THE USE OF PLANTS IN MEDICINE AND WORSHIP › wp... · Robert Brandt 22 Oct 2015 THE USE OF PLANTS...

RobertBrandt 22Oct2015THEUSEOFPLANTSINMEDICINEANDWORSHIP

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FRIENDSOFCOLDINGHAMPRIORY

COLDINGHAMCOMMUNITYGARDEN

THEUSEOFPLANTSINMEDICINEANDWORSHIP

CONTENTS:MEDICINALPLANTSINTHEPLANTKINGDOMHERBALISTSANDOLDHERBSMEDICINEMAGICANDMYTHTHEMONASTICTRADITIONTREATMENTOFLEPROSYINTHEMIDDLEAGESNOTESOFFRUITTREETYPESNOTESONTREESANDSHRUBSNOTESONORCHARDWILDFLOWERAREAREFERENCES:FloraBritannica.RichardMabey.Chatto&WindusLondon1997HealingPlants.LubomirOpletal&JanVolak.AventinumPublishingHousePragueCzechRepublic1999TheUltimateBookofHerbs.NationalInstituteofMedicalHerbalists.ReadersDigest.London2009ChilternSeedsCatalogue2006.UlverstonCumbriaPottersNewCyclopediaofBotanicalDrugsandPreparations4thImp.1971.Potter&ClarkeLtd.HealthSciencePress,Sussex.GodsAcre.TheFlowersandAnimalsoftheParishChurchyard.FrancescaGreenoak.W.I.BooksLtdLondon1985TheScotsHerbal.ThePlantLoreofScotland.TessDarwinMercatPressEdinburgh.2000.TheMedievalGarden.SylviaLandsberg.BritishMuseumPress.


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MEDICINALPLANTSINTHEPLANTKINGDOMWithintheplantKingdom(estimatedtobeabout1millionspecies)andamongstvascularplants(somehalfmillionspeciesofplantswithConductingTissue)medicinalplantsandherbscomprisearemarkablegroupsometimesreferredtoasutilityplants(around30,000–50,000species).Therearefewerspecies(upto5,000)amongthelowerplantsandfungi.Oldherbalsincludeabout6,000speciesofmedicinalplants,butinEurope,popularalternativemedicinemakesuseofabout1,000species.Pharmacopoeiasofvariouscountriesaroundtheworldincludeabout500herbspeciesandabout120speciesareofficiallycultivatedinEuropeinmodernmedicinalpractice.Thenumberoftheseincreaseseveryyearwithmoreresearchandbetterunderstandingofactivemedicinalingredients.Themedicinalpropertiesofplantshavebeenknowntopeoplessinceancienttimes.Earlyhumanssufferedmuchfromdiseasesdespitebeingmorecloselyassociatedwithfoodplantsthanwearetoday.Fromthevarietyofplantsavailabletheydiscoveredindividualmedicinalandtoxicpropertiesandbegantoexperimentwiththeiruse.Earlyknowledgewaspassedonbyoraltraditionandlaterbywrittenrecordandpeoplesoughtreliefandhelpfromearlyhealersandmagicians.Asknowledgeofmedicinalplantsgrew,methodsofextractionofmedicinesimproved,andsotherelieftothoseafflicted.Today’sPharmaceuticalindustriesdependontheseprimarysourcesofbiochemistry(thestudyofthecomponentsofplants)pharmacologyandtoxicology(thestudyofthebiologicaleffects,toxicityandtherapeuticpotential)and,mostimportantlyphytotherapy,thepracticaluseofplantproductsasmedicinalpreparations.Theearliestrecordsoftherapeuticuseofmedicinalplantsdatebackto4000BCfromCivilisationsinAsia,NorthAfrica,CentralandSouthAmericaandtheFarEast.ThefirstherbalwasmadeinChinainabout2700BCandphysicianswereactiveinancientEgypt,Greece,RomeandItaly.InEurope,ChristianmonasteriesgrewmedicinalplantsandcommunitiesofmonksinthelargerreligioushouseswererenownedfortheirknowledgebythetimeoftheMiddleAges.Informationwasrecordedincelebratedherbals.Withnewtechnologiesandisolationproceduresmedicinalplantsarenowusedmuchmoreefficiently,especiallyintheextractionofactiveingredientsintheirpureform.Sometherapeuticsubstancesstillcannotbeproducedchemicallyortheirchemicalsynthesisismuchmoreexpensivethanisolatingthemfromplants.


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HERBALISTSANDOLDHERBS1. ANCIENTHERBALISTSANDELIZABETHANAUTHORS

• TheophrastosEresios(370–285BC,successortoAristotleattheSchoolofAthensc.322BC)TheearliestknownEuropeanauthorofbotany,writingc.314BC.PrintedinEuropeasearlyas1483,translatedintoseverallanguages.

• Hippocrates,thefatherofWesternmedicine,listed400usefulspeciesofculinaryandmedicaluse.

• Pliny(23–79AD)authorofNaturalisHistoriaLibriXXXVII,translatedintoFrench.KilledwhilstobservingthecatastrophiceruptionofVesuvius.

• Discorides(writingsc.77-78AD,ofCicilia,AsiaMinor)HisMateriaMedicaisthemostvaluablesourceofbotanyoftheancientherbalistsdescribingsome600species.ThisworkwaspainstakinglycopiedandspreadthroughoutChristendomremainingindailyusefor1,500years

• Galen(131–200AD)ImperialPhysician,Rome.AuthorofseveraldistinguishedmedicalbooksheldinhighreputationdowntotheMiddleAges.

• Parcelus.MadepopulartheDoctrineofSignaturesinearly1600’s–thebeliefthatthecolourorshapeofaplant(oritsparts)indicateditsuseinthecureofalimentsandrelationshiptothecomplaint.

• Culpeper.DevelopedthebeliefthatheavenlybodieshadaninfluenceonplantssetoutinTheCompleteHerbal&TheJudgementofDiseases.HisbestknownworksareTheCompleteHerbalandEnglishPhysician.HelivedandworkedinLondon.d.1654

• JohnGerard(1545–1611,ofLondon)isbestknownforhisTheHerballorGeneralHistorieofPlants,firstpublishedin1597andinits2ndEditionbyThomasJohnsonin1636

• JohnParkinson(1567–1629)wasaKing’sHerbalistandadirectoroftheRoyalGardensatHamptonCourt.KnownforParadisusTerrestis(1629)andTheatrumBotanicum(1640).

N.B.thelanguageofElizabethanherbalistsisremarkable,amountingtopoeticprose,ofmuchhistoricalinterest.TheancientGreekandRomanherbalistsarefrequentlyquotedwithtranslationofGreekandLatininElizabethanEnglishofdelightfulreading.2. SOMELATERAUTHORS

• JosephMiller-BotanicumOfficinale(CompendiousHerbal)1722.• JohnHillM.D.–AGeneralNaturalHistory(AnimalsVegetableandMinerals)1751,

andBritishHerbal(HistoryofPlantsandTreesnativetoBritainCultivatedforuseorraisedforBeauty(1756).


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• WilliamSalmonM.D.–TheEnglishHerbalorHistoryofPlants(1710)• BenjaminBartonF.L.S.&ThomasCastleM.D.,F.L.S.–TheMedicinalPlantsofGreat

Britain(2Vols)(1845).MEDICINEMAGICANDMYTH1.0 EARLYCHRISTIANTIMES1.1 SincetheearlyancientGreekandEgyptians,extensiveknowledgeofthehealingand

protectivepropertiesofplants,bothmedicinalandmagic,accumulated.Howwidespreadthisknowledgewasisdifficulttodetermine,andtowhatextentitwasheldinthehandsofapowerfuleducatedelitesuchasthemagiciansandphilosophersdescribedbyPliny.TheRomansbroughttoBritainarelativelyhighlydevelopedknowledgeofmedicineandhygiene,andtheirextensivepharmacopoeiaincludednativeplantsthatwereprobablycollectedlocally.Bytheendoftheempire,RomanknowledgeandinfluenceshadspreadthroughoutFranceandGermanytotheextentthatNorthernEuropehadbecomethecentreofknowledge.

1.2 INEUROPE

TheFrenchKingCharlemagne,inhis‘CapitularedeVillis’,writteninabout800,stipulatedtheplantsandestatestyle,whichshouldbeestablishedthroughouthisempire.Thisinitiallygaveanagriculturalandhorticulturalunity,temperedbyclimate,toestatesandmonasteriesthroughoutmuchofthelandtodaynowcoveredbyFrance,Germany,Switzerland,TheLowCountries,NorthernItalyandAustria.MajorinfluenceshadalsooriginatedintheNearEastfromtheC7thArabinvasionofPersia.TheArabsabsorbedratherthandestroyedmuchofthiscivilisationandbroughtmanyinfluencesofittoEuropebytherouteofinvasionthroughsouthernSpain.TheytranslatedGreekandotherpharmaceuticaltextsintoArabicandLatinsothatEuropeanmedicalpractitionersoftheperiod,traininginthenewmedicalschools,wereintroducedtonotonlylonglistsofmedicalplantsbutalsothedisseminationofknowledgeandideasspreadbyscholarstravellingbetweenmedicalschools,botanicgardensandmonasteries.

1.3 INBRITAIN.

InBritain,betweenthecollapseofRomanpowerintheC5thandtheemergenceoftheUniversitiesinthemidC12th,Monasteriesweretheonlycentresofhighereducationandlearning,centreswherethelearningofClassicalantiquitywaskeptalive.Before1150literatureandscholarshipweredominatedbytheworkofBenedictinemonks.Thesescholar-monksspecialisedinthewritingofhistory,Bede


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ofJarrowbeingoneofthethreegreatesthistoriansoftheMiddleAges.Themonasticlibraries,inadditiontoreligioustexts,wouldhaveincludedbooksonmusic,history,proseandpoetryofancientRome.KnowledgeofGreekwasunusual,butmonkswouldreadLatinauthorssuchasHorace,VirgilandOvid.

TheascendencyofChristianityoverPaganismtookplaceoverseveralcenturieswithmarkedgeographicalandregionaldifferences.InsomepartsofBritainChristianitybecamethedominantreligioninjustonegeneration,whilstinremoterNorthernScotlandoldbeliefssurviveduntiltheendoftheC7th.Theearliesthospitalswereattachedtothenewmonasticfoundationsasrefugesforoldanddisabledpeopleandfortravellingpilgrims,ratherthanplacestotreatthesick.Eachmonasteryhadaninfirmarywheretreatmentwasavailablewithherbalremediesmadefromplantscultivatedinthephysicgarden.Therewasastrongtraditionofmedicalknowledgeandplantloreinmanymonasteries,andmanyAbbotshadstudiedmedicineatfamousmedicalschoolsinFranceandItaly.Monasticdoctorscouldmakelargesumsofmoneyfortheirfoundationsfromfees,inspiteofsuchmercenarybehaviourbeingnotencouragedbyChurchCouncils.InthelaterMiddleAgesasthepowerofthemonasteriesdeclined,theinfluenceofmonksinmedicalpracticebecamelesscommonandleadingdoctorstendedtobeuniversitytrainedlaymen.ThehealingpropertiesofplantswerefrequentlyassociatedwithparticularSaints,beliefsthatsurvivedtotheendoftheC19th.Inspiteofruthlesssuppression,beliefsinoldPaganmagicpersistedandsurvivedinmanyinstances,sometimesabsorbedandadoptedwithnewinterpretationsintomainstreamChristianworshipandbelief.TwoparalleltraditionswereactiveintheDarkAges.Ontheonehandweremonasticandmedievaluniversitytrainedphysicians(allmale),mainlytownandcitybasedservingthosemembersofthepopulationofwealthandmeans.Ontheotherwasself-treatmentandthefolk-lorehealers(mostlyfemale)oftheordinaryandpoorerpeopleofruralareas,oftenusingthesameplantremedies,withgreatdistrustofeachother.Religiouspersecutionandwitchhunting,leadtopersecutionanddeathofthousandsoffolkhealers,andsuppressionofthestatusofherbalmedicine.Itwasnotuntil,inScotland,theadventofBalfourandSibbaldintheC17th,bothEdinburghtrainedmedicaldoctorswitheducationinsomeofEurope’sfinestuniversities,thatinterestinplantsforhealingwasrevived.In1670theyestablishedaPhysicgardennearHolyrood,whichultimatelygrewovertwothousandplants.ThisbecametheforerunnerofEdinburgh’sRoyalBotanicGarden,usedbygenerationsofScottishmedicalstudentstolearnbotanyandherbalmedicineuntilwellintotheC20th.


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THEMONASTICTRADITION1.0 THEARRANGEMENTOFGARDENS

WithinmonasteriesofthemajorreligiousordersinBritainthereweregardensforprivacy,studyandcontemplation,forrecreationandrefreshment,fortheproductionoffood,medicinesandornamentationandasaburialplaceforthedead.Ahermit-stylemonastictraditionwasestablishedwithintwocenturiesofChristianityitselfbutitwasSt.Benedictwhoinitiatedtheself-sufficientandcorporatemonasticstyleoflifebasedonhisrulewhichwasperfectedduringtheC7th.Emphasiswasonwarmhospitalityfortravellersatalllevelsofsocietyandrespectforthesick.Thisshapedtheelementsofthemonasticgarden:theInfirmaryandtheorchardcemetery,theGuesthouseandtheCellarer’sgardentofeedtheresidentsandthevisitors.Thecontributionofmonasteriestohorticulturewasenormousindevelopinganunderstandingoftechniquessuchassoilimprovement,landreclamationanddrainage.Coldingham’sBenedictinesettlementwastiedtoitsDurhammotherhouseandalthoughoneofthesmallermonasticfoundations,itwasattheforefrontoffarm,water,woodlandandestatemanagementwithaneducatedandprogressiveregime,probablysome100yearsaheadofitsneighbours(seeauthorsaccountoftheHistoryoftheColMill)

1.1 THEINFIRMARYGARDEN

TheInfirmarerwasbasicallyasanatoriumadministrator,employinggardeners,directingaphysician(inColdingham’scasefromthemotherhouseDurham)andadministeringapothecaryprescriptionsinadditiontohisownpalliativeremedies.Apartfromthecareofpatients,theinfirmarywasaresthomeforretiredmonkswithincurablediseasesinoldageandaplaceofconvalescenceformonkswhowerebledaboutsixtimesayeartorelievethestressoftedium.Thegardenwouldthereforeneedtogrowthemedicinalplantsneededforordinarymedicineandforthetreatmentofpatients,inextremis,whomightrequirenarcoticsinadditiontoprayer.Fortheregularintakeofmonkstobebled,ingredientswererequiredforpost-bloodlettingdrinks(Saltwater,ParsleyandSage)andpoulticestosuppressinflammation(amixtureofgroundsel,leeks,chickweed,mint,mugwort,monkspatienceandparsley).Mostimportantly,thegardenhadtoprovidenourishingfood,refreshmentofthesensesinpleasantsurroundingsandaplacetoexercise,andspacepermitting,aherbarium.TocaterforthecolonyoflepersatNorthfield(seeNOTE),atasafedistanceawayfromthePrioryboundaryatApplinCross,weknowoftheadditionalresponsibilityofDavid,KeeperofLepers,andtheburdenonthefoundationofadministeringtovictimsofplague.


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NOTE: IlookedupsomeofmyoldreferencestocastmorelightontheNorthfieldLeperColony.Itseemsitsexactsiteisnotknownnow.FromrepeatedinferencesverylikelyitwasbeyondNorthfieldsCowLoan(amedievalname)tothenorthoreastoftheso-call'RomanCamp';possiblyonpartoftheshelteredplateaubehindBellHill,wheretherewasawatersource.FromtherewouldhavebeenaclearviewoftheKirkHillofStAbbsHead,asourceofearlyspiritualhope,particularlyinthedaysoftheoratoryandpilgrimagestoSt.Ebbe'sshrine.


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1.2 THECELLARERSGARDEN

Severalacreswererequiredforsupplyingamonasterywithvegetablesandherbs.Utilitarianplantswererequiredsuchashayforlatrinesandtherefectoryfloorandrushes,mintsandmeadowsweetforstrewing.Suchagardenwasnotonlyformonksbutalsoforthenumerouslayworkerswhoneededtobefedinadditiontovisitorsandalsotoprovideforthepoor.Withinitsprecinctswouldbefruittreesplantedinorchardpasture.

1.3 THEPARADISEORCEMETERYORCHARD

Thecemeterywasanothergardenintendedtorefreshthesensesoftheliving,symbolisingParadise.TakenfromtheearlyPersians,theconceptofanorchardsettingappearsintheChristianworldasearlyastheC9th.CemeterieswereunderthecareoftheSacristwhomayhaveincorporatedfurtherplantsnecessaryforreligiousfestivals.Paradiseswerealsoprovidedforcontemplation,anopportunityofsomesmallrelieffromtheburdenandtediumofamonk’sdisciplineanddailyorderoflife.

2.0 THEMONASTICRECORDOFPLANTS2.1 TheCistercianorderleftitsmarkprimarilyonagricultureandtheAugustinians

specialisedinhealingthesick,buttheearlyorderoftheBenedictineswereskilledingardencultivation.ModernresearchhasnowprovidedearlyplantsofMonasteriesandtheirgardensespeciallyfromworkdonebyarchitecturalandgardenhistorianJohnHarvey(1981).OneoftheearliestplansisofSt.Gall,Switzerland,c816-20.ThisgiveslistsofPhysicandVegetablegardenplantsandorchardtrees.FriarDaniellists252speciesgrowinginhisLondonStepneygardeninC14thandphysicianHenrythePoetliststhetop96medicinalplantsofthetime.TheGardenerlistof1350givesacompilationfromavarietyofsourcesincludingnativemedicinalherbs,culinaryplants,aestheticallyappealingplants,hedgingandwoodlandtreesandshrubsandorchardandnuttrees,gleanedfrommedievalgardensandcountrycustoms.ThemostcompleteandcelebratedFromondList,compiledabout1525probablyforaroyalhousehold,givesarecordfortheendoftheMiddleAges.

2.2 OfBritishmedievalmonasticmedicine,theearliestknownherbalistheSaxon

LeechBookofBaldwrittenearlyintheC10th.BytheC12thlearninginScotlanddevelopedgreatlyunderQueenMargaretandKingDavid1.David1wasagreatchurchreformer,foundingMelroseAbbeyin1136(Cistercian,motherhouseat


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Rievaulx),Jedburghin1138(Augustinian)andthepromoterofthefoundationofDrybroughAbbeyin1150byHughdeMoreville(Premonstratensian).Recordsexistforatleast150medievalhospitalsattachedtoreligioushousesinScotland,andrecentarchaeologicalstudiesatJedburghandSoutrahaverevealedtheuseofmaymedicinalplantsbothnativeandimported.TheC15thorC16thGaelicmedicinalmanuscript,TheRegimen-Sanitas(RuleofHealth)includesmanyanecdotesandfolkbeliefsandquotesmanyancientmedicalauthorities.Inthebestmonastictradition,itemphasisestheimportanceofahealthylifestyle,moderationineatinganddrinkingandthetakingofplentyofexercise.

NOTE: Mostplantsinearlycultivationdonotnormallyindefinitelypersistandsurvive

domesticallyorinthewild.OflocalinterestisacolonyofArtemisiaorWormwood,ArtemisiaabsinthiumonarockoutcropatnearlyColdinghamLaw,whichcouldconceivablydatebacktomedicinalintroductionsbytheFriarsofColdinghamPrioryFrom:AshortFloraofBerwickshire2014–M.E.Braithwaite–BSBI


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3 TREATMENTOFLEPROSYINTHEMIDDLEAGES3.1 Theoutbreaksofcontagiousdiseases,leprosy,smallpoxandpestilentialfeverswere

constantandsevereallthroughtheMiddleAges,andsuffererswerenotallowedtoentertownsorcitiesorbeengagedinthesellingoffoodordrink.Thisruleappliedparticularlytoleprosy,prevalentforseveralcenturies.ThenumberofleperhospitalsinEnglandandScotlandweresaidtohaveexceeded200(inFrance,over2,000).Itislikelyotherdiseases,particularlyplagues,wereconfusedwithleprosyofwhichtherewere2strains–theprevalentLevanttype,certainlybroughtbacktoEngland(andFrance)byreturningCrusadersfromtheHolyLands,andthecoldclimatestrainendemicofNorthernEurope,particularlyGermany.ThetreatmentoflepersinEnglandunderthemonasticmedicineofhospitalrulemayhavebeenhumanetothepointofdanger:oneofthewaysofaspiringtosainthoodwastopersonallytendandadministertosufferersneeds.Thestagesofprogressionofthediseaseasitconsumedthebodywererecognised:lightersufferersandtheincurable(obviouslyamostundesirablemixing)werecongregatedinorganisedcoloniessetatasafedistanceofisolationawayfromthecharitableprovidersoffood,almsandsufferance.Theprincipleherbsusedinthetreatmentofleprosyweregarlic,burdock,reddockandgoosegrass.Garlicwassomuchusedasacurethatlepersacquiredthenameofpilgarlicsbecausetheyweremadetopeelthegarlicfortheirownconsumption.

3.2 FORLEPROSY

1 “Gettherootsofthereddock,therootsoftheelecampane,honeysuckleleaves,wildhyacinth,broomsprigs,bugle,violetheath,shieldfernandavens;poundthemwelltogetherinamortarwithunsaltedbutter,boilingthemwell,removingfromthefireandstrainingthroughnewlinen;addtheretoaportionofflourofbrimstoneandverdigris.Anointthediseasedpartfrequentlywiththeointment,andbyGod’shelpitwillcureit.”

2 “Taketheleavesfromburdock,poundthemwellwithalittlewineandstrain.Takethreespoonful’snightandmorningandnoon,andletadecoctionofburdockbeyouronlydrink.Thepartshouldbefomentedwithdecoctionalsoashotasyoucanbearandanointafterwithanunguentmadeofwine,oliveoilandhoney.Proven.”

REFERENCES


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1. Fromvarioussourcesseenbetween2009and2014inthepreparationoftheauthorsHistoricalAccountofNorthfieldBaronyandColdinghamShore(St.AbbsVillage)C18thtoC20th;bothquotedandunquoted.

2. TheMagicofHerbs;AmodernBookofSecrets.MrsC.F.Leyel,(1stEdition)JonathanCape1926.


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NOTESONFRUITTREETYPES1 Prunusavium,Geanorwildcherry.Anattractivenativetree,medium-sizedto

largewithsmallandshinyreddishpurplefruits,tastingbitterorsweetwithage.Fromthespeciesarederivedmostofthecultivatedsweetcherries.Cultivatedsinceearlytimes,fruitstalkswereboiledandusedmedicinally.

2. Malus,flowereingcrabs.Smalltomediumsizedtrees,easilygrown.Malus

sylvestrisistheCommonCrabapple,aparentoftheorchardapple,Malusdomestica.Thefruitsaresmallandsharpinflavourmostsuitableforusinginpreservesi.e.crabapplejellyandjams.Malus‘JohnDownie’issaidtobethebestfruitingcrab,brightorangeredwitharefreshingflavour.Raisedin1875,ithashowever,noculinaryhistoricaltradition.Malustschonoskii,alsointhecollection,hasyellowish-greenfruitswithreddishpurpletintswithattractiveautumnfoliagecolour.IntroducedfromJapanin1897itisusedasanexcellenturbanstreettreeforpublicplantinginconfinedspaces,again,withnohistoricculinarytradition.

3. Morusnigra,blackmulberry.AsmallverylonglivedarchitecturaltreefromW.

Asiawithdark,almostblack-redfruitsofdistinctivetaste.SaidtohavebeengrowninEnglandsincetheearlyC16th.Thefruitsmaybeeatenfreshorcookedtomakejellyandwine.Mulberryneedsawarmshelteredsite,andwallshelterincolddistricts.Therootsarebrittleandcareisneededinplanting.Thespecimenprovidedherewassuppliedrootbaggrownandclearlydeservesabettersite.TherearebothOldandandNewTestamentBiblicalreferences,inLuketothesycaminetree,ThePurpleMulberry.Italsohasmedicinalusesasanutritiveandlaxative.

4. Cydoniaoblonga.Quince.NativeofN.IranandTurkestan,thismakesand

attractivespecimentreeforlawnspreferringawarmshelteredposition.Quincehaslargesoftpinkdogrosetypeflowersandbeautifulgoldenfruit,whichcannotbeeatenraw,butisexcellentforjellyandflavouringapplepies.‘Vranja’isthemostpopularfruitingselection.Quincehaslongmedicaluseindysenteryandexternallyasasoothinglotion.Culpeperrecommendsthefruitjuiceasapreservativeagainsttheforceofdeadlypoisons.(TheCompleteHerbal1653)

5. Mesphilusgermanica,Medlar.FromS.E.EuropeandCentralAsiaofequalmeritas

mulberryasanarchitecturalspecimenfeature.RelatedtoCrataegus(Hawthorn)andlongcultivatedinEngland,naturalisedintheS.E.Midlands.Cultivarssuchas‘Nottingham’areselectedfortheirfruitsandhavefewerthornsandlargerattractiveleaves.Thefruitresemblesalargerussetrosehipandiseatenwhen


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‘bletted’.Ithasapleasantcaramelflavour,excellentwheneatenwithwine,port

andcheese.Itisnowmostlikelytobeseeninoldgardensassociatedwithcathedrals,abbeysandotherancientfoundations.Oneoftheformerquartetoftreesplantedinthecornersofherbgardensandorchardswithquince,mulberryandwalnut.

NOTESONTREESANDSHRUBS1. Rowan,MountainAsh.Atreeofmagicproperties,morepotentthatanyother

againstevilorbadluck.Itswoodwasincorporatedintonearlyeveryobjectthatmightneedprotection,particularlythehouseandbasicpossessions.Forthetraditionalcottagechimneycrossbeamforcookingisthe‘rantree’,therowanoftenused.Garlandswreathsandwandswereusedasprotectionagainstwitchcraft.Thebarkmadeapoulticeforadderbites,adecoctionofberriesforwhoopingcough.Theberriesalsomadeacider-likefermenteddrinkaswellasrowanjelly (SH)

2. Beech.NotnativetoScotland,butlongintroduced,plantedandnaturalised.The

mastwasfedtopigsanddriedandgroundasacoffeesubstitute.Youngleavescanbeusedinsaladsandmadeintowineandliqueur.Thenutsareasourceofoil,whichcanbemadeintomargarine. (FB)

3. Hazel.HazelwassacredinCeltictimestotheseagodManannan.Unnecessary

cuttingleadtodeath.Thenutswereastapleofprehistoricpeoples,anemblemofconcentratedwisdom,sweet,compactandsustainingsoughtbyDruidstogainpropheticpowers.EqualtoRowaninScottishdruidicritesoveroak.Sacredtowitches,twonutsequallyjoinedtogethercalledSt.John’snut,agoodomen,couldbethrownatwitchestorepel.Nutsusedindivinationrites.HazelisassociatedwithThor,GodofFire,asitswoodmakesfirebyfriction.Wands,sticksandrodsofferedprotectionagainstevilandwereusedindowsingforminerals,coal,metals&water.Thewoodprovidedmanyutilitarianusesfortools,baskets,hurdles,wattlesandconstructionofsmalldwellings. (SH)

4. Hawthorn.Onceconsideredsosacredthatanyuseofthetreewasconsidereda

violation.Plantedincirclesofworshipgrovesinpre-Christiantimesandongravesofimportantpeople.The“HolyInnocents’ofearlyChristianworship.Itisstillconsideredtobringillluckiftheflowersarebroughtinsideforornamentanddecoration.Thedriedberriesmakeacardiactonic (SH)(P)

5. GreaterPeriwinkle.(Vinca)NotknowninScotland,butthe‘SaintCandida’sEyes’of

Dorset.Medicinalpreparationsreducehighbloodpressureandsteminternalandexternalbleeding. (P)


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TheoriginalgardenplantlistherespecifiesBugle(Ajuga),animportantvulnerary

herbandbloodcoagulant,takeninternallyasabitterastringent. (P)6&7Dogwood(Cornus).Notknowninceremonyorworship,butinmedievaltimesthe

‘dag’wood(Notdog)hadpracticalusesasskewersformeatatthetable (FB)10 Yew.ThelegacyofDruids,plantedingraveyardsastheevergreensymbolof

immortalityandtoprotectandpurifythedead.ThefastigiateIrishYewoflaterchurchyardswasfoundinthewildinFermanaghinthe1760’s (FB)

12&18Willow¨Thegardenhastworepresentativewillows–Salixvitellina,usedfor

weaving,bindingandtying,butoflaterdate,avariantofthewhitewillow,S.albaofoldEnglishwatermeadows.Salixpentandra,baywillow,isaScotsnative,withweavinguses.Theleavesmakeatea.Thebarkandleavesofwhitewillowcanbepreparedasatonicastringentforrheumaticcomplaints,dysentery,feverandophthalmicdisturbancewithmeadowsweet(notrepresentedhere)ityieldsthe‘Salicin’ofasprin.TheSallowwillowsweresacredtreesofDruidicdivination

(SH)(P)19 HollyRepresentedbyahorticulturalvarietyinthegarden.Amagicalplanthated

bywitchesandrepellenttofairies,thereforeprotectiveagainstevilwithasympatheticmagicowingtoitspricklynature.Asanevergreen,ithadsupernaturalabilitytowithstandtheonslaughtofwinterandwasthemalepartnertofemaleivy.UsedaswreathsbytheRomansandburnttostaveoffplague.Theleavesandberrieshavefebrifugeandcatharticproperties,usedtorelievefeverandrheumatism.AssociatedwiththepaganChristianRomanFeastofSaturnaliaandadoptedintomainstreamChristianity (SH)(FB)

21 BoxAsasombreevergreen,boxhasalongassociationincountrycustomwith

gravedecorationandfunerals.Anextractisusedasabloodpurifier (FB)23 PortugallaurelNotintroducedintoBritainuntil1648andthereforeofdoubtful

statushere.Noteworthyasafirstclassnectarandpollensourceforbees.Thecommonorcherry,laurelwasintroducedin1576andhascalmativemedicinalproperties,notedinGerardin1597. (P)

24 BlackthornLongassociatedwiththedarkforcesandinritesofblackwitchesbut

withcounterbeliefsofdefensivepowersagainstevil.Ashrubwithmanypracticaluses;sloesmakesloeginandwine,theformeraremedyfordiarrhoea.Preparationsfromthebarkreducefeverandyieldred-browntoorangedye,thefruits,pinktogrey-bluepigments.Blackthornwalkingsticksareprized(SH)(FB)


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FOOTNOTE:17 Hamamelis‘Pallida’outofplacehereasanexotic(thespecieschinensisnotbefore

lateC19th).TheEasternNorthAmericanspvirginiana,longusedbynativeAmericantribes,yieldsthecommercialwitchhazelvaluablefortreatmentofpilesandhaemorrhoids. (P)

ClassicalnoteTheIlexofRomantimesisQuercusilexorHolmOak.Baylaurel,laurasnobiliswasusedaswreathstocrownpoetsandhero’s(19,22)REFERENCES(SH) TheScotsHerbal(FB)FloraBritannica(P) Potter1–24NumberedasShrubAreaPlanCPCG–2


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NOTESONORCHARDWILDFLOWERAREA.Listedinapproximateorderofdominanceandimpactinthegarden.1. NettleOneofWesternEurope’s(andScotland’s)mostusefulplantsofthepast.

CulinaryandpracticalusesincludeNettlesoup(ontheCelticfringeeatenwithoatmealinbroth)tea,asubstituteforrennetincheesemaking,hairtonic,fibresfromstemsandleavestoweaveclothfromBronzeAgetoC18th,asfineaslinen,stronganddurableuntilreplacedbyflax.Flowers,seedsandleavesmakebotanicbeerandmedicinallyadiureticandastringenttonicforeczema&treatmentofwounds.NettleisknownbyseveralBiblicalreferences (SH)(P)

2 CleaversTherearefrequentreferencesinoldherbalstophysicandcountry

people’suseofthisplantnotedbyCulpeperasarampantchokingweed(ashereinthegarden)boiledasahealthyspringtonic,andusedasasnakebitecure.Gerardrecommendsapotagetoencourageslimnessanditpossesseslaxativeanddiureticproperties.Ityieldsareddye. (P)

3. HogweedUsefulfodderforpigsandcattle (SH)4. Knapweed(Black)AnimportantmedicinalherbsaidtoequalGentianasatonic.

Culpeperrecommendsitasan‘admirableremedyforasorethroat,swellingoftheuvulaandjawandallgreenwounds’ (P)

5. Hedgewoundwort(Allheal)Anantisepticandantispasmodicwithawiderange

ofhealingproperties,particularlypraisedbyGerard.Itsapplicationsextendedtoreliefofgout,cramp,painsinthejoints,sicknessandvertigo (P)

6. Ox-eyeDaisy/MargueriteAnantispasmodicanddiuretictonic,similarto

Chamomilefornervousexcitability,coughs,asthma,earache,toothacheandneuralgia.Alsousedasalotionforwoundsandulcers. (P)

7. CowParsleyArguablythemostimportantspringlandscapeflowerinBritain.This

umbelliferanditscloserelative(includinghemlock)shouldbeapproachedwithcaution,assomeareverytoxicandwereconnectedwiththedevil.Hemlockwasoftengrowninmedievalmonastichospitalstostupefyanddullpainpriortoandduringsurgery (SH)(FB)

8. MeadowCranesbillInspiteofitsattractiveappearanceitdoesnotseemtohave

enteredmuchinfolkloreorsociallife.Thedistinctiveseed-casesareshapedlikeabirdsbill. (FB)


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9 RibwortPlantainOneoftheAnglo-Saxonninesacredherbsandanearlyheadache

cure.TheancientwritersDioscoridesandPlinygivetheplantainsalonglistofmedicinalusesincludinginflammation,pustules,bleedings,maddogbites,tumours,ulcers,asthmaandperiodicfevers.Aswithdock,leavesgiverelieffromnettlestings. (P)

10. Self-heal(Prunella)AnoldmedicinalherbusedinEurope,andapopularwound-

herbofcountryuseforthethroatandinternalbleeding,sores,skinandheadaches.Itisrecommendedinternallyandexternally (P)(FB)

11. ChicoryThegroundroot,thewell-knownsubstituteforcoffeeincultivationat

leastbytheearlyC16thas‘Succory’.Medicinally,usedasatonic,diureticandlaxativeeffectiveinjaundice,liver,goutandrheumatics (P)(FB)

12. GroundElderIntroducedtoBritain,possiblybytheRomans,asapotherband

medicineagainstgout,butitsusedeclined.BythetimeofGerard,knownasarampantinvasive.RecommendedbyCulpeperforitvirtues (FB)(P)

13. Achillea(Yarrow)RegardedasapowerfulherbearlyinAnglo-Saxontimes.Used

indivinationritualsandasacharmagainstbadluckandillnessandforstaunchingwounds.Itscounter,orparadox,asoftenfoundinmagic–basedherbalism,wasthatwhenpressedtothenose,itcausedsneezingandnosebleeds.Oneoftheworld’soldestmedicinalplants,namedaftertheGreekwarriorAchilles,givenasatonicstimulantforcoldsandfever. (P)(FB)

14. WhiteDeadNettleknowncollectivelywiththeother‘dead’nettlesas‘Archangel’,

avernacularnameduetonon-stingingvirtues.Thereweremanyoldcountrygamesofpursuitandteasebetweenboysandgirls (FB)

15. SmallScabious–similartoFieldScabious,thenamederivedformScabiosaherba

theherbgiveninaccordancewiththeDoctrineofSignaturesforscabiesbecauseofitsroughstalks.Inadditiontoskindisordersitwasgiveninternallyforlungandrespiratorycomplaintsandforsidestitch.TherelatedDevilsBitscabiouswasusedinoldremediesgiveninwineagainstplague,fever,poisonandinjury. (FB)

REFERENCES(SH) TheScotsHerbal(FB) FloraBritannica(P) Potter

R.BrandtDipLAGlos.CMLICharteredLandscapeArchitectMember:FriendsofColdinghamPrioryBerwickshireNaturalistsClub

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