The Use of Virtual Globes as a Spatial Teaching Tool with Suggestions forMetadata Stan dards

Richard B. Schultz, Joseph J. Kerski, and Todd C. Patterson

ABSTRACTVirtual Globe software has becomeextremely popular both inside andoutside of educational settings. Thissoftware allows users to explore the Earthin three dimensions while streamingsatellite imagery, elevation, and otherdata from the Internet. Virtual Globes,such as Google Earth, NASA WorldWind, and ESRI's ArcGIS Explorer canbe effectively used in standards-based,inquiry-driven geography lessons. Withsome practice, mashups (using data frommore than one source to create new data)can be constructed for practically anyapplication or area of interest. Educatorswho have not already begun to use thesetools may wish to investigate them tohelp their students to think spatially byinvestigating processes and places on theEarth's surface in a three-dimensionalvisualization environment.

Key Words: Google Earth, spatial literacy,nietadata standards, geography education,remote sensing

Richard B. Schultz serves as the programcoordinator for the Elmhurst College GISCertificate Program at Elmhurst College inElmhurst, Illinois. He also is a member ofthe faculty in the Department of Geographyand Geosciences at Elmhurst College wherehe teaches courses in GIS, meteorology, phys-ical geography, environmental issues, andglobal climate change, as well as interculturalstudies.

Joseph J. Kerski serves as education industrycurriculum development manager for Envi-ronmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI,Inc.) in Denver, Colorado, having previouslyserved as geographer at the USGS (U.S.Geological Survey). He creates curriculumfocused on the use of desktop- and Web-basedGIS for geography, earth science, history,environmental studies, and other subjects.

Todd C. Patterson is a doctoral candidate atthe University of South Carolina, Columbia,South Carolina, USA, and is an adjunct fac-ulty member of DeSales University, CenterValley, Pennsylvania, USA.

INTRODUCTION: AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMPORTANCE

OF SPATIAL THINKINGIt has been said that, ... In terms of its power and pervasiveness, spatial

thinking is on a par with, although perhaps not yet as well recognized andcertainly not as well formalized as, mathematical or verbal thinking... "(NationalAcademy of Sciences 2006). Unfortunately, there is no clear consensus aboutspatial thinking or spatial literacy. Researchers use related terms, such as spatialability, spatial concepts, spatial reasoning, spatial cognition, spatial intelligence,environmental cognition, mental and cognitive mapping, and mental maps(Eliot 1987; Gardner 1983; Golledge and Stimson 1997; Gould and White 1974;Kitchin 1994; Kitchin and Freundschuh 2000; Newcombe and Huttenlocher2000; Portugali 1996; Tversky 2000a, 2000b). Spatial thinking is multifacetedin its operation. Just as there is no single recipe for how to think verbally ormathematically, there is no single way to think spatially. Instead, the processof spatial thinking comprises broad sets of interconnected competencies. Spatialthinking includes spatial knowledge-of symmetry, orientation, scale, distancedecay, and other concepts. It also includes spatial ways of thinking and acting, suchas understanding change over space versus change over time and recognizingpatterns in data. Spatial thinking also includes spatial capabilities, such as theability to use statistical data and GIS (geographic information system:, softwareand tools. Most importantly, spatial thinking and competencies are an importantpart of the educational curriculum at all levels, and they can be taught and learned.

As educators, it is our task to convey spatial concepts and encourage spatialthinking to our students. The question remains-how can this be accomplished? Inthe recently published Support for Thinking Spatially: The Incorporation of GeographicInformation Science Across the K-12 Curriculum, the following was offered bythe Geographical Sciences Committee of the National Research Council (thecommittee):

Given the need for increased scientific and technological literacy in theworkforce and in everyday life, we must equip K-12 graduates withskills that will enable them to think spatially and to take advantage oftools and technologies-such as geographic information systems (GIS)for supporting spatial thinking. (p. 13)

The committee's charge contained two questions, the first of which wasintended to generate recommendations for levels of technology (hardwareand software), system supports (for example, teaching materials), curriculumscope and sequence (for example, the role of necessary precursors), andpreservice and in-service training. The second question was intended to generaterecommendations based on an assessment of theoretical and empirical approachesin psychology and education relevant to the development of knowledge and skillsthat underpin the use of GIS. Further, the committee developed two additionalquestions:

1. What are the nature and character of spatial thinking?

2. How does the capacity for spatial thinking develop and how might it befostered systematically through education and training?

The committee came to believe that spatial thinking is pervasive; it isvital across a wide range of disciplines of practical and scientific knowledge,

Journal of Geography 107: 27-34©2008 National Council for Geographic Education 27

Richard B. Schultz, Joseph J. Kerski, and Todd C. Patterson

yet it is under-recognized, undervalued, underappreciated,and therefore, underinstructed. Despite the practical impor-tance of both historical and contemporary spatial thinking,the committee recognized that scientists and educatorshave not yet clearly identified and described the operationsof spatial thinking. Without a clear understanding of thenature and character of spatial thinking, it is impossible todesign instructional systems and technologies to support it.Students need to know the concepts that are the "buildingblocks" for spatial thinking. The general aspects of spatialconcepts, such as symmetry, isomorphism, reflection, ori-entation, rotation, and function, are present in numerousdisciplines. There are also spatial concepts that are tailoredto a particular discipline, such as relative versus absolutedistance, small versus large scale, and distance decay ingeography (National Academy of Sciences 2006).

Could it be that one type of educational tool couldassist in all of these desired areas of learning? Many haveadvocated that a tool created specifically for spatial analysisshould be used to teach spatial analysis. That tool, GIS, hasbeen successfully used in formal and informal educationaround the world for at least fifteen years to teach conceptssuch as ecoregions, agriculture, population characteristicsand dynamics, historical migration, natural hazards, andmany more. Since 2000, Web-based mapping tools andInternet-GIS have been increasingly used as a complementto desktop GIS due to its ease of use, availability, andfunctionality (Kerski 2008).

One type of Internet-based GIS is virtual globes. The mostcommonly used virtual globes are World Wind from NASA,ArcGIS Explorer from ESRI, Skyline's TerraExplorer, andGoogle Earth from Google. Of the eighteen geographystandards, the elements of The World in Spatial Terms, Placesand Regions, Physical Systems, Human Systems, Environmentand Society, and The Uses of Geography are the standardsthat the uses of virtual globes seem to most easily address.Virtual globes also provide a practical application and toolfor remote sensing, the study of the Earth using sensorsaboard spacecraft and aircraft.

VIRTUAL GLOBES AS TEACHING TOOLS

What Are Virtual Globes?Virtual globes are so named because of their approach

to visualizing the Earth as a three-dimensional globe thatone can "fly" above. Virtual globe software runs with twomain components-a moderately-sized software programand spatial data that is streamed "on the fly" from theInternet as the program is used. The streaming dataincludes commercial or public domain satellite imagery,aerial photographs, elevation data from the Shuttle RadarTopography Mission, along with points, lines, and polygo-nal data that include a range of types-from transportationroutes and hydrography networks to buildings. Because thefile sizes of these data sets are quite large, a fast broadbandconnection to the Internet is absolutely essential for thesuccessful educational use of virtual globe tools.

Using the software and the streaming data together, thegeography educator and student can view nearly everylocation on the Earth's surface from any angle and fromany distance. The tools simulate flying above the landscapeas if the user were in their own personal spacecraft. At anypoint, one can zoom, pan, or tilt the Earth view for a 3Dperspective and stop at key points of interest.

Depending on the area examined, one might be ableto see individual trees, automobiles, and other detailedinformation that one would expect while viewing 0.61-meter resolution Digital Globe QuickBird satellite imageryor .25-meter USGS (U.S. Geological Survey) digital othor-photoquadrangle (DOQ) aerial photography. In other areas,however, the resolution may be based on 30-meter Landsatimagery and is only suitable for medium-resolution inves-tigations such as regional land use and watersheds.

These data sets and three-dimensional viewing capabili-ties have been available to users of GIS and remote sensingsoftware for a number of years. However, virtual globesoftware brings these data sets and fly-by capabilities to theeducator without the time and financial investment in GISand remote sensing software. An added bonus is the relativeease with which applications can be customized and sharedwith others in remote locations. While the spatial analysistools available through GIS and remote sensing softwareare largely absent in virtual globe software, the ease-of-use, low cost, burgeoning availability of data sets, andextremely engaging, and often addictive, nature of virtualglobes merit their consideration for use in the geographyclassroom at all levels. In addition, virtual globe software isincreasingly intertwined with traditional GIS. For example,one can bring digital spatial data on natural hazards in GISformat directly into ArcGIS Explorer for further analysis.Or, one can export a GIS map into a format directly readablein Google Earth.

An Example of Virtual Globes: Google Earth and ItsThree Versions

Google Earth has become the world's most popularvirtual globe software. It has spawned a very large, activeuser community that extends far beyond the educationalsystem. Indeed, one could argue that it has exposed moreof the general public in a few years to the power of usingspatial data to examine the world than GIS and remotesensing had done in thirty years. Google Earth is not a GIS,but because of its ease of use, its ability to easily incorporatedata sets created by users, and Google's large presence insociety, it has reached more people.

The Google Earth client is available in three differentversions, all available from http://earth.google.com. The stan-dard Google Earth is free and runs on both the Mac andPC platforms. Google Earth Plus costs $20, runs on a PC,and allows the user to add global positioning system (GPS)coordinates to the 3D map. Garmin and Magellan GPScoordinates can be directly input via a cable, while outputfrom other GPS receivers can be used if the data are savedvia a .gpx or .loc file. Spreadsheets of 100 points (using the

28

Use of Virtual Globes

Plus version) or 2,500 points (using the Pro version) also canbe imported and mapped. These spreadsheet locations canbe street addresses or latitude and longitude coordinates.

Google Earth Pro costs $400, runs only on a PC, isfaster, streams the highest resolution satellite images, allowsfor higher-resolution prints, and allows the user to addmany types of data, including georeferenced data layerstraditionally only viewable through GIS software. Proallows the user to purchase modules to make movies,print larger images, import GIS data, and add dataon shopping centers and vehicle counts. These are thekinds of data that are typically either unavailable or elsedifficult for the educator to obtain, yet are the types ofdata that can excite students to learn more about theEarth. The Google Earth FAQ (frequently asked questions)page provides details on minimum system requirements:Iittp://earth.google.coiii/faq.h tiiil.

User-acquired images can be added manually to thefree version of Google Earth, but the Pro version makesoverlaying much easier. This is because the Pro version canread the coordinates from image headers (or embedded in-formation such as in GeoTIFF images). Google's acquisitionof SketchUp allows three-dimensional building models tobe created and placed on the virtual 3D landscape.

One of the most exciting developments in 2006 was theannouncement that, through the Keyhole-Google Educa-tion Initiative, a faculty member or school administratorcan obtain a free license of Google Earth Pro for one year.Dennis Reinhardt is the point of contact for this agreement,and can be reached at den@google.com.

Mashups and the Keyhole Community: Keyhole MarkupLanguage, Mashups, and Mapping Hacks

When Google bought Keyhole in 2004, Google acquiredthe Keyhole Markup Language (KML). KML is an eXtensi-ble Markup Language (XML) grammar and file format formodeling and storing geographic features such as points,lines, images (raster data), and polygons for display inGoogle Earth. KML files, and a compressed version called.kmz, provide the locations that the creator wants the userto go to, the data, the scale, and other characteristics ofthe user-data interactive experience. Because KML is opensource, it has been used to create Google Earth and GoogleMaps "mashups" that combine the capabilities of GoogleEarth (or maps) with other applications.

The open-source nature of Google Earth has ledto thousands of "map mashups," which are Internetapplications that combine the content from more thanone source, one of which is usually a Web-based mappingapplication. These include everything from crime locationsto determining the precise location of the other side of theEarth from any given spot.

It has been said that Google Earth "... is an amazingarray of both satellite imagery with the potential forcustomizable mashups that are seemingly endless in itsapplications... " (Dragan 2005). Google Earth is makingpeople aware of the power of mapping and is spawning

legions of developers who are tagging data with locationinformation for online posting. At first this was being donemostly by amateurs who create services simply becausethey are useful. As Jeremy Crampton (2006), professor atGeorgia State University, notes "Not all mashups use maps,but it's surprising how many do."

Map hacking is another development, in large part due tothe influence of Google. Map hacking is not used here in thenegative sense, but rather refers to adapting and developingmapping software for one's own purposes. According toCrampton (2006), ". . by early 2006, there were alreadymore than 250,000 members of the Google Earth bulletinboard, with more than 4,500 joining every day. This numberdoes not even represent the total number of users, butrather, people who take the time to register."

Data Quality: Metadata StandardsFundamental to the effective use of data is to know its

source, date, and accuracy, and provide necessary back-ground on its usefulness and origination. When applied tospatial data, these characteristics are referred to as metadata(commonly referred to as "data about data"). In the earlydays of GIS, there were so few sources of spatial data,such as USGS-NASA Landsat, and TIGER (TopologicallyIntegrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing) filesfrom the U.S. Census Bureau, that there was little needfor metadata. Today, metadata is an integral part of ourdaily activities. It is so important that we make a pointof creating and updating our metadata on an almost dailybasis. Many of us may think that we are creating newsources of data, but in fact, each source of data automat-ically creates and demands associated metadata. Evenoutside of GIS, the myriad of spreadsheets, documents, di-agrams, and reports are immediately in need of supportingmetadata-everything that is necessary to locate, identify,understand, source, and access our new creation after it iscompleted.

With all of the capabilities of virtual globes, the downsideis that this mammoth grassroots effort of creating virtual-globe compatible maps yields much duplication, as wellas much undocumented content; that is, a lack of metadata.For example, numerous crime applications now exist withinGoogle maps, but they seem to be drawing from differentsources, with much missing data in terms of space and time,and no comprehensive site where an educator would knowthat he or she is examining all of the crime for a certaincity over a certain period of time. This makes it difficult todetermine not only the true crime rate but also to comparecrime between cities.

Having access to metadata is crucial to the understandingof the lineage of data and potential weaknesses and/orlimitations in data collection and application. Completeand accurate metadata will only remain that way if it isalways accurate. Without metadata it is nearly impossible tounderstand whether data is of any value-or, more simply,to distinguish "good" data from "junk" data. Allowingstudents to use data in an educational setting that has

29

Richard B. Schultz, Joseph J. Kerski, and Todd C. Patterson

errors or other limitations could negatively impact learningby creating negative attitudes about spatial data. Func-tional metadata for educators need not necessarily meetthe Federal Geographic Data Committee's full metadatastandards to be useful in the classroom, however. Thereare several key components to metadata that provide theeducator sufficient information about the quality of datato understand whether the data sets are useful to meetthe intended goals and objectives and not compromise thestudent's interest and learning experience. These include:

Identification. Basic information description about thedataset, including geographic location, source of the data(such as data collector), time period of data collection, andany specific parameters for acquiring and/or using the data.

Spatial Reference Information. Such detail is not typicallyanticipated or expected with data sets utilized as part ofvirtual globe software, but the description of map projectionor coordinate system details can be helpful if visual errorsare detected by the user. Rather than dismiss the data asinvaluable or inaccurate, flaws in spatial data conversion orprojection can be insightful and reinforce projection systemsto students. In fact, data sets with known spatial errors canbe used as a challenge to understand and explain why errorsin the data are visually identifiable.

Data Details. Attribute details within a GIS are criticalto identify and understand tabular data retained in thesystem and how such data can be used to manipulate andmanage maps. Definition of field names and a descriptionof attributes and their values is helpful to understandunderlying data. With currently limited capabilities ofvirtual globes to use attribute details this area of metadatais relatively less applicable, but as virtual globe capabilitiesare enhanced and the virtual globe software becomes closerto a true GIS, information about entities and attributes willbe extremely important. Spatial data organization also canbe an important component of data details such as under-standing the types and number of spatial objects to helpensure data set integrity and completeness. Understandingoriginal basemap representation, such as raster or vector,can also be insightful regarding potential data conversionerrors and data utilization problems.

Distribution Information. Details about data set availabilitycan be useful to help ensure compliance with copyrightlaws, any limitations on using the data set imposedby the author/originator/owner (such as restrictions onredistribution), and any potential fees associated with usingand/or circulating the data set.

Data Quality. Perhaps most important of all metadatacomponents is the availability of an assessment of thequality of the data set. Such details can include positional (x,y, z) accuracy and details regarding precision of collection,completeness (including geographic and/or categoricalomissions), integrity, original sources of information, and

data collection methods (including sufficient details tounderstand the origination and manipulation through thedata lifecycle).

Metadata Creation. An often overlooked component ofmetadata is having some idea when and how metadatathemselves were created. Metadata created and maintainedduring the data collection process are more valuable thanmetadata assembled months after a data set has beencollected, reviewed, and published.

Using data just because it is available can pose moredifficulties and raise more questions-or inhibit certainquestions from being asked-than the data may be worth.It is important to have some idea about the quality of thesource and the intended application of any data used in anycontext, and the educational setting is certainly no different.

Applying Virtual Globes in the ClassroomFrom our vantage point as educators, virtual globes

are still primarily visualization tools, but probably themost powerful and useful visualization tools ever created.However, they are rapidly becoming powerful tools forimporting numerous formats of spatial data to allow usersto visualize spatial relationships that may be present. Whilelacking the functionality of GIS, virtual globes provide anexcellent first step into geotechnologies. The use of virtualglobes could naturally and easily lead students to begin ask-ing the questions that only a GIS can help them find answersto, such as "how many earthquakes have occurred in thelast month that are within 100 kilometers of this landformthat I am currently examining?" Virtual globe software inthe hands of a skilled teacher can bring geographic inquiryto life-asking geographic questions, acquiring geographicresources, exploring geographic data, analyzing geographicinformation, and acting on geographic knowledge. Thisengagement with the geographic inquiry process couldalso prepare students to more effectively use more robustgeotechnologies such as GIS, remote sensing, and GPS.Visualizing spatial scales, patterns, and themes in virtualglobes meshes with the National Academy of Sciences' callto think spatially. In Learning to Think Spatially, the Academysuggests that people draw upon strategies that emphasizethe use of spatial thinking to carry out projects. Users ofthe virtual globes set ideas into spatial contexts, seeingsimilar things as being close together and dissimilar thingsas far apart. They draw diagrams and graphs. They look forpatterns and note outliers (anomalies) from the patterns.They look for clusters. They even use statistical analysesto test for spatial relationships. They look for relationshipsamong different spatial patterns. They disentangle changeover space from change over time. In each case, there isinterplay between thinking and acting, between ideas andtheir representation, between expression for one's self andcommunication and dissemination to others. The educa-tional challenge is to teach students strategies for spatialthinking; to teach how, where, and when to use them; and to

30

Use of Virtual Globes

convey a critical awareness of the strengths and limitationsof each strategy (National Academy of Sciences 2006).

Virtual globe software can be effectively used instandards-based geography teaching. Virtual globe soft-ware and data teach students how to use maps and geo-graphic representations, tools, and technologies (Standard1), how to analyze the spatial organization of environmentson the Earth's surface (Standard 2), and how to interpret thepresent (Standard 18). For example, biomes and ecoregions(Standard 8) are easily seen in virtual globes from thevegetation characteristics that are evident in the satellite im-agery. The physical and human characteristics of places canbe explored (Standard 4), and if used together with groundphotographs and text about the places, the processes thatshaped the evident patterns can be understood (Standard7). These tools make it clear that human populationshave deeply impacted the Earth's surface (Standard 14)and are not distributed evenly across the Earth's surface(Standard 9). The 3D capabilities drive home the pointthat topography is an enormous influence on settlement aswell as on agriculture and riverine systems (Standard 12).Virtual globes can be used to investigate almost anythingand enhance lessons about urban sprawl along interstatehighways, the folds of an anticline, or the forms of a river

delta. They can be used to investigate a site that students aretraveling to on a field trip, the location of a news story, or theroute of a historic or present-day explorer. The pyramids ofGiza, Mount Everest, and other real places can be examinedwith stunning detail.

Increasingly, spatial data is being served on the Web informats that virtual globes can easily read. One exampleis examining the patterns of earthquakes by using USGSnear-real-time earthquake data on http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqswzv/catalogs/ (Standard 7) (Fig. 1). An-other example is examining USGS near-real-time streamgage information on http://zvater.usgs.gov/Zvaterwatch/lkil.html, which can help students understand the response ofrivers to rainfall, snowmelt, and drought (Standard 7).

Virtual globes can also be used to compare historicalspaces and places to their present-day manifestations (Fig.2) (Standards 17 and 18), such as through the Atlas of Vic-torian London on http://www.victorianlondon.org/googleearth.htm. Much more than maps, these resources often includelinks to historical texts and photographs (Figs. 3 and 4).

How to Get StartedThe geography educator could start by installing Google

Earth, NASA World Wind, and/or ArcGIS Explorer andallowing students to begin exploringthe world. Each has its advantages.Google Earth's chief advantage maybe its speed and high resolution satel-lite imagery. NASA World Wind'schief advantage may be its inclusionof USGS topographic maps and near-real-time cloud cover and data fromother satellilte sensors. ArcGIS Ex-plorer's advantage may be the abil-ity to use many types of globes forits base maps, including historicalmaps, and also its ability to ingestspatial data directly from a desktopGIS. Downloading virtual globe files

* such as KML and KMZ for GoogleEarth and NMF files for ArcGIS Ex-plorer that others have written, load-ing them into the virtual globe, andhaving students explore them wouldbe appropriate once the student isfamiliar with the application and basedata delivered with any of the virtualglobe packages. It should be notedthat educators should exercise somelevel of caution regarding the quality,accuracy, and validity of such dataas noted above in the comments re-garding metadata. After investigat-

vith near-real-time ing the syntax of the source KMLth. (Source: Google and NMF files, some may want to

start creating their own KMLs andNMFs. Students could then use the

31

Figure 1. A portion of the San Andreas Fault in Californiaearthquake data as recorded by the USGS, viewed in Google EarEarth.)

Richard B. Schultz, Joseph J. Kerski, and Todd C. Patterson

Figure 2. Marble Arch as seen from Google Earth with QuickBirfrom DigitalGlobe, Inc. (Source: Google Earth.)

instructor's generated files to go on a structured explorationof exactly what the instructor wanted them to examine,rather than just a random browse across the planet.

One interesting idea concerning the use of Google Earthis a tutorial on how to use it effectively in the classroom.From Quentin D'Souza's Teaching Hacks blog, GoogleEarth 101 has emerged. This introductory course takeseducators through the basics of using Google Earth's FreeVersion and looks at classroom integration ideas fromK-12. There are hours of online videos for educators tofamiliarize themselves with the application, as well asdifferent opportunities for educators to collaborate throughtopic-specific wikis, discussions, and potential synchronouschats. Feeds from topic-specific blogs, a large directory ofGoogle Earth files and curriculum ideas, and resource wikisare just a few of the resources that can be found in thiscourse. What makes this course different from other onlinecourses is the ability to modify the course content andchange the direction of the course through the use of topicalwikis, discussions, and synchronous chats. Register for freeat http://vwww.teachinghacks.com/r°oodlellogin/signup.php andenroll in the course. One will need the enrollment key:googleearthl0l.

Virtual globe software and their applications are chang-ing so rapidly that some of the information in this articlemay have changed by the time it is published. One excellentway to find out more about Google Earth and exploreapplications is to visit the Google Earth blog, at http://www.

32

gearthblog.com. Next, access the gro-. wing library of Google Earth-basedlessons at gelessons-com, or ArcGIS

_Explorer globes at http://www.esri.com/arcgisexplorer and NASA dataonhttp://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/.

As with any technology, however,the benefits of virtual globe tools

- are multiplied hundredfold in thehands of a teacher who can usethe tool for inquiry-driven, active,problem-based, exploratory learning.Otherwise, students will likely berandomly flying around the Earth,

-" <" ý learning about the location of places- -. to be sure, but not engaging in the

"whys of where" that form the core ofgeographic inquiry. A chief challengein using these tools is the high levelof interest that they create, and usingthat interest to nudge the student into

•9 thinking spatially about the Earth, its@ Q B Pj processes, and its issues.

S

SPATIAL CONCEPTS AND THE

rd satellite imagery GEOGRAPHY STANDARDSThe infusion of the geography stan-

dards with the use of virtual globesoftware can help to increase geo-graphic awareness and spatial think-

ing. The standards are built around three primary com-ponents: subject matter, by virtue of the eighteen contentstandards; skills, by virtue of five skill sets; and perspec-tives, in the form of the spatial and ecological perspectives,and the historical and economic supporting perspectives.Further, "geographic skills provide the necessary tools andtechniques for students to think geographically" (NationalAcademy of Sciences 2006).

Virtual globes can help students understand the worldin virtual terms, and directly address the first threecontent standards (how to use maps and other geographicrepresentations, tools, and technologies to acquire, process,and report information from a spatial perspective; how touse mental maps to organize information about people,places, and environments in a spatial context; and howto analyze the spatial organization of people, places, andenvironments on the Earth's surface) (National Academy ofSciences 2006). The interactive nature of virtual globes canfacilitate learning through an enjoyable and individually-oriented session that allows students to explore the worldand engage in research tailored to suit their individualinterests.

The set of skills helps student to make an explicit linkamong three elements; virtual globes can help to reinforceand strengthen students' abilities to conduct scientificinquiry, engage in problem solving, and think spatially.Virtual globes can further facilitate learning through the

Use of Virtual Globes

Figure 3. Historical map of Hyde Park with Marble Arch from the VictoriaLondon activity. (Source: Reynolds Shilling Coloured Map of London, 1895.)

/

N

41

five skills sets (asking geographic questions;acquiring geographic information; organiz-ing geographic information; analyzing ge-

Sographic information; and answering geo-graphic questions) (National Academy ofSciences 2006).

Thus, virtual globes can help students, meet the geographic standards in a more. engaging manner. Virtual globes can help

students meet expectations, as describedin Learning to Think Spatially (NationalAcademy of Sciences 2006), to have theability at the end of the fourth grade toprepare maps and display basic geographic

ý information, locate places and identify rela-I tionships between and among places, use

basic measuring, and engage in spatialthinking, including analyzing the Earth'ssurface in terms of its spatial elements of

.i points, lines, areas, and volumes. Havingstudents more geographically literate ear-lier in life helps students understand thearrangement of objects in space, identify

d interrelationships among people and place,and apply geographic and spatial skills.

• As described in Learning to Think Spatially,"The geography standards demonstrate the

2 possibility and power of infusing spatialthinking into a discipline. They also showthe need for a coordinated approach to spa-

n tial thinking standards across the curricu-lum" (National Academy of Sciences 2006).Perhaps virtual globe software, if learnedby educators and successfully presented tostudents in an active setting, can fulfill thecharge of the committee as they develop anunderstanding of the following questions:

1. What are the nature and characterof spatial thinking?

2. How does the capacity for spatialthinking develop and how mightit be fostered systematically byeducation and training?

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Validity of Virtual Globes as TeachingTools

Geography is an integrating disciplinethat helps students understand, participatein, and make informed decisions about theworld around them. Some hardware andsoftware costs, complexity of GIS tools,lack of GIS-based lessons, and other tech-nological factors have slowed widespreadadoption of GIS in the classroom. However,

33

Figure 4. Historical photograph of Marble Arch from the Victorian Londonactivity. (Source: Dictionary of Victorian London.)

Richard B. Schultz, Joseph 1. Kerski, and Todd C. Patterson

the larger constraint has been an educational system thatdoes not value spatial thinking and geography education,and the curricular fit of interdisciplinary spatial thinking.This issue is the same one that constrains the use ofvirtual globe tools. Yet virtual globes are an exciting andpowerful mechanism to reinforce the connection peoplehave with space and place and remove obstacles of classicGIS implementations in the classroom. The decrease incosts of hardware and software, better data availability,user-friendly graphical user interfaces, and the prolif-eration of the Internet that has significantly enhancedour interconnectedness across societies, have convergedto allow geospatial information to be a driving force ineducational enablement. The emergence of virtual globesoftware could be one of the most important visual-ization tools of our lifetimes. Will we, as geographers,champion its use as a powerful exploratory learning toolthat supports numerous educational standards, enablingstudents to use spatial thinking skills in a practicalmanner?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSRBS wishes to thank Ken Foote, Gail Hobbs, Cary

Komoto, and countless others who have inspired meto become a better educator through their abilities ofseeing the world from unique perspectives. Without theirencouragement, this effort would not be possible. J. J. K.wishes to thank the thousands of educators at all levels,formal and informal, whom I have worked with over thepast fifteen years. You are making a positive difference inour world and have inspired me to seek to do the same.T. C. P. wishes to thank the coauthors and David Cowenand Jerry Mitchell, who inspired me to consider the appli-cation of Google Earth and virtual globes as educationaltools.

REFERENCESCrampton, J. 2006. Critical GIS: Map hacks, mashups

and the geo-Web challenge GIS. GeoWorld (January).http://www.geoplace.com/uploads/featurearticle/0601cgis.asp (accessed October 18, 2007).

Dragan, R. V. 2005. MSN Virtual Earth 1.0. PC Magazine(July). FindArticles.com. http://www.findarticles.com /p /articles/ mi-zdpcm /is _200507/aiLn14801549(accessed September 2006).

Eliot, J. 1987. Models of Psychological Space. New York:Springer-Verlag.

Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory of MultipleIntelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Golledge, R. G., and R. J. Stimson. 1997. Spatial Behavior: AGeographic Perspective. New York: Guilford Press.

Gould, P. R., and R. White. 1974. Mental Maps. New York:Penguin Books.

Kerski, J. 2008. The world at the student's fingertips:Internet-based GIS education opportunities. In DigitalGeography, eds. A. Milson and M. Alibrandi, pp. 119-134. Charlotte, North Carolina: Information AgePublishing.

Kitchin, R. M. 1994. Cognitive maps: What are they and whystudy them? Journal of Environmental Psychology 14(1):1-19.

Kitchin, R. M., and S. Freundschuh, eds. 2000. Cogni-tive Mapping: Past, Present, and Future. London andNew York: Routledge.

National Academy of Sciences. 2006. Learning to ThinkSpatially-GIS Across the K-12 Curriculum. Washington,D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.

Newcombe, N., and J. Huttenlocher. 2000. Making Space:The Development of Spatial Representation and Reasoning.Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.

Portugali, J., ed. 1996. The Construction of CognitiveMaps. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer AcademicPublishers.

Tversky, B. 2000a. Levels and structure of cognitive map-ping. In Cognitive Mapping: Past, Present and Future, eds.R. Kitchin and S. M. Freundschuh, pp. 24-43. London:Routledge.

_- . 2000b. Remembering space. In Handbook of Memory,eds. E. Tulving and F. I. M. Craik, pp. 363-378.New York: Oxford University Press.

34

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

TITLE: The Use of Virtual Globes as a Spatial Teaching Toolwith Suggestions for Metadata Standards

SOURCE: J Geogr 107 no1 Ja/F 2008

The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and itis reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article inviolation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher:http://www.ncge.org/index.html