress

comprise

conclude

condemn

conform

conservation

constrained

contemporary

contradiction

convert

crisis

deceive

demonstrate

descend

deviate

differentiate

discrimination

disenchanted

dismay

displaced

disproportionately

distinguished

diversify

domain

drastic

duration

elaborate

element

elevate

eliminate

emphasize

endeavor

endure

enforce

engage

enhance

episode

equity

establish

evolve

exclusionary

expedition

exploit

fatigue

feeble

flimsy

fluctuate

fluent

force

founder

fragility

frigid

galaxy

goals

gravity

harmony

hover

illusion

immense

incapacitated

incentive

incline

include

incongruous

indication

induce

inherent

innovation

insightful

institute

intelligence

intensify

interval

intrinsically

investment

isolation

log

logically

luminous

margins

mediate

meteor

mishap

momentum

monitor

moral

mutual

negative

nuclear

occupied

onslaught

orbit

otherwise

overall

overtake

parallel

participatory

particle

percentage

periodical

persist

perspective

petition

phenomenon

pinnacle

plea

pledge

portray

positive

precede

preclude

prime

prior

prioritize

privilege

professional

progress

prohibit

prominent

properties

protocols

psychology

qualitatively

radical

radioactive

ramble

rate

ration

reaction

recant

recover

rejected

reluctance

remedy

repeal

representation

resolve

resources

restrained

retreat

route

satellite

savage

scope

secure

signify

sinister

sovereign

speed

status

stereotype

stifle

subsequently

succession

survey

suspend

sustain

swell

tangible

tension

terminate

tolerate

trace

tranquil

treacherous

unaffected

unifying

uniquely

vegetate

verdict

via

visible

vision

welfare

Concept Circle

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orkshop.

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The Value of PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SERIESProfessional Development Series SADLIER-OXFORD...

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