The Use of Mandalas as a Developmental Assessment
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Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD
THE USE OF MANDALAS AS A DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENT
OF EMERGING ADULTHOOD
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts in Marital and Family Therapy
Notre Dame de Namur University
Submitted by
Sara Barulich
December 2011
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Signatures
I certify that I have read this thesis and that, in my opinion, it meets the thesis requirement for
the Master of Arts in Marriage and Family Therapy degree
Richard Carolan, Ed.D., ATR-BCProfessor & Chair
Thesis Director
I certify that I have read this thesis and that, in my opinion, it meets the thesis requirement for
the Master of Arts in Marriage and Family Therapy degree
Vicki Bynum, MFT, ATRSecond Reader
Approved for submission to the College of Arts and Sciences at Notre Dame de Namur University
John Lemmon, Ph.D.Interim Dean
College of Arts and Sciences
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Acknowledgements
I would like to extend a sincere thanks to the faculty of the Art Therapy program at
NDNU for their support and wisdom. This thesis would not be in your hands if not for the
countless edits, emails, and encouragement from Laury Rappaport, Richard Carolan and Vicki
Bynum. Thank you to my friends and family for sustaining me and tolerating me throughout my
thesis and graduate school process.
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Table of Contents
Title Page…………………………………………………………………………………………..i
Signatures…………………………………………………………………………………………ii
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………....iv
Appendix Contents……………………………………………………………………………..….v
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………....1
I. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..…2
II. Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………....9
III. Methodology…………………………………………………………………………………31
IV. Results…..………………………………………………………………………..……….….41
V. Discussion…………………………………………………………...………………………..44
References………………………………………………………………………………………..49
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………………54
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Appendix Contents
Appendix A Participant Recruitment Announcement…………………………………………54
Appendix B Informed Consent………………………………………………...………………55
Appendix C Permission to Use Artwork………………………………………………………59
Appendix D Debriefing Statement…………………………………………………………….60
Appendix E Participant Instructions………………………………………………………..…61
Appendix F Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (EAQ)……………………………………..63
Appendix G Mandala Rating Guide…………………………………………………………...68
Appendix H The Great Round of Mandala………………………………………………...….72
Appendix I Flow of the Great Round…………………………………………………………73
Appendix J Sorted Mandala Sample………………………………………………………….74
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Abstract
This study hypothesized that mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental home
would exhibit themes in the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala and that
mandalas drawn by emerging adults living independently would exhibit themes in the mature
quadrant. An individual was qualified as an emerging adult if they were between the ages of 18
to 29, and had not achieved all of the following markers of adulthood: leaving home, finishing
school, becoming financially independent, getting married, and having a child. The study sample
included fifty-two participants, with a mean age of 26. Each participant was asked to use the art
materials to fill the provided circle with whatever came to mind. This mandala was later
categorized in the Great Round of Mandala by 3 independent mandala raters. The results
revealed that there was no statistical significance between the mandala quadrants of emerging
adults living at home and those living independently. Further results indicated a significant
relationship between mandala stage and participant age. Given this relationship, future research
may apply a study such as this to a wider sample across the life span.
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Introduction
Stages and transitions of human development are not static and have been redefined
throughout time according to societal contexts. Consider, for example, that the developmental
period of young adulthood was once thought to span from the late teens until age 40: depending
on the theorist, that same duration of time is now divided into three or more distinct stages
(Henig, 2010; Newman & Newman, 2009; Arnett, 2007). While the definitions and analyses of
development may change, it is still important to understand the changes involved across the
lifespan and to develop awareness of these stages because society and the life course have a
reciprocal relationship. By noting the differences in each life stage one can also appreciate the
similarities of transition and transformation in each phase. The study of lifespan development is
a “means of comprehending the conflicts, opportunities, and achievements of central importance
to people living through different stages than one’s own” (Newman & Newman, 2009, p. xiii).
Likewise, this knowledge helps guide interactions among ages and facilitates growth at each life
stage. The growth occurring for the Millennial generation at present is shaping up differently
than generations past, and the impact of this change on societal and governmental institutions is
yet to be determined. The observed patterns of adolescence and young adulthood appear to be
shifting and are now being considered as a new stage of development being referred to as
emerging adulthood. (Fagan, 2011; Newman & Newman, 2009; Arnett, 2007; Children’s
Workforce Developmental Council, 2004).
Emerging Adulthood
The typical lifespan range outlined in many textbooks about development lists
adolescence occurring from 11 to 19 years of age, and young adulthood occurring from 18 to 45
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years of age: a 27 year span of development (CWDC, 2004). This sizeable age range has lead
Jeffrey Arnett (2004) to propose a new stage known as emerging adulthood—a time between
adolescence and full-fledged adulthood (Henig, 2010; Sassler, Ciambrone, & Benway, 2008;
Mitchell, 2006; Arnett, 2000). This is not a period of extended adolescence as there is notably
less parental control and more independent exploration; however, it cannot be classically
considered young adulthood because that implies an early stage of adulthood has been reached
when it has not ( Mitchell, 2006; Arnett 2004). According to Arnett (2000), emerging adulthood
is characterized as a time of instability, self-focus, identity exploration, and transition. The
ability to engage in this stage is contextual and primarily found in industrialized countries
(Arnett, 2004). For example, the postponement of major life decisions relating to work, family
and responsibility (decisions often defining adulthood) has become the norm in the United States
(Murphy, Blustein, Bohling & Platt, 2010). This normalcy of emerging adulthood is being
shaped by the age cohort currently occupying this stage, the Millennials, those born after 1980
(Pew Research Report, 2010).
The Millennial generation is three times the size of Gen X and similar in size to the Baby
Boomers, at just over 77 million (Keene, 2010; Huntley, 2006). This is the generation that will
be charged with caring for the Baby Boomers, and yet their experience of adulthood is drastically
different. Young people are increasingly being denied access to the markers that traditionally
define adulthood: work, marriage, children, and home ownership (Huntley, 2006). As a result,
emerging adults are reshaping the paradigm of marriage and family and seeking increasing
amounts higher education to compete for entry-level positions (Henig, 2010; Huntley, 2006;
“Emerging Adulthood,” 2001). According to emerging adults, financial independence is a key
criterion for adulthood, and one that has been difficult in light of the current economic context
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(Arnett, 2004). A 2010 Pew Research Center survey found 37% of 18-19 year olds are
unemployed or out of the work force entirely; and still, the unemployment rate for those under
age 25 is close to 20%. This is the highest recorded rate in the Labor Department (Keene &
Handrich, 2010; Hirsh, 2010). Not only are traditional markers of adulthood being shifted or
postponed, but the post-recession economy has also influenced the rise in a subset of Millennials
—boomerangs.
A boomerang individual refers to young people who choose, for varying reasons, to
cohabitate with their parents after a brief period of living on their own (“Boomerang
Generation,” 2011; Hirsh, 2010). A Pew Research Center survey in October 2009 found that
13% of 22-29 year olds have moved back to their parental homes after being on their own.
Likewise, the U.S. Census Bureau found that from 2007 (just before the recession) to 2010 (a
year after it ended) the number of adults ages 25-34 living at home rose 26%, from 4.7 million to
5.9 million. The movement to return home is not always financial. Emerging adulthood can be
very challenging psychologically and vocationally, leading some young people home for parental
emotional support during their stressful transition (Murphy, Blustein, Bohling, & Platt, 2010;
Beaupre, Turcotte, & Milan, 2006; Galambos, Barker, & Krahn, 2006). In contrast to emerging
adults living on their own, boomerangs experience these developmental challenges in the context
of family dynamics and shifting roles (Mitchell, 2006). The boomerang effect is dialing back the
societal clock about 60 years, to a time when people did not leave home until they were married
(Fagan, 2011; Rubin, 2010). If this effect continues, patterns of the late 20th century will change,
and Fagan (2011) notes, “we don’t know what that will look like.”
The Millennials are currently the largest generation in American history, and they are
already impacting businesses, the workplace, schools, and other organizations: to which Rainer
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(2011) states “they are just too big to ignore” (p. 2). We are in a period of rapid change, and “if
it’s a true life stage, we need to start rethinking our definition of normal development and to
create systems of education, health care and social supports that take the new stage into account”
(Henig, 2010, p. 7). The recent provision in the new health care law extending coverage until age
22 is an example of the government addressing the revised timetable of adulthood (Rubin, 2010).
Given the shifts in the adulthood paradigm, the assessment of this cohort could provide much
needed knowledge towards the forthcoming institutional changes. The nature of assessment is to
identify characteristic information about a population that in this case can benefit from future
research. The nonverbal language of art can express personal growth, insight, and
transformation; it is a means of connecting what is inside, such as thoughts and feeling, with
outer realities and life experiences (Malchiodi, 2007). The use of art based assessment in this
study provides a concrete, tangible product that circumvents any defenses or resistance that may
occur in standard testing. Using art to assess the Millennials may provide developmental and
emotional insight otherwise missed in verbal expression that can be subject to bias or defenses.
Art and Development
Viktor Lowenfeld (1970) was a pioneer of looking at art as a reflection of development
and as a means of understanding growth. Art therapists have since adapted his theories and
stages to enhance their understanding of children’s and adolescent’s growth, leading to
applications in art as part of an assessment (Alter-Muri, 2002). As Ferrara (1991) explains, “art
contributes to overall development by providing the conduit for responding to experience and
expressing the change that occurs at every developmental stage” (Ferrara, 1991, p. 2). The way
in which an individual portrays their experiences can give an indication to some of the
unconscious ordering that is unique to that person, in other words, art can reveal the dimension
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of psychological processes that are experienced and developing (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). It
is useful to look at these inner processes to unveil and possibly identify what an individual may
be grappling with, whether conscious of it or not. For example, an emerging adult may visually
portray a hint towards identity formation before actually being aware that they are undergoing
such a task. Circles are one of the earliest images children create, and the shape itself becomes a
touchstone in the lifelong process of growth and change; thus, the circular nature of mandalas is
thought to facilitate a sense of order than helps to orient oneself within one’s present life
situation (Fincher, 2010).
Mandala artwork is a directive that channels this notion of art as a reflection of
development, and like an assessment, each mandala holds specific information about the
creator’s current state of consciousness (Fincher, 2010). A mandala is a circular design used as a
meditation tool in religious and spiritual practices, but also became popularized by Carl Jung
(1973) as a therapeutic instrument. Jung explored the psychological meaning of mandalas and
found that they can be important indicators of the process of personal growth towards fulfilling
your individual identity and purpose in life (Fincher, 2010). Jung’s approach held that when
creating a mandala, one makes a personal symbol revealing who they are at that moment—an
idea leading to Joan Kellogg’s (1982) Great Round of Mandala, a map of twelve stages that
represent significant stages of personal and psychological development (Fincher, 2010). The
Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala represents a pattern of psychological
development which often coincides with lifespan stages, but is not necessarily linear, and is more
often a continuous cycle of tasks and challenges lived many times over. The Great Round
follows the natural process of growth towards wholeness; a process Jung believed unearthed
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one’s individuality and uniqueness (Fincher, 2010; Henderson, Rosen & Mascaro 2007; Kellog
& Di Leo, 1982).
Jung suggested that the act of drawing mandalas had a calming and healing effect on its
creator while at the same time facilitating psychic integration and personal meaning in life (Jung,
1973 as cited in Henderson, Rosen & Mascaro, 2007, p. 149). The healing effect of mandala
creation relies on the symbolic representation of emotion and conflict, as well as the resulting
sense of order and integration. Arnett (2004) identified instability as a feature of emerging
adulthood, since individuals are frequently in transition and are at a loss for the structure
previously experienced in adolescence. Mandalas may be particularly useful for this population
as the internal sense of order provided by the art experience may affect these feelings of
instability.
Though emerging adulthood is a fairly recent idea, research surrounding the
characteristics of Milliennials is growing due to their numbers, buying power, and future impact
on society. However, emerging adulthood is yet to be researched in the field of art therapy. The
researcher was unable to find any current studies on emerging adulthood involving any type of
art directive or art as an assessment of development. Further, Keene (2008) postulates that due to
the effect of economic crisis, pre-2008 data is no longer relevant when evaluating the life
experience of Millennials and their perspective on the future (Keene, 2010). Art assessment can
provide a means of gaining insight that might otherwise be missed in a standard questionnaire, as
it taps into unconscious processes that are less likely to be masked through intentional defensive
response patterns. Given the necessity for current information regarding this cohort and the
absence of any art involvement, there is a need for this study.
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In light of the current economic context and the changing course of development, this
study looks to identify similarities in developmental experiences and struggles that appear in the
artwork of emerging adults. Correlating cohort characteristics with their artwork may help
distinguish and identify their subconscious needs or challenges. Knowing common themes of
struggle in emerging adulthood may lead to more direct, possibly solution-focused therapy and
may influence the civic program needs for this cohort.
The purpose of this research is to explore the use of mandalas as a developmental assessment
of emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood as a life phase has only recently been proposed by
Jeffrey Arnett in 2000. This unique period of development where one is no longer an adolescent
but not yet a full-fledged adult is most notable at this time due to the current economic context.
To date, the researcher was unable to find any art-based research involving this cohort.
This study will examine mandalas created by emerging adults and apply them to The
Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala to assess development. This study
hypothesizes the following: 1). mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental home
will exhibit themes in the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala; and 2). mandalas
drawn by emerging adults living independently will exhibit themes in the mature quadrant of the
Great Round of Mandala.
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Literature Review
This review of literature explores lifespan development, emerging adulthood, art in
relation to development, and the Great Round of Mandala. It begins with general information on
development across the lifespan, including the importance of developmental stages and the
traditional definitions of each according to Erikson, Freud, Jung and Piaget. Next the newly
proposed life phase of emerging adulthood is presented with the contextual reasons for its
inception. Within emerging adulthood, a specific group is highlighted in relation to the current
context: the “boomerangs,” those who leave their parental home yet return to live with them
again. Because this study is examining the art of a specific cohort, the work of Viktor Lowenfeld
(1970) is explored, observing art not only as a reflection of growth, but also as a means of
understanding development. Finally, mandala work is explored and illustrated in Joan Kellog’s
(1982) Twelve Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala as an assessment of
psychological maturity and development.
Lifespan Development
The study of lifespan development is vast and can be interpreted through a number of
varying theoretical lenses. While the definitions and analyses of development may change, it is
still important to understand the changes involved across the lifespan and to develop awareness
of these stages. By noting the differences in each life stage one can also appreciate the
similarities of transition and transformation in each phase. Developmental stages are not
necessarily age related, but they do tend to build or progress upon each other, often with an
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influential overlap (Children’s Workforce Developmental Council, 2004; Newman & Newman,
2009).
Examination of development employs several theories to understand the lifespan:
psychosocial, psychosexual, analytical, and cognitive. Erikson’s (1950) psychosocial theory of
development takes many of these orientations into account when establishing stages and tasks of
growth by incorporating the work of Freud and the biological process with the importance of
environment and culture (Newman & Newman, 2009). Each of Erikson’s stages encapsulates a
conflict that a person confronts and ideally, masters; challenges of stages that are not
successfully completed may be expected to reemerge as problems in the future (Newman &
Newman, 2009).
Psychosocial Stages of Growth
A developmental stage is a period of life that is characterized by specific tasks and
directions. According to Newman and Newman (2009), Erikson proposed eight stages of
psychosocial development.
Infancy: birth to 18 months. Important events at this stage include attachment and basic
needs such as feeding. The conflict here is of trust versus mistrust, where a child develops a
sense of trust and safety when provided with reliable care and affection.
Early childhood: 2 to 3 years. Children at this stage work on developing a sense of
personal control, exhibited in tasks such as toilet training. By developing a sense of control over
physical skills a child gains a sense of independence leading to autonomy. When this sense is not
achieved a child experiences feelings of shame and doubt.
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Preschool: 3 to 5 years. This is a time when children begin to explore their environment
by asserting control and power. The conflict at this stage is initiative versus guilt. When children
successfully assert themselves in an independent way they gain a sense of purpose. However,
when there is too much assertion of power, there is often negative feedback resulting in a feeling
of guilt.
School age: 6 to 11 years. The environment changes at this phase, where a child is met
with new social experiences and academic demands. The developmental conflict is of industry
versus inferiority. When children experience success in these new situations and in response to
these demands they gain a sense of competence. Failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence: 12 to 18 years. Puberty is a key struggle of development at this time, as the
body is changing and moral questions of identity arise. Social relationships develop and can aid
or hinder the sculpting of a teens’ identity through involvement in cliques. The conflict of
adolescence is of identity versus role confusion. Success or failure of this conflict results in a
strong or weak sense of self; in fact, this conflict is often revisited throughout the lifespan.
Young adulthood: 19-40 years. This twenty year span of life involves the conflict of
intimacy versus isolation. Based on the sense of self previously developed, individuals will find
themselves ready to be open to others, or to isolate.
Middle adulthood: 40 to 65 years. The developmental span of middle adulthood covers
everything from career to parenthood, with the conflict of generativity versus stagnation. As
individuals age, they look to what they are contributing to the world and others to achieve a
sense of usefulness and accomplishment. Failure to contribute, or shallow involvement can lead
to depression individuals enter old age.
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Maturity: 65 to death. The last of Erikson’s stages is a reflection on life. The conflict for
older adults is of ego integrity versus despair. As individuals reflect on their time here, they may
consider the prior achievement of generativity and feel a sense of fulfillment. Individuals with
nothing to look back on or to be proud of may encounter feelings of regret and become bitter.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud’s psychosexual stages concern the development, expression, and controlling of
sexual impulses. Freud emphasized sexuality as the driving force behind growth, but notably
only focused on infancy through adolescence because “later life serves only to uncover new
modes of gratification and new sources of frustration” (Newman & Newman, 2009, p. 51). The
concept of sexuality here is broad and refers to everything from physical pleasure to intercourse;
it’s symbolism is positive, as it provides movement towards growth (Newman & Newman,
2009). According to Newman and Newman (2009), Freud’s theory of development involves five
stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
Development begins in the first year of life at the oral stage. At this time the mouth is the
child’s method of exploring, discovering and interacting with the world, thus it is also the site of
sexual and aggressive gratification. Babies take things in orally, like milk, and experience
pleasure; likewise, they let things out orally, like cries, to express needs or frustrations. In the
anal stage, around age 2, the sexualized body part moves on to the anus. Children in this stage
learn to expel and withhold feces as they are developing control of their sphincter muscles. The
conflict at this time focuses on the child’s will versus the demands of the culture, or more
simply, toilet training. At age 3 the phallic stage begins and may last until age 6. Children in the
phallic stage exhibit heightened genital sensitivity and engage in self-stimulation. This new sense
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of sexuality is sometimes observed as the Oedipal complex in boys or the Electra complex in
girls. The Oedipal/Electra complex involves the child having a strong, sexualized attraction to
the parent of the opposite sex. The child becomes fixated on this parent and may view the same
sex parent as a rival for attention. The complex resolves as the child learns to identify with the
morals and values of their parents and achieves a new level of autonomy. Upon resolution of the
Oedipal or Electra complex, the child enters the latency stage from age 7 until puberty.
According to Freud, there are no new significant conflicts or impulses at this stage. Freud’s final
stage of development, the genital stage, begins at puberty. The child, now an adolescent learns to
satisfy sexual impulses in mature relationships (Newman & Newman, 2009).
Human Life Cycle
Jungian theory, born of psychoanalysis, is based on concepts of consciousness, ego, and
psychic energy, which lead us towards the ultimate goals of individuation, wholeness, and
selfhood (Arrington, 2008, p. 16). Like Freud, Jung identified the unconscious and personal
unconscious of the psyche, but also defined a third area known as the collective unconscious.
The collective unconscious is made up of archetypes which are “biological or primordial images
influenced by age, experience, and culture” (Arrington, 2001, p. 59). Archetypes are connected
to our instincts and act as a primary ordering system, fostering self-regulation and giving
meaning to life because they are both image and emotion (Arrington, 2001). According to
Samuels (1983, as cited in Arrington, 2001), archetypes are seen as inherited dispositions, and
therefore provide a blueprint for development. The archetype of the Self is an innate,
unconscious psychological structure that directs psychological growth and development: it is the
creator and source of psychic life. The ego resides initially in the unconscious, and is developed
through consciousness and the process of individuation (Arrington, 2001).
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Jung’s human life cycle identifies the individuation process through the course of human
development (Arrington, 2001). The human life cycle (Jung 1933/1955; 1954/1974, as cited in
Arrington, 2001) begins collectively with childhood, from birth to puberty. This first stage is a
state of unconsciousness, as the individual is under the care, guidance, and heavy influence of the
mother. Early ego development at this time is under the power of the mother. The second stage
begins in youth and extends from puberty through midlife. During this expansive period of
development, adult consciousness begins to form, as does the progressive development of the
ego. Individuals master age specific tasks and develop in their own uniqueness. Bridges (1977,
as cited in Arrington, 2001) identified the midlife stage, age 40 to 50, as the gap or threshold of
growth. This is a period in the individuation process when one looks inward and explores the
development of the Self archetype. Individuals explore their dreams and self-images that were
previously unrecognized, as they learn to understand and know the Self. Jung’s third stage, after
age 50, is when wisdom develops. Individuals have a consciousness here that calls for a dialogue
between the ego and the archetypal images that are reflected in the activities of the Self. The
final stage is aging, a period that occurs when consciousness and ego recede into
unconsciousness (Jung 1933/1955; 1954/1974, as cited in Arrington, 2001).
As cultures continue to develop, so do the definitions of lifespan development. Erickson’s
psychosocial stages include emerging adulthood in an expansive age range of 19 to 40 years. The
psychosexual stages of development follow an individual only until puberty. Jung’s human life
cycle, like Erickson, includes the emerging adulthood stage in a range from puberty until age 40.
Newman and Newman (2009) divided adulthood into three distinct phases, emphasizing this
differentiation as a product of changes in modern society. The stage of emerging adulthood must
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also be considered as the economy, culture, and environment shape the timing of traditional
markers that once defined life stages.
Emerging Adulthood
In 2000, Jeffrey Arnett proposed a new phase of the life span between adolescence and
full-fledged adulthood now termed emerging adulthood, occurring from the late teens to the mid-
to late twenties. It is not a time of extended adolescence since there is notably less parental
control and more independent exploration; however, it is not yet young adulthood because this
implies that an early stage of adulthood has been reached, when it has not (Arnett, 2004).
Emerging adulthood is characterized by a high degree of demographic diversity and instability,
and viewed as time of reflection, change, and exploration (Mitchell, 2006).
Arnett (2004) identified and defined the five main features of this new life period. First, it
is a time of identity exploration, when the emerging adult learns more about whom they are and
what they want out of life. Erickson (1950) originally designated identity exploration as the
adolescent crisis, but he also noted the “prolonged adolescence” typically found in industrialized
societies; thus, young people in this stage were granted a psychological moratorium. While this
process does begin in adolescence as Erickson stated, it is however, intensified in emerging
adulthood. In addition to identity exploration, the emerging adult also learns about their abilities
and interests as they try out various possibilities in work and begin to lay the foundation for their
chosen interest. Exploring and experimenting with love and intimate relationships at this time
typically delays marriage; however, Erikson (as cited in Mitchell, 2006) noted that this delay
allows for more time to develop emotional maturity and a capacity for intimacy.
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According to Arnett (2004), the second feature of emerging adulthood is characterized as
a time of instability. Individuals during this time frequently move from one residence to another,
often including a return to the parental home. This instability is also felt in the loss of structure
one previously experienced in adolescence, which leads to the third feature: emerging adulthood
is the most self-focused age of life. Emerging adults now must make their own decisions, as no
one can tell them what they want but them. Their self-focus helps develop living skills required
in adulthood, with the ultimate goal of self-sufficiency. Fourth, emerging adulthood is the age of
feeling in-between and in transition. Individuals are in limbo between the restrictions of
adolescence and the responsibilities of adulthood. Criteria for adulthood include accepting
responsibility for one’s self, making independent decisions, and becoming financially
independent: the achievement of which is gradual and incremental. Lastly, the fifth feature of
emerging adulthood is that of an age of possibilities. Individuals have the opportunity to
transform their lives: to be who they want to be and live how they want to live, free of their
parents image. Emerging adults have not yet reached the commitments and obligations of
adulthood, thus creating a time for hopes to flourish (Arnett, 2004).
Context
Emerging adulthood is primarily found in industrialized countries, and is thought to be a
result of the rise in ages of marriage and parenthood, the lengthening of higher education, and
prolonged job instability (Arnett, 2004). Early in the 20th century, psychologist G. Stanley Hall
established the term “adolescence” to describe a new life stage that appeared to delay the
transition of youth into adulthood (Winograd & Winograd, 2011). Just as adolescence was born
out of social changes at the turn of the century, emerging adulthood as a distinct life phase is a
product of recent cultural and economic shifts (Henig, 2010).
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Young people are being increasingly denied access to the markers that traditionally
define adulthood: work, marriage, children, and home ownership (Huntley, 2006). In
industrialized, information-based economies, young people are finding they need increasing
amounts of education to compete in a job market with fewer entry-level positions (“Emerging
Adulthood,” 2001; Henig, 2010). The paradigm of marriage and family during this life phase has
shifted with the cultural acceptance of cohabitation, premarital sex, and birth control. Even the
proverbial ‘biological clock’ is seemingly delayed: there is less rush to reproduce since women
now have access to assisted reproductive technology (Henig, 2010). The normalcy of emerging
adulthood is being shaped by the age cohort currently occupying this stage—those born after
1980, termed the Millennials (Pew Research Report, 2010).
Millennials. The Millennials make up a generation almost three times the size of Gen X
(the preceding generation) and have edged out the Baby Boomers as the largest generation in
American history, at approximately 78 million (Rainer & Rainer, 2011; Keene & Handrich,
2010; Huntley, 2006). It is this cohort, the first generation to come of age in the new millennium
that is the focus of the newly defined stage of emerging adulthood. Keene and Handrich (2010)
however, posit that since the advent of the Great Recession in late 2007, data prior to 2008 is no
longer relevant or accurate when concerning Millennial values. The effect of economic collapse
has influenced their behavior, life experience, and perspective on the future (Keene and
Handrich, 2010). Not only are traditional markers of adulthood being shifted or postponed, but
the post-recession economy has also influenced the rise in a subset of Millennials—boomerangs.
Boomerangs. The term boomerang refers to young people who choose to cohabitate with
their parents after a brief period of living on their own (“Boomerang Generation,” 2011; Hirsh,
2010). Home returning appears to be a continuous process, more so a circular migration than a
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 18
one-time transition (Beaupre, Turcotte, & Milan, 2006; Goldscheider & Goldscheider, 1999 as
cited in Mitchell, 2006). During this distinct transitional behavior, young people can revert to a
previous state to refocus on new experiences, roles, and expectations, illustrating the fluidity of
life stage development (Mitchell, 2006). As mentioned in the context of emerging adulthood,
this is a time of instability and uncertainty and for young people who have lost the structure of
academic life (graduated), coming home recreates boundaries that help them to feel sheltered and
anchored (Robbins, 2001 as cited in Mitchell, 2006).
As Newman (2011) states, “many of our ideas about normative family practices only go
back to the period of postwar prosperity that gave birth to the baby boomers” (as cited in Van
Gelder, 2011, p. 94). The flight of baby boomers leaving home was the anomaly, thus the
problem may be not that young people are staying at home, but that they are expected to leave
(Van Gelder, 2011). In contrast to the boomers’ rebellion, the Millennials seem to get along well
with their parents, and according to a Pew Research study in 2010, they are more likely to be
living with family now (47%) than were Gen X (43%) or Boomers (39%) at this life stage
(Keene & Handrich, 2010; Sullivan, 2007). Young people also admit, as found in a study by
Settersten (1998), their ideas concerning age deadlines for leaving and returning home are based
in folk theories of development.
One primary justification for returning home appears to be economic (Van Gelder, 2011;
Balingit, 2010; Hirsh, 2010; Pew Research Center, 2010; Sullivan, 2007; Beaupre, Turcotte, &
Milan, 2006). A Pew Research Center survey conducted in October 2009 found that 13% of 22-
29 year olds returned home as a result of the recession (Pew Research Center 2010). Four
months later, the Pew Research Center found 37% of 18-29 year olds are unemployed or out of
the workforce entirely; and still, the unemployment rate for those under age 25 is close to 20%,
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 19
the highest recorded rate in the Labor Department (Keene & Handrich, 2010; Hirsh, 2010). It is
not that all Boomerangs aren’t making money; in fact, a 2010 Charles Schwab online survey
reported only 28% of those living at home are unemployed. The remainders of those surveyed
were working, but unable to support themselves: young people are frequently overqualified for
entry level jobs, and unable to earn a livable wage (Van Gelder, 2011).
However, this movement is not purely financial, as this trend has been increasing since
the mid-1990’s, rising 7% between 1995 and 2003 (Sassler, Ciambrone, & Benway, 2008). One
reason may be a reduced stigma and an increased social acceptance regarding the return, and
though men find it more stigmatizing, sons have a higher rate of return that daughters ( Sassler et
al., 2008; Beaucpre et al., 2006; Mitchell, 2006). In addition, the experience of emerging
adulthood can be very challenging psychologically and vocationally, leading some young people
home for parental emotional support during their stressful transition (Murphy, Blustein, Bohling,
& Platt, 2010; Beaupre, Turcotte, & Milan, 2006; Galambos, Barker, & Krahn, 2006). Another
reported reason for return is to maintain the standard of living they enjoyed with their parents,
after finding it impossible to afford on their own (Hirsh, 2010; Beaupre et al., 2006). Crimmins
et al., (1991, as cited in Mitchell, 2006, p. 79) call this the “intergenerational taste effect” where
the luxuries of one generation become the necessity of the next. Thus, it appears young people
are willing to sacrifice some independence in order to maintain this standard of living (Mitchell,
2006).
This research seeks to discover not only if the challenges of emerging adulthood are
evident in art, but also if these challenges appear different between groups of emerging adults
living at home and those living independently. Emerging adults in different living situations may
experience different stressors and have different goals, thus they may be operating from different
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 20
psychological processes. Art can reveal the subconscious dimension of these differing
experiences (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970), thus enabling a better understanding of development
among emerging adults and their boomerang subgroup.
Art and Development
According to Arrington (1986), “all individuals consciously and unconsciously
communicate their fundamental thoughts and inner feelings through selecting and spontaneously
expressing visual constructs” (Arrington, 2001, p. 73). These visual constructs are a part of the
nonverbal, universal language of visual symbols that all children possess, and like other
developmental processes, it develops generally in a predictable sequence (Arrington, 2001).
Artwork generally moves from unstructured to structured, and because the appearance of visual
constructs is developmentally predictable, the art can imply parallel stages of psycho-social-
emotional-stages of maturation. (Arrington, 2001).
Viktor Lowenfeld (1970) was a pioneer of looking at art as a reflection of development
and as a means of understanding growth. Art therapists have since adapted his theories and
stages to enhance their understanding of children’s and adolescent’s growth in social, emotional,
intellectual, and kinesthetic expression (Alter-Muri, 2002). As Ferrara (1991) explains, “art
contributes to overall development by providing the conduit for responding to experience and
expressing the change that occurs at every developmental stage” (Ferrara, 1991, p. 2). Lowenfeld
established five developmental stages in art expression that coincide and weave between the
stages of development theorized by Piaget (cognitive), Freud (psychosexual), Erikson
(psychosocial), and Jung (analytical). The following will classify the various forms of growth as
they are exhibited through art and discussed within theoretical context.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 21
Intellectual Growth
The symbolic use of art can express cognitive development as shown through a child’s
growing awareness of their self and their environment (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970; Ferrara,
1991). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development concerns the nature of intelligence and how
humans come to acquire, organize, and use it (Newman & Newman, 2009). Ferrara’s 1991 study
on art as a reflection of development provides the following parallels of cognitive development
as seen in art. In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, from birth to approximately 2 years of age, art
begins as a kinesthetic pleasure of arm movements resulting in scribbles. From approximately 2
to 7 years of age, scribbles and marks appear to be placed purposely and are often named by the
child even if unrecognizable, as the marks begin to relate to known things in this preoperational
stage. These first attempts at representational images reflect a child’s conceptual development. In
the concrete operational stage, between the ages of 7 and 11, a child achieves form concept
schema and produces symbols and pictures of collective expression. The development of these
schemas appears to parallel the developing capacity for logical thought. Drawings in this stage
reflect the mental development of environmental awareness. In the final stage of formal
operational thought, around age 11 or 12, the art of early adolescents departs from the use of
schemas and attempts to represent reality as a visual concept (Ferrara, 1991).
Social-Emotional Growth
Stages of social growth are often explained using Freud’s psychosexual theory and
Erikson’s psychosocial theory, both of which have correlated indicators in an individual’s art.
Artwork can reflect how a child is identifying with their experiences and the experiences of
others (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). During the oral-sensory stage of development an infant
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 22
discovers and experiences the world through sensory exploration reflected in play and in art as
the earliest form of self-expression (Ferrara, 1991). In the muscular-anal stage, a child faces the
psychosocial crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt, and it is here where they begin forming
a basis for self-worth and a sense of self-control. Art at this time of development provides a safe
container for children to develop autonomy within their own set of boundaries. In the next phase
of development the locomotor-genital stage deals with the crisis of initiative versus guilt. A child
at this time is able to organize goal-oriented activities as they are becoming assertive and
aggressive. The Oedipal conflict present in this stage sometimes leads to a sense of guilt, and a
child can learn to divert this sexual drive into art creation (Ferrara, 1991). Erikson (1963) noted
that art at this stage can be a practice ground where past failures can be reworked and
expectations can be tested. In the final stage of psychosexual theory, latency, Erikson claimed it
to be a crisis of industry versus inferiority, where a child realizes productivity earns approval.
Art can be a means of productivity, and again a safe container to invest libidinal energy (Ferrara,
1991).
This self-expression through art becomes a means of communicating with others—it is an
extension of the self into the world of reality where others can view it (Lowenfeld & Brittain,
1970). A child portrays pieces of society with which they can identify, indicating the growth of
their social awareness. Likewise, a lack of social consciousness can also become evident in
artwork. Lowenfeld (1970) deemed those who were socially handicapped showed this isolation
in art work with inconsistent, spatially uncorrelated items, often in isolation, indicating a lack of
ability to relate their experiences with others.
Just as art fosters communication with the social world, art provides an opportunity for
emotional release (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). Emotional involvement becomes apparent in art
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 23
work when viewing the variety and flexibility within the piece. Frequent, stereotyped repetitions
of objects may reflect rigid patterns of thinking and low emotional involvement, which may be
an expression in itself of detached feelings. However, art that is drawn from experience and
displays a direct inclusion of self reveals an emotionally free and uninhibited child (Lowenfeld &
Brittain, 1970).
Physical Growth
Physical growth is most obviously seen in art through an individual’s ability for visual
and motor coordination as well as body control. A concrete example of this is seen when a child
grows from scribbling across a page to random marks and eventually to controlled marks
(Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). Aside from the witnessed growth in muscle control, art also
displays conscious and unconscious projections of the body. Body imagery can be a projection of
self into a picture, whereas a physically active child will portray active motions and develop a
greater sensitivity to physical achievements. Conversely, a child may reflect their physical state
by emphasizing defects, injuries, or illness in their body image (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970).
Attention to the body is mirrored in the artwork: the changes of a child’s portrayed body schema
are a reflection of the child’s experience (Ferrara, 1991).
The Visual Construct Continuum
There are certain visual concepts that appear consistently in a person’s artwork, and
according to Arrington (2001, p. 73) the “creative process hooks into the right hemisphere and
allows patterns to form and emerge through the left hemisphere.” The visual construct continuum
includes various stages of art development that imply parallel stages of psycho-social-emotional
stages of maturation (Arrington, 2001). The continuum begins with random scribbles and is a
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 24
stage of rhythmic and kinesthetic exploration as well as the beginning of patterns. Next, circular,
vertical and horizontal forms become attempts to integrate known patterns. The development and
representation of suns and sun shapes can imply ability to center, as well as define self and
others. The continuum continues into the preschematic stage where body image begins to emerge
and there is a growing awareness of self. Art at this stage includes the refinement of personal
boundaries and varieties of body image projections; some may also include animal forms as a
way of distancing from self. As an individual grows into the schematic stage their art takes on a
consistent pattern of body image. The line detail and pictures present in artwork imply grounding
and an awareness of environment, self, and others. The use of color displays themes of energy
and emotions. As depth perception develops artwork indicates directionality and awareness that
things change over time and have a natural process. The final stage in the continuum is symbolic
art, indicating realism (Arrington, 2001).
Artwork can indicate social, emotional, physical and intellectual development. Visual
constructs and symbols tap into an unconscious process that displays development in ways that
appear to be consistent across developmental patterns. Examining these constructs in the artwork
of emerging adults may provide insight into the development of this new stage. Mandalas
provide a container and an organized way to create and examine the art.
Mandala
Mandala artwork is a directive that channels the notion of art as a reflection of
development: each mandala holds specific information about the creator’s current state of
consciousness (Fincher, 2010). A mandala is a circular design seen in psychology and in
religious and spiritual practices, and can be expressed in myriad ways: it can be drawn, painted,
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 25
modeled, or danced (Jung 1969). Mandalas are often associated with Tibetan Buddhism, where
they are used as a ritual instrument to assist in meditation and concentration. As a psychological
occurrence mandalas appear spontaneously in dreams, in certain stages of conflict, and in cases
of schizophrenia (Jung, 1969). According to Jung (1969, p. 3), a mandala occurs in “conditions
of psychic dissociation or disorientation,” The circular nature of the mandala tends to integrate
and unite opposites or conflicting images (Arrington, 2008). Carl Jung popularized the use of
mandalas an a therapeutic instrument and suggested that the act of drawing mandalas had a
calming and healing effect on its creator while at the same time facilitating psychic integration
and personal meaning in life (Jung, 1973 as cited in Henderson, Rosen & Mascaro, 2007, p.
149). The healing effect of mandala creation relies on the symbolic representation of emotion
and conflict, as well as the resulting sense of order and integration. In art therapy, a mandala is
considered any art form within a circular context (Henderson, Rosen & Mascaro, 2007).
Jung found the mandala to be an integrative art form in the individuation journey, and
suggested that it reveals the natural urge to live out our potential and achieve wholeness.
Mandalas can be seen as an attempt at self-healing, an effort not from conscious reflection, but
from an instinctive impulse. Kellog (1982) compares mandalas with a blood sample since it
reflects changes and processes at specific intervals. This captured moment of change was
eventually organized by Kellog (1982) in the fashion of a mandala progressing through a cycle.
The Great Round of Mandala
When creating a mandala, one makes a personal symbol revealing who they are at that
moment—an idea leading to Joan Kellogg’s (1982) Great Round of Mandala, a map of twelve
stages that represent significant stages of personal and psychological development (Fincher,
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 26
2010). This pattern of psychological development is not linear, but a continuous cycle of tasks
and challenges lived many times over. The Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala
represent a pattern of psychological development, which, like Erikson’s psychosocial stages, are
not linear. These phases often coincide with lifespan stages, as well as psychosocial and
psychosexual theories of development. The Great Round follows the natural process of growth
towards wholeness; a process Jung believed unearthed one’s individuality and uniqueness. The
Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala includes twelve phases organized around a
circle, each presented below and compiled from Fincher (2010), Kellogg (1982), and Arrington
(2008).
Stage 1: the void. This first stage recalls the experience prior to birth and resembles the
mind-set of a fetus in the womb. Life here is experienced as a waking dream, a state of
consciousness thought to be the origin and end of all form. The challenge of The Void is to wait,
to keep the faith, to trust the process, and to be patient with one’s self.
Stage 2: bliss. Bliss recalls the experience of a baby in the womb, one who does not
know or care, but is comfortable. This is a state of blissful union, with the containment of all
things. Consciousness here is diffused and dreamy, with no focus or boundaries: an impersonal,
disengaged perspective passively enjoying the world and its pleasures. This stage is a place of
sublime peace, with infinite love, where one does not yet notice they are without individuality.
Bliss holds many potentials and infinite possibilities, thus the task here is to discriminate among
them and focus on one possibility, giving up the others.
Stage 3: labyrinth or spiral. The blissful union of the previous stage is separated and
divided here. It recalls the connection with the womb through the umbilical cord and the severing
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 27
of that link during the birth process. This is the beginning of the journey towards individualized
consciousness—representing the activation of life forces within the psyche. Consciousness is
heightened and as energy increases there is a desire to move, create, and become, though lacking
the knowledge to do so. The task here is to take the information gathered from previous states of
mind and shape it all into a form that can be understood and appreciated.
Stage 4: the beginning. This stage recalls infant dependence on mother for nourishment,
and coincides with the psychosexual stage of oral dynamics. It is common to be narcissistic and
self-absorbed at this time, as consciousness reflects the dawning of self and the revelation that
one is unique. This stage marks the beginning of contained growth and is the psychological space
of early childhood, a phase of trust and attenuation of needs. The challenge of The Beginning is
to honor the new growth and be a good parent to one ’s self.
Stage 5: the target. Time here can be an unpleasant experience, with the awareness of
self as one who is suffering without knowing the reason. The Target recalls the toddler’s
antagonism towards mother, and coincides with the obsessive and constricted anal phase. Ritual
and routine become important here and there is a sense of struggling to maintain control in order
to cope. One feels vulnerable, angry, paranoid, and anxious, with a perspective of the world as a
dangerous place. The task of Stage 5 is to take courage, to confront fears, and to surrender one’s
claim on blissful infancy.
Stage 6: the dragon fight. The Dragon represents the archetypal parents, and the fight is
the separation of the ego from the pattern of the parents. The phase is a development of a distinct
sense of self, an identity issue typical in adolescence, though this stage is returned to many times
throughout the life course. It is normal to feel alienation, fear, and loneliness, as this is a time of
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 28
inner conflict. Depression may alternate with elation, excitement, and happiness—a passion for
change. The challenge here is to cease childhood claims on parents, to risk disobedience, and to
take responsibility for one’s own life.
Stage 7: the squaring of the circle. This stage marks the full-fledged establishment of
the ego, a quantum leap of consciousness. It’s the beginning of living life according to one’s own
values, where the perspective is of being on top of the world with bright and intense
consciousness. A feeling of inflation is common, as there is a strong sense of autonomy since one
has the ability to learn, plan, and love. One is ready to “do” rather than “just be.” The task in this
stage is to put one’s best efforts into the quest for a soul mate, to identify life work, and to make
commitments.
Stage 8: the functioning ego. This is the stage of full identity, typically associated with
adulthood. One now knows their self, what they want to do, and how to do it. It is the most
productive stage, with activity directed towards clearly defined goals and a sense of
responsibility for directing one’s own destiny. This attainment of individual consciousness
includes a clear sense of self firmly grounded in an accurate body image, and an active
enjoyment of work. Amidst all of this power and functionality the challenge is to balance
individual goals with the structure or organization.
Stage 9: crystallization. Crystallization reflects the completion of important endeavors.
Thinking with new clarity, one begins to achieve an understanding of their place in the world,
bringing feelings of satisfaction, harmony, and fulfillment. However, at the height of this
achievement one begins to sense their inevitable end, that everything created is also destroyed.
This stage recalls middle age and may be associated with mid-life crisis and related depressions.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 29
The challenge of Crystallization is to enjoy success fully, without being too attached, since one
will soon relinquish it.
Stage 10: gates of death. The Gates of Death signifies the end of a cycle—from project
completion to the fulfillment of parenting responsibilities. Mid-life crisis can also be found here,
as normal ways of being become empty and meaningless. There is a sense of deflation and a
feeling of being bound, helpless, and forced to make sacrifices. This challenge is to reassess life
goals, to give up what one knows, and to come to terms with the inevitability of death.
Stage 11: fragmentation. This is a stage of altered consciousness—a time of fear,
confusion, and disorientation. The world does not make sense anymore and everything seems
fragmented, shattered, or chaotic. One re-experiences the loss and separation from bliss, as in
Stage 3. The task here is to surrender, face the shadows, and let the former disintegrate.
Stage 12: transcendent ecstasy. This is the blissful return home, where the journey has
come full circle. There is a transparent locus of consciousness, and feelings of joy, harmony, and
reverence. One is reunited with the higher Self and sees their all-important presence in the
perfect world. The final task is to accept the gift of grace gratefully and humbly, or as Fincher
(2010) so eloquently states “to carry the memory of the experiences like a glowing seed into the
darkness (p. 169).”
Mandalas are thought to be a snap shot of an individual’s current psychological state, and
this information examined in the context of The Great Round will help to identify and possibly
gain insight into the unique development of the Milliennial cohort in the new defined stage of
emerging adulthood. The Millennials are the largest generation in American history and a
significant portion of this cohort has returned to their parental home. This research postulates
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 30
that development among emerging adults may appear different between those living on their
own, and those that have for one reason or another, returned home. This study hypothesizes the
following: 1.) mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental home will exhibit
themes in the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala; and 2.) mandalas drawn by
emerging adults living independently will exhibit themes in the mature quadrant of the Great
Round of Mandala.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 31
Methodology
Hypothesis
Mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental home will exhibit themes in
the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala. Mandalas drawn by emerging adults
living independently will exhibit themes in the mature quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala.
Research Design
This research methodology utilized a correlational design to determine if there was a
relationship between features of emerging adulthood and the quadrant of the Great Round of
Mandala. The study incorporated both quantitative and art-based components. Quantitative data
was based on the results of a questionnaire to gather information regarding the developmental
tasks of emerging adults. Data on the fulfillment of these tasks was considered when examining
mandala artwork. Joan Kellogg’s (1982) Great Round Mandala served as the art-based research
component.
Participants
Participants included emerging adults between the ages of 18-29. Those who fit criteria
for adulthood were excluded, and those who did not fit adulthood criteria were deemed emerging
adults. Adulthood was defined by the achievement of the following transitions: leaving home,
finishing school, becoming financially independent, getting married, and having a child (Sassler,
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 32
Ciambrone, & Benway, 2008; Sullivan, 2007; Arnett, 2004; Shanahan, 2000). For the purposes
of this study the researcher extended the term “married” to include those in a domestic lifelong
partnership so as not to exclude homosexual individuals living in states where gay marriage is
not legal.
Selection of Participants This study utilized a convenience sample obtained by word of
mouth, email, Facebook.com and Craigslist.com. An announcement (Appendix A) was posted on
the aforementioned websites as well as sent via email to potential participants, with the request to
forward on to others. The participant recruitment flyer called for those interested to contact the
researcher through [email protected]. Once initial contact had been made
and any questions resolved, the researcher contacted the participant regarding the research study
and provided a letter of informed consent (Appendix B) explaining the purpose, procedure, risks,
and benefits of the study. Individuals who agreed to participate received a debriefing statement
(Appendix D) in the mailed package containing the research materials. Other than age and the
criteria of adulthood, there were no other exclusionary criteria.
Location
Interested participants provided a mailing address where the researcher sent a packet
containing: participant instructions (Appendix E), consent for artwork (Appendix C), the
Emerging Adult Questionnaire (Appendix F), a piece of 9” x 12” white paper with a pre-drawn
circle, a bag of 16 crayons and 12 colored pencils, and a prepaid envelope addressed to the
researcher. Participants were instructed to sit in a quiet place of their choosing when creating
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 33
their mandala. Conducting this study by email and postal mail allowed for a more diverse group
of participants as they were not limited by proximity to the researcher.
Instruments
The instruments included the Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (Appendix F) and a
small package of art materials. The Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (EAQ) was developed to
characterize the developmental tasks of emerging adulthood in the individual and the family life
cycle. The EAQ refers to the developmental tasks of youth and their parents in the domains of
individual-social tasks, and emotional-relational tasks (Yanir & Guttman, 2011). For the
purposes of this research study only the first domain concerning individual-social tasks was used,
as the domain involving parents was not relevant in this study. The domain of individual-social
tasks is comprised of 16 items utilizing a 7-point Likert scale, where high scores indicate a high
degree of fulfillment in social task items: personal and professional identity, economic
independence, relationships, everyday practical functioning, and a sense of being an adult. Also
included in this domain is a section inquiring about place of residence and the reasons for that
living situation. The population used to establish this questionnaire resided in Israel and was
entirely Jewish, urban, middle to upper-middle class, and secular. Although the questionnaire has
not been formally published, the individual-social task domain was found to carry a reliability
coefficient of 0.83 in preliminary testing.
Art Materials The art materials provided included a 9” x 12” piece of white paper with a
pre-drawn circle measuring 8.5” in diameter, 16 crayons, and 12 colored pencils. Because
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 34
mandala assessment observes the use and function of color, it was necessary to provide an
appropriate color spectrum.
Crayons: black, blue, brown, green, orange, red, violet, yellow, blue green, blue
violet, red orange, red violet, yellow green, yellow orange, white.
Colored pencils: black, blue, brown, burgundy, green, light blue, orange, pink,
red, yellow, violet.
Procedure
1. The researcher posted an announcement (Appendix A) on Facebook.com and
Craigslist.com calling for participants between the ages of 18-29 years. In addition, the
announcement was emailed to those known to the researcher to be within the age
parameter, with the request that recipients forward the email to other potential
participants, creating a snowball sample.
2. Interested participants responded to the announcement by contacting the researcher
through [email protected].
3. The researcher responded to qualifying participants with an informed consent (Appendix
B) explaining the purpose, procedure, benefits and risks of the study with request for
return with digital signature and participants’ mailing addresses. The researcher also
supplied her contact information, as well as the contact information for her thesis
supervisor, Richard Carolan, should participants have any questions.
4. Upon receipt of informed consent, the researcher sent, via postal mail, a package to the
participant containing: participant instructions (Appendix E), consent for use of artwork
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 35
(Appendix C), the Emerging Adult Questionnaire (Appendix F), a piece of white 9” x 12”
paper with a pre-drawn 8.5” diameter circle, a bag of 16 crayons and 12 colored pencils,
a debriefing statement (Appendix D), and a prepaid envelope addressed to the researcher.
5. Participants were asked to read and sign the consent for use of artwork form to grant
permission for their artwork to be used confidentially, for research purposes only.
6. Participants were asked to complete the Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire.
7. Participants received instructions (Appendix E) on how to approach the art component:
a. Find a safe and comfortable space of your choosing with a flat work surface.
b. Take a quiet moment in whatever way is comfortable for you.
c. Using the provided art materials, or any other materials of your choosing, fill the
circle with color and form;
i. Draw whatever comes to mind—there is no right or wrong way to create a
mandala.
8. Participants were instructed to place materials in the prepaid envelope and mail to the
researcher.
9. Upon receipt of materials, the researcher mailed a letter to participants thanking them for
their participation in the research study and provided contact information for herself and
her thesis supervisor should they have any further questions.
Data Collection
Participants for this study were recruited by posting an announcement flyer (Appendix A)
on Facebook.com and Craigslist.com. In addition, the flyer was emailed to a convenience
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 36
sample, those known to the researcher who are within the age parameters and meet the inclusion
criteria. The researcher also requested that those contacted forward the email to other potential
participants, with the intention of creating a snowball sample. If interested, potential research
participants responded to the flyer by contacting the researcher at
[email protected]: this email address was created exclusively for this study
and was managed by the researcher alone. The researcher established contact with the potential
participant and answered any pending questions.
The researcher responded to participants by emailing the informed consent (Appendix B)
requesting its return with a digital signature and their mailing address. The researcher also
provided her contact information, as well as the contact information for her thesis study
supervisor, should the participants have any questions. Upon receipt of the informed consent, the
researcher sent, via postal mail, a package containing the research materials. The package
contained: participant instructions (Appendix E), consent for use of artwork (Appendix C), the
Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (Appendix F), a piece of 9” x 12” white paper with a pre-
drawn circle measuring 8.5” in diameter, a debriefing statement (Appendix D), and a prepaid
envelope addressed to the researcher. Art materials included in the package consisted of 16
crayons and 12 colored pencils.
Upon receiving the research materials, participant instructions (Appendix E) informed the
participants how to proceed through the package. Participants were asked to read and sign the
form for permission to use artwork. Next the participants were asked to complete the Emerging
Adulthood Questionnaire, which collected quantitative data to discern contextual information
regarding the developmental tasks of emerging adults.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 37
Participants were then asked to follow the instructions (Appendix E) on how to approach
the art-based research component of the study. The provided art materials included a piece of
white 9” x 12” paper with a pre-drawn 8.5” diameter circle, and a bag of 16 crayons and 12
colored pencils. Participants were asked to create a mandala by using the provided art materials,
or additional materials of their choosing to fill the provided circle with whatever comes to their
mind. There was no time limit for this art directive. Upon completion of the mandala participants
read the debriefing statement (Appendix D). If participants wanted their mandala to be returned
to them, following the completion of the research study, they indicated this by writing “please
return” on the back of their mandala. Finally, participants placed all research materials in the
prepaid envelope addressed to the researcher send via postal mail. Participants did not include
the art materials in the return envelope, as the researcher indicated they were to keep them as a
token of the researcher’s appreciation for their participation.
Data Analysis
Both quantitative and art-based research methods were used to analyze data. The first
portion of the Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (Appendix F) concerning demographic
information was analyzed for descriptive statistics, including the mean, median, and mode,
which is presented in visual charts. The domain of individual-social tasks was scored according
to the values defined by the EAQ authors (Yanir, & Guttman, 2011). A high or low score, which
is the mean score of all sub-dimensions, indicated a high or low degree of socially fulfilling
tasks. The individual scores from each sub-dimension including general identity, professional
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 38
identity, economic independence, maintenance of intimate relationships, and everyday practical
functioning were recorded into a database.
Mandalas created by participants served as art-based research data: themes, colors, and
patterns present were considered by four different mandala raters as they determined the
mandala’s place on the Great Round. Four raters were chosen based on their experience using the
Great Round and were given an inter-rater reliability test in order to establish reliability and
validity. The researcher provided each rater with a mandala rating guide (Appendix G) which
included a compilation of mandala descriptions at each stage (Kellog, 1982; Fincher, 2010).
Inter-rater reliability was established at the .73 level before the review of research data began.
Each rater received the collection of mandala artwork and was asked to assign their first and
second choice placement on the round, based on their professional knowledge and the provided
rating reference. Once the researcher received all analyzed mandala data she considered the
results from each rater and used a scoring system requiring 3 out of the 4 raters to agree on the
chosen stage. The researcher assigned the mandala appropriately, based on the established
scoring system, and input the mandala stage rating into the database with its corresponding
participant EAQ score.
The sample was divided into two groups: emerging adults who live at home and those
who do not—data ascertained from the demographic portion. The researcher used the Chi Square
Test for Independence to determine if there was any significant difference between mandala
stage and age, living situation, or EAQ score. The researcher also used this data and analysis to
determine if each group collectively resided in specific quadrants of the Great Round.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 39
Risks
There was a possible risk to participating in this study. Participants may have experienced
stress related to participating in a research study. Participation in this study was entirely
voluntary, and as stated in the informed consent (Appendix B), participants were free to
withdraw from the study at any time. If needed, participants that live in the bay area may utilize
the psychotherapy resources listed below. If participants live outside the bay area the researcher
will assist them in finding psychotherapy resources in their region.
Integral Counseling Center (San Francisco)
2140 Pierce Street, San Francisco
(415) 776-3109; [email protected]
www.integralcounseling.org
National Alliance on Mental Illness
Information Helpline: 1 (800) 950-NAMI
(6264)
www.nami.org
Benefits
There are some potential benefits to participating in this study. Participants may have
enjoyed the calming nature of mandala creation and taken pleasure in using the art materials. In
addition, participants may have experienced a sense of fulfillment by contributing to the field of
art therapy research.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 40
Confidentiality
All data was kept confidential and was used for research purposes only. To ensure
confidentiality participants were assigned an alpha-numerical code placed on all forms and
artwork. Informed Consent and Art Consent forms were stored separately from any data that
contained codes. Data will be kept for three years and then appropriately destroyed; however, if
this study is published data will be kept for seven years and then appropriately destroyed.
Protection of Human Participants
The proposal for this study was reviewed by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at
Notre Dame de Namur University. This research follows the guidelines of the American
Psychological Association (APA), the Art Therapy Credentials Board (ATCB), and Notre Dame
de Namur University (NDNU).
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 41
Results
The study sample included 55 participants including 40 females (73%) and 15 males
(27%). The age range of participants was ages 19 to 29, with a mean age of 25 and a mode of 26.
Participants were located in various states throughout the country but were primarily from
California (85%). Of the 55 emerging adult participants, 27 (49%) lived in their parental home
and 28 (51%) lived on their own, either with roommates, a partner, or alone.
Three mandala raters assessed the sample independently and assigned each mandala to
their first and second choice stage placement. Inter-rater reliability was established at the .73
level before the review of research data began. Final placement of each mandala required two out
of three raters to agree on a stage. Three mandalas/participants were disregarded from further
analysis due to not obtaining a unanimous stage assignment. The final mandala sample included
an even split of 26 participants living at home and 26 who had moved out, for a total of 52 rated
mandalas. See Figure 1 for the summary of rated mandalas of the sample (N = 52).
A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the relation between
mandala stage and participant age. The relation between these variables was significant, χ2(81, N
= 52) = .0015, p < .05. Mandalas of older participants were more likely to be in the middle of the
round (Stages 5 & 6) than were younger participants, as seen in Figure 2.
A chi-square analysis revealed that mandalas of emerging adults living at home and
mandalas of those who live on their own are not significantly different in their quadrant
placement on The Great Round, χ 2(4, N = 52) = 3.6, p > .05, therefore not supporting the
hypothesis. A chi-square analysis of mandala stage and participant EAQ score revealed no
significant difference, χ2(48, N = 52) = .818, p > .05.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 42
See Appendix J for the mandala sample, sorted by assigned stage.
Figure 1. Mandala distribution on The Great Round.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 43
19 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 290
1
2
3
4
5
6
Stage 2Stage 3Stage 5Stage 6Stage 7Stage 8Stage 9Stage 11Stage 12
Age
Am
ount
of M
anda
las
Figure 2. Amount of mandalas in each stage, by age.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 44
Discussion
Threats to validity in this study were kept to a minimum; however there are some features
of the sample that may affect the generalizability of results. The sample was of respectable size,
including 55 emerging adults, however 73% were female. In addition, the participant
questionnaire did not include any questions regarding race, and so the ethnicity of the sample is
unknown. In order to extend the proximity of participant selection, this study was conducted by
mail; therefore, the researcher was not present when each participant completed their mandala
and there is the possibility that they did not themselves do the artwork. Despite these threats to
validity, the confidence in the generalizability of this study lies in the overall sample size and
that the divided groups of emerging adults (living at home and living independently) were
equivalent in size.
This study hypothesized that mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental
home would exhibit themes in the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala and that
mandalas drawn by emerging adults living independently would exhibit themes in the mature
quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala. The hypothesis was not supported, as there was no
significant difference found between living situation and Great Round quadrant. It is interesting
to note, however, that the majority of mandalas by the emerging adult sample as a whole fell into
the adolescent quadrant (Figure 3), specifically in Stages 5 and 6. Stage 5, the target, is a time of
ritual, routine, and a struggle to maintain control (Fincher, 2010). This conflict directly relates to
the instability emerging adults feel in the loss of structure they previously experienced in
adolescence (Arnett, 2004). The target mandalas of emerging adults may be indicative of the
emerging adult struggle to define their own structure. Stage 6, the dragon fight, represents the
separation of the ego from the parents, and is most notably a search for one’s identity. As Kellog
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 45
(1986) noted, individuals return to this stage many times throughout the life course, as one’s
identity is constantly evolving. Identity exploration was originally designated as an adolescent
crisis, and while Arnett (2004) agrees that it does begin in adolescence as Erickson (1950) stated,
the crisis is intensified in emerging adulthood. The dragon fight mandalas of the emerging adult
sample may be a reflection of their struggle to learn about whom they are and what they want out
of life. The challenge of the dragon fight is to take responsibility for one’s own life (Fincher,
2010), which is consequently also a defining challenge of emerging adulthood.
Figure 3. The percentage of mandalas in each quadrant of the Great Round. Refer to Appendix I
for the complete Great Round quadrant diagram.
Although there was no difference in the quadrant placement of mandalas by emerging
adults living at home and those living independently, each group had a distinct secondary
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 46
quadrant to their adolescent majority. Second to the adolescent quadrant, mandalas of those
living at home were primarily in the death quadrant. Conversely, the secondary quadrant for
emerging adults living independently was in the childhood quadrant. Thus, although the
adolescent quadrant of tasks and challenges embodies the whole of emerging adulthood, those in
different living situations are also at opposite ends of the Great Round spectrum: one group
moving to finish their present journey of the round, and the other having just begun another trip
into its cyclical pattern of development.
The second most prevalent stage for emerging adults living at home was Stage 11,
fragmentation. In this stage everything seems fragmented, shattered, or chaotic: another nod to
the instability of emerging adulthood. One re-experiences the loss and separation from the
comfort of childhood and the task here is to surrender to the fear, and move forward. Emerging
adults living at home have essentially returned to the structure and comfort they knew as
children, and the mandalas in stage 11 may represent their re-experience of having to separate in
order to move on independently outside their parental home.
The second most prevalent stage for emerging adults living independently was Stage 2,
bliss. This stage is a comfortable, carefree time that holds many potentials and infinite
possibilities. The task of this stage is to discriminate among the choices and focus on one
possibility, moving forward into a more individualized consciousness (Fincher, 2010). The bliss
mandalas of emerging adults living independently may be representative of the joy and freedom
they experience living on their own, and the new possibilities of individuality they are now faced
with.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 47
Research Implications
This study has implications for art therapy research in general, which is in constant need
of validation. Although the mandala stages of emerging adults in different living situations were
not significantly different, the mandalas of the sample as a whole provided interesting insight
into the developmental challenges of emerging adulthood. This information may be of use for art
therapists who may be working with Millennial clients, or the next cohort to enter the emerging
adulthood phase. Art based assessments offer a unique glimpse into a client’s life, but they have
yet to prove high enough standards of validity and reliability to be used as a sole measure. This
study may aid in the advancement of research considering the value of art based developmental
assessment.
Limitations
There are limitations to this study that must be kept in mind when considering
generalizability. Participants were recruited for the study primarily by internet, thus the sample
was limited to an internet savvy population. The period of emerging adulthood is unique to
relatively affluent communities that provide the resources for people to explore their options into
the early and mid-20’s, thus recruitment for participants did not take culture or socio-economic
status into consideration. The researcher did receive feedback from several participants that they
did not agree with the study’s definition of adulthood, which was based on Arnett’s (2004)
theory of emerging adulthood. Arnett (2007) notes that some aspects of the theory of emerging
adulthood are likely to be modified with further research, and the main features of emerging
adulthood will certainly vary among cultures.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 48
Finally, there may be limitations regarding the mandalas, as their categorization may be
subject to the experiential bias of the mandala raters. There was no uniform training for the
raters, although each received the same rating guide as a foundation. Raters were chosen based
on their experience and professed confidence in their stage identification of The Great Round.
Future Research
Additional research is needed to explore the value of mandalas as an assessment tool.
Considering that there was significance between age and mandala stage, future research may
apply a study such as this to a wider sample across the life span. Also, given the observed
controversy surrounding the definition of adulthood, a future study may look at this definition as
a general, changing concept across race, location, or socio-economic status. Likewise, research
may surround the difference of adulthood in the gay community, as marriage and children are
often considered entry into adulthood, and both features can be considered controversial or even
illegal for homosexual individuals.
Research of art therapy in general is needed to further the validity of its use and to gain the
respect it deserves in the study and advancement of psychology.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 49
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Appendix A
Participant Recruitment Announcement
BE PART OF A STUDY ON EMERGING ADULTHOOD
Are you between 18 and 29 years of age?
Are you definitely not a teenager, but maybe not yet a full-fledged adult?
What is an emerging adult? Emerging adults have not yet achieved full adulthood which is
defined as: leaving home, finishing school, becoming financially independent, getting married,
and having a child. If you have not accomplished all of the previous milestones, you are probably
what is now being called an “emerging adult.”
The purpose of this research is to learn more about emerging adults in light of our economic
context and to explore the use of mandalas as a reflection that development. Yes, there is art
involved; however, creativity and skill are completely irrelevant. I promise!
If you have questions about eligibility or wish to participate please contact me:
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 55
Appendix B
Informed Consent to Participate in a Research Project
Title of Research: The use of mandalas as a developmental assessment of emerging adulthood
Name of Principle Investigator (PI): Laury Rappaport, Ph. D., ATR-BC
Contact Information for the PI: (650) 508-3674; E-mail: [email protected]
Name of Student Investigator (SI): Sara Barulich
Contact Information for the SI: (650) 619-6028; [email protected]
A. Research Purpose and Background
The purpose of this research is to explore the use of mandalas as a developmental
assessment of emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood as a life phase has only recently been
proposed by Jeffrey Arnett in 2000. This unique period of development where one is no longer
an adolescent but not yet a full-fledged adult is most notable at this time due to the current
economic context. To date, there is no art-based research involving this cohort. Art can not only
be a reflection of development, but also a means of understanding growth. Examining this
burgeoning phase of emerging adulthood through art would provide a unique insight into the
experience and growth of this cohort.
B. Procedure
In voluntarily consenting to participate in this research study, I understand:
1. I will be asked to complete a questionnaire regarding emerging adulthood.
2. I will be asked to create a mandala.
3. I will be asked to return research materials via postal mail.
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 56
4. Artwork may be reproduced for use in a research thesis and for possible presentation
and/or publication.
5. The researcher will return original artwork to me within six months of submission if I
indicate this request.
C. Risks
There is a minimal risk to participating in this study. Participants may experience stress related to
participating in a research study. If at any point participants find that engaging in the study
becomes too overwhelming they may drop out at any time. If needed, participants that live in the
bay area may utilize the psychotherapy resources listed below. If the participant lives outside the
bay area the researcher will assist them in finding psychotherapy resources in their region.
Integral Counseling Center (San Francisco)
2140 Pierce Street, San Francisco
(415) 776-3109; [email protected]
www.integralcounseling.org
National Alliance on Mental Illness
Information Helpline: 1 (800) 950-NAMI
(6264)
www.nami.org
D. Benefits
There are some potential benefits to participating in this study. Participants may enjoy the
calming nature of mandala creation and take pleasure in using the art materials. In addition,
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 57
participants may experience a sense of fulfillment by contributing to the field of art therapy
research.
E. Confidentiality
All data will be kept confidential and will be used for research purposes only. To ensure
confidentiality participants will be assigned a numerical code to be placed on all forms and
artwork. Informed Consent and Art Consent forms will be stored separately from any data that
containing codes. Data will be kept for three years and then appropriately destroyed; however, if
this study is published data will be kept for seven years and then appropriately destroyed.
F. Alternatives
I am free to decline to participate in this research study.
G. Costs/Compensation
There will be no costs to me as a result of participating in this research study. There will be no
compensation for my participation in this research study.
H. Questions
Sara Barulich, the Student Investigator, will be available to answer any questions concerning my
involvement in the research project. She may be reached by phone: (650) 619-6028; by E-mail:
[email protected], or in writing at the Art Therapy Psychology Department,
Notre Dame de Namur University, 1500 Ralston Avenue, Gavin Hall, Belmont CA 94002. Dr.
Laury Rappaport, the Principle Investigator, will also be available to answer any questions
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 58
regarding this research study. Dr. Laury Rappaport may be reached by phone: 650-508-3674; or
by E-mail: [email protected].
PARTICIPATION IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY IS VOLUNTARY. I am free to choose
not to participate in this research study, or I may withdraw my participation at any point
without penalty.
Print Name ___________________________ Date_____________________________
Research Participant
Signature ____________________________ Date______________________________
Research Participant
Signature ____________________________ Date______________________________
Principle Investigator
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 59
Appendix C
Permission to Use Artwork
I hereby give permission to Sara Barulich to use my artwork and photographs of my artwork in
an art therapy research project. I understand that my name will not be attached to my artwork.
The researcher will not reveal my identity to any other researchers involved in this project.
I also understand that some of the artwork or photographs of my artwork may be used in
professional art therapy publications or presentations. No information related to my identity will
be used in any way in these publications or presentations.
Print Name ___________________________ Date_____________________________ Research Participant
Signature ____________________________ Date______________________________ Research Participant
Signature ____________________________ Date______________________________ Principle Investigator
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 60
Appendix D
Debriefing Statement
Thank you for your participation in this study! The data collected is for research purposes
only. The purpose of this research was to explore the use of mandalas as a developmental
assessment of emerging adulthood. All information obtained will remain confidential. Your
participation in this research is a valuable contribution to the field of art therapy research, of
which there is none for emerging adults. Your involvement will also add to research concerning
the characteristics of this newly identified phase of development.
Sara Barulich, the Student Investigator, will be available to answer any questions
concerning my involvement in the research project. She may be reached by phone: (650) 619-
6028; by E-mail: [email protected], or in writing at the Art Therapy
Psychology Department, Notre Dame de Namur University, 1500 Ralston Avenue, Gavin Hall,
Belmont CA 94002. Dr. Laury Rappaport, the Principle Investigator, will also be available to
answer any questions regarding this research study. Dr. Laury Rappaport may be reached by
phone: 650-508-3674; or by E-mail: [email protected].
If you are in need of additional support and live in the bay area, please utilize the
psychotherapy resources listed below. If you live outside the bay area the researcher will assist
you in finding psychotherapy resources in your region.
Integral Counseling Center (San Francisco)2140 Pierce Street, San Francisco(415) 776-3109; [email protected]
National Alliance on Mental IllnessInformation Helpline: 1 (800) 950-NAMI (6264)[email protected]
Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 61
Appendix E
Participant Instructions
Dear Participant,
To begin, I would like to thank you for sharing your valuable time and energy with this study
and for contributing to the field of art therapy research. Your participation is very much
appreciated!
Please take some time to look over and read the package contents. If you have any questions
about the research study or the details of this package, please feel free to contact me.
1. Please read and sign the consent forms.
2. Please complete the Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire.
3. Please approach the art component as follows: (this is in no way related to artistic ability)
a. Find a safe and comfortable space of your choosing with a flat work surface.
b. Take a quiet moment in whatever way is comfortable for you.
c. Using the provided art materials, or any other materials of your choosing, fill the
circle with color and form;
i. Draw whatever comes to mind—there is no right or wrong way to create a
mandala.
4. Following the completion of your art piece, please read the debriefing statement.
5. Once finished, please place all materials in the provided pre-paid envelope and deposit in
the mail. Please keep the art materials as a small token of my appreciation. If you would
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like your art piece returned to you after the study, please indicate this by writing “please
return” on the back of your mandala.
Once again, thank you for participating in this study! Please feel free to contact me with any
questions or concerns that you may have.
In gratitude,
Sara Barulich
231 2nd Avenue
San Mateo, CA 94401
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Appendix F
Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (EAQ)
The following questions refer to characteristics of the lives of emerging adults. There are
no right and wrong answers to these questions. Please answer all questions sincerely, and
as accurately as you possibly can.
Demographic details:
1) Gender M / F
2) Year of birth: _______
3) City, State: ________
4) You reside with:
a) Parents
b) Permanent intimate partner
c) Roommates in a rented apartment
d) Dormitory
e) Alone
5) Relationship Status:
a) Single
b) Committed Relationship
c) Married/lifelong partnership:
Years of marriage ___
6) Number of brothers and sisters including yourself ___________
7) Education, highest attained:
a) High school
b) Junior College
c) College
d) Graduate School
e) Current student, level:_________
f) Other: ________
8) Occupation:____________________
a) Part time
b) Full time
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In the following questionnaire, please rate the suitable answer for you on the scale from 1 to 7. Please note that the terms of the scales change according to the questions. Thank you very much for your cooperation!
The questions in the following section of the questionnaire refer to various aspects of your life at the present time.
1) To what extent do you consider yourself a mature person?1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all absolutely
2) To what extent are you financially independent?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all absolutely
3) To what extent do you finance by yourself your daily expenses?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all fully
4) If you reside separately from your parents, who finance the rent?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
my parents finance the I finance
rent fully the rent fully by myself
5) At this stage of your life, to what extent, in your opinion, can you be financially independent?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all absolutely
6) To what extent is it clear to you, what will be your profession in life?
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
have no idea absolutely clear
7) Do you think that you will practice in the future the area which you study right now?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all absolutely
8) To what extent is the area you intend to practice similar to your parents' occupational area?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
very similar very different
9) To what extent are you active in order to establish your professional direction?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all very much so
10) A commitment for an intimate relationship is absolutely unnecessary at my age.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
don't agree at all agree completely
11) Do you have, or have you had in the past after the age of 21, a significant intimate relationship for over half a year with one permanent partner?
yes / no
12) To what extent do you believe that within a year or two, you will live with a permanent intimate partner?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
no chance absolutely sure
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13) In your opinion, to what extent are you ready for a permanent intimate relationship?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all very much so
14) To what extent would you like to have in the future a relationship or family life similar to that of your parents?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
absolutely different very similar
15) How much do the things that you are doing nowadays promote you towards your goals in life?1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all very much so
16) To what extent do you feel mature enough to decide on your direction in life?1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all very much so
17) In your opinion, to what extent will your general lifestyle in the future resemble that of your parents?1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Will be very different will be very similar
18) To what extent would you say that you are still "searching for your inner self"?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all very much so
19) Please specify to what extent you perform by yourself each of the following:
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all completely by myself
laundry: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
food: 1 2 3 4 5 6
cleaning: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
shopping: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
errands: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
health: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20) Family reasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 not at all very essential
Thank you for your participation!
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Appendix G
Mandala Rating Guide(Compilation of Kellog (1982) & Fincher (2010))
Quadrant: Childhood
Stage Common Symbols Colors
Stage 1: The Void -A lustrous white area, often in center
-spiders webBlack &
White
Blue &
Yellow
Stage 2: Bliss -images of water
-snake
-lack of form or symmetry
-fluidity
-numerous similar tiny forms
-may spill out of mandala
Blues
Yellows
Pale Orchids
Pastel Pinks
Stage 3: Labyrinth/Spiral
-spiral pattern
-curving lines
-green spiral = growth
-no pronounced center design
Springtime
Pastels
Brights
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Quadrant: Adolescence
Stage 4: Beginning -a center form such as dot, circle,
upward pointing triangle
-small boat at sea
-figure eight
-curved lines
-circle within a circle
Pale Pinks
Lavenders
Blues
Stage 5: The Target -resemble a target
-concentric circles of colors and
patterns radiate outward
-sometimes see mandala as
sphere to identify target
Bright
Clashing
Stage 6: The Dragon Fight -division of two halves
-3rd object or motif imposed on
split
-landscapes
-split is only straight line
-most lines curved
Nature
Complementary
Quadrant: Maturity
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Quadrant: Death
Stage 7: Squaring of the Circle
-designs of four: crosses, squares,
stars, flowers
-more straight lines
Gold
Yellow
Stage 8: The Functioning Ego
-designs of five: stars, flowers,
etc.
-four armed swastika
Stage 9: Crystallization -symmetrically balanced designs
-contains even numbers greater
than four: six pointed star, eight
petaled flower
-a center with projections
expanding outward
-appear static, capture of dazzling
display
Feeling Tones
Variety
Contrasts of
dark & bright
Stage 10: Gates of Death -suggest cross of crucifixion
-each quadrant may be different
color
-wheel motif
-designs with X
-downward pointing triangle
Dark Indigo Blue
Reds
Stage 11: Fragmentation -pie image, each slice different
-quilt with no order or harmony
-no center
-layered colors, messy
Dark
Muddy
Overly bright
Psychedelic
Stage 12: Transcendent Ecstasy
-suggest fountain of light
-human figures with outstretched
arms
-birds in flight
-chalice receiving infusion from
above
-implied focal point near top
Combination of
dark & light
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Appendix H
The 12 Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala
Kellog (1982)
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Appendix I
The Great Round Flow
Adapted by Phillis Frame, M.A., A.T.R.
from Joan Kellog, M.A., A.T.R. (1982)
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Appendix J
Sorted Mandala Sample
Stage 2: Bliss
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Stage 3: Labyrinth/Spiral
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Stage 5: The Target
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Stage 6: Dragon Fight
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Stage 7: The Squaring of the Circle
Stage 8: The Functioning Ego
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Stage 9: Crystallization
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Stage 11: Fragmentation
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Stage 12: Transcendent Ecstasy