THE U. S. FIGHTING MAN'S

CODE

Published by the

OFFICE OF ARMED FORCES

INFORMATION and EDUCATION

Department of Defense

November 1955

This publication includes the report of the Secretary of Defense's Advisory Committee

on Prisoners of War

PROPERTY OF u.s. ARMY THE JUDGE,ADVOCATE GENERAL'S SCHOOl LIBRARY

CON1

Letter of Transmittal

I. Background

ll. A Brief Look at Histor;

ID. The American Fighting

IV. A Code of Conduct for

V. Korean Summary

VI. The Road Ahead for An:Addenda

EXECUTIVE ORDER 10631

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR MEMBERS OF THE

ARMED FORCES OF THE UNITED STATES

By virtue of the authority vested in me as President of the United States, and as Com­mander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the United States, I hereby prescribe the Code of Conduct for Members of the Armed Forces of the United States which is attached to this ·order and hereby made a part thereof.

Every member of the Armed Forces of the United States is expected to measure up to the standards embodied in this Code of Conduct while he is in combat or in captivity. To ensure achievement of these standards, each member of the Armed Forces liable to

. capture shall be provided with specific training and instruction designed to better equip him to counter and withstand all enemy efforts against him, and shall be fully instructed as to the behavior and obligations expected of him during combat or captivity.

The Secretary of Defense (and the Secretary of the Treasury with respect to the Coast Guard except when it is serving as part of the Navy) shall take such action as is deemed necessary to implement this order and to disseminate and make the said Code known to all members of the Armed Forces of the United States.

THE WHITE HOUSE, August 17, 1955.

In signing this order, the President said: "No American prisoner of war will be forgotten by the United States. Every available means will be employed by our government to establish contact with, to support and to obtain the release of all our prisoners of war. Furthermore, the laws of the United States provide for the support and care of dependents of members of the Armed Forces including those who become prisoners of war. I assure dependents of such prisoners that these laws will continue to provide for their welfare."

E ORDER 10631

FOR MEMBERS OF THE

F THE UNITED STATES

~uthority vested in me asited States, and as Com­the Armed Forces of theeby prescribe the Code ofers of the Armed Forceswhich is attached to this~de a part thereof.the Armed Forces of the)ected to measure up to:odied in this Code ofin combat or in captivity.lent of these standards,~ Armed Forces liable toided with specific training~ned to better equip himb.stand all enemy effortsall be fully instructed asI obligations expected ofor captivity.

lefense (and the Secretaryth respect to the Coastit is serving as part of

,such action as is deemednent this order and toke the said Code known;he' Armed Forces of the

.I'd~r, the Presidentin prisoner of war will. the United States.eans will be employedt to establish contactand to obtain the

r prisoners of war.laws of the Unitedthe support and care,em bers of the Armedthose who becomeI assure dependentsthat these laws will~ for their welfare."

CONTENTS

Letter of Transmittal

I. Background II. A Brief Look at History

ill. The American Fighting Man and Korea IV. A Code of Conduct for the Future V. Korean Summary

VI. The Road Ahead for America and the Armed Forces Addenda

III

OFFICE OF THIWAS

Defense Advisory Committl

Dear Mr. Secretary:Your Defense Advisory Comm

been in constant session for the pto submit this report of its delibe

We are certain that many penmittee to recommend courses (J

revolutionar.y as the speed and tlmissile or jet aircraft.

However, our task deals with]We can find no basis for makingon the principles and foundatiofree and strong and on the qualmen of integrity and character.that we have determined on couwe are convinced are best for j

position among free nations.The Code of Conduct we rec<

and a reasonable course for merthe future. The conscience and Iin the support of this Code, andbe provided in our homes, by outhe Armed FOrC'39 will be requi

I live by this Code.America no longer can afford

number of our fighting men beclthe hands of an enemy in some (has brought the challenge to theso the Code we propose may we:if the problem of survival shoul,streets.

And then too the United Staof her high position of worldpropose must consider the stand~

and of our Constitution, as weINations.

• • • • • • •

THE DEFENSE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRISONERS OF WAR

MEMBERS

Mr. Carter L. Burgess, Assistant Secretary of Defense (Man­power, Personnel and Reserve)-Chairman.

General John E. Hull, USA (Retired)-Vice Chairman. Dr. Frank B. Berry, Assista~t Secretary of Defense (Health

and Medical). Mr. Hugh M. Milton, II, Assistant Secretary of the Army

(Manpower and Reserve Forces). . Mr. Albert Pratt, Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Personnel

and Reserve Forces). Mr. David S. Smith, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force

(Manpower and Personnel). Lt. General Frank W. Milburn, USA (Retired). Vice Admiral C. A. Lockwood, USN (Retired). Lt. General Idwal H. Edwards, USAF (Retired). Major General Merritt A. Edson, USMC (Retired).*

Mr. Stephen S. Jackson-Committee Counsel. Mr. Theodore Roscoe-Special Advisor. Mr. Edward Wetter-Office of the Assistant Secretary of

Defense (Research 'and Development).

STAFF

Colonel Horace E. Townsend, USA-8tafl' Director. Colonel John C. Steele, USA-Deputy Staff Director. Lt. Colonel Robert B. Rigg, USA-Member. Commander Fred W. Frank, Jr., USN-Member. Lt. Colonel Robert E. Work, USAF-Member. Lt. Colonel F. B. Nihart, USMC-Member. Major Donald B. Churchman, USA-Administration.

*Died 14 August 1955

Iv

~BERS

nt Secretary of the Air Force

•"""

ssistant Secretary of the Armyrces).ecretary of the Navy (Personnel

1, USA (Retired)., USN (Retired).I, USAF (Retired).on, USMC (Retired).*

,ant Secretary of Defense (Man­ve)-Chairman.Retired)-Vice Chairman.:t Secretary of Defense (Health

mittee Counsel.I Advisor.of the Assistant Secretary ofllopment).

'AFF

USA-8taft' Director.-Deputy Staff Director.~4':-Menil>er.f·;·USN~Member.", ···~Member.

Member.A4dministration.

;ORY COMMIITEE ON~S OF WAR

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE WASHINGTON 25, D. C.

July S9, 1955

Defense Advisory Committee on Prisoners of War

Dear Mr. Secretary: Your Defense Advisory Committee on Prisoners of War has

been in constant session for the past two months and is pleased to submit this report of its deliberations and findings.

We are certain that many persons have expected this Com­mittee to recommend courses of action which would be as ' revolutionar.yas the speed and techniques of the latest guided missile or jet aircraft.

However, our task deals with human beings and the Nation. We can find no basis for making recommendations other than on the principles and foundations which have made America free and strong and on the qualities which we associate with men of integrity and character. It is in, this common belief that we have determined on courses of proposed action which we are convinced are best for the United States and fo~ its position among free nations.

The Code of Conduct we recommend sets a high standard and a reasonable course for members of the Armed Forces of the future. The conscience and heart of all America are needed in the support of this Code, and 'the best of training that can be provided in our homes, by our schools and churches and by the Armed Forc~ will be required for all who undertake 'to

, live by this Code. ' America no longer can afford to think in terms of a limited

number of our fighting men becoming prisoners of war and in the hands of an enemy in some distant land. Modern warfare has brought the challenge to the doorstep of every citizen, and so the Code we propose may well be a Code for all Americans if the problem of survival should ever come to our own main streets.

.And then too the United States must constantly be aware of her high position of world leadership, and the Code we propose must consider the standard of the Ten Commandments and of our Constitution, as well as our pledge to the United Nations.

y

surrounding American prisonersSecretaries should make thorou~

8.warded. This continuing reviany excessive sentences, if fOUIsidered and mitigated. This l

account a comparison with senteere for similar offenses.

In concluding, the CommitiAmericans require a unified auduct for our prisoners of war ba<program. This position is alsothe concensus of opinion of allCommittee. From no one did WI

tions on this point than from thwar in Kore~fficersand entis

In taking this position and rEpointed out to the Committee, II

in return America must alwaysupon whom befalls prisoner of \1

able effort in obtaining their earlside.

The Honorable Charles E. Wils<The Secretary of Defense

No Code should overlook the watermarks of America's greatness or bow to the easier courses which might entrap more easily our men as alleged war criminals and weaken their fiber for the many ordeals they may face. We must bear in mind the past and future significance of the reserva­tion made by Soviet Russia and other Communist nations to Article 85 of the· Geneva Conventions of 1949 on prisoners of war.

Past history, the story of Korea and the crises which faced our prisoners of war in that conflict from capture through Operation Big Switch and after, were all carefully considered and are presented in our report. The prisoner of war situa­tion resulting from the Korean War has received a great deal of adverse publicity. As is stated in our account, much of that adverse publicity was due to lack of information and consequent misconceptions in regard to the problem.

A few statistics may prove reassuring to anyone who thinks the Armed Forces were undermined by Communist propa­ganda in Korea.

A total of about 1,600,000 Americans served in the Korean War. Of the 4,428 Americans who survived Communist im­prisonment, only a maximum of 192 were found chargeable with serious offenses against comrades or the United States. Or put it another way. Only lout of 23 American POWs was suspected of serious misconduct.

The contrast with civilian figures tells an interesting story. According to the lat'e8t F. B. I. statistics, 1 in 15 persons in the United States has been mested and fingerprinted for the commission, or the alleged commission, of criminal acts.

When one realizes that the Armed Forces come from a croSB­section of the national population, the record seems fine indeed. It seems better than that when one weighs in the balance the tremendous pressures the American POWs were under. Weighed in that balance, they cannot be found wanting.

We examined the publicly alleged divergent action taken by the Services toward prisoners repatriated from Korea. The disposition of all cases was governed by the facts and circum­stances surrounding each case, and was as consistent, equitable and uniform as could be achieved by any two boards·or courts. As legal steps, including appeals, are completed and in light of the uniqueness of the Korean War and the particular conditions

'Ii

Ie the wa.termarks of America'ssier courses which might entrapeged war criminals and weakenieals they may face. We mustluture significance of the reserva­and other Communist nations toonventions of 1949 on prisoners

Korea and the crises which faced,t conflict from capture through'ter, were all carefully consideredort. The prisoner of war situa­:an War has received a great dealstated in our account, much of

due to lack of information andI regard to the problem.reassuring to anyone who thinks

lermined by Communist propa-

Americans served in the KoreanlSwho survived Communist 00­

"of 192 were found chargeable';¢J:'ades or the United States.

·<J.23 American POWs was

• ter •paIl m '. eating story.·~,lin·15 persons in

,cd,:fingerprinted for the.. rill, •.of criminal acts.

..;,·~Forces come from a cross­iron,.the record seems :fine indeed.m one weighs in the balance theAmerican POWs were under.po cannot be found wanting.Ueged divergent action taken byrepatriated from Korea. The

rerned by the facts and circum­and 'ras as consistent, equitableed by any two boards'or courts.Is, are completed and in light ofrar and the particular conditions

surrounding American prisoners of war, the appropriate Service Secretaries should make thorough reviews of all punishments a.warded. This continuing review should make certain that any excessive sentences, if found to exist, are carefully con­sidered and mitigated. This review should also take into account a comparison with sentences meted out to other prison­ers for similar offenses.

In concluding, the Committee unanimously agreed that Americans require a unified and purposeful standard of con­duct for our prisoners of war backed up by a first class training program. This position is also wholeheartedly supported by the concensus of opinion of all those who consulted with the Committee. From no one did we receive stronger recommenda­tions on this point than from the former American prisoners of war in Korea~fficersand enlisted men.

In taking this position and recommending this Code, it was pointed out to the Committee, and the Committee agr-ees, that in return America must always stand behind every American upon whom befalls prisoner of war status and spare no reason­able effort in obtaining their earliest possible release back to our side. /

Sincerely,

~.'lJs"",. _.~.~

~1fE; C/;fG" ~

The Honorable Charles E. Wilson The Secretary of Defense

vii

" ..[i

IBACKGROUNDThe Fortunes of War

Fighting men declare it is neitlJbe taken prisoner. In the sense tit, but finds himself unable to aVIOften, like a motor crash, it comestoo, it is accompanied by injury.painful and in the end it may prowith many accidents, it is "bad lu

Fighting men speak of "the foluck cannot smile on all particilose. The man taken captive is (of Misfortune. That can be one

But the prisoner is always a soltune can change. In the· U. S. 8'maxim: "Luck is where you find isearching. It may come by way I

for escape. Opportunity or luckoner exchange. They also serve Vi

Lord helps those who hustle in thThese are the views of fighting

been prisoners of war-those whcvictions, derived from experiencfallacy-the misconception that ahero. Conversely, they do not cferior performance. Everything (the circumstances involved.

Public Interests and MisconceptClearly one should not general

all into a single slot, or jump froPublic opinion tends to settle forconvenient. The "single slot" isequals-all deduction, quickly arri,some thinking. But these hand:distort factuality. Misconcepticthere has been misinformation 0

opinion may go far askew.In the case of American POW

prisoner in Korea-misconcepticmost part they are based on errcequals-all deductions. Too, for

365488mg--55----2

I BACKGROUND The Fortunes of War

Fighting men declare it is neither dishonorable nor heroic to be taken prisoner. In the sense that the victim does not covet it, but finds himself unable to avoid it, capture is an accident. Often, like a motor crash, it comes as complete surprise. Often, too, it is accompanied by injury. Nearly always the upshot is painful and in the end it may prove fatal. And, as is the case with many accidents, it is "bad luck."

Fighting men speak of "the fortunes of war." In combat, luck cannot smile on aU participants. Some.are bound to lose. The man taken captive is one of the unlucky-a Soldier of Misfortune. That can be one definition for war-prisoner.

But the prisoner is always a soldier, adversity despite. For­tune can change. In theU. S. Submarine Service there is the maxim: "Luck is where you find it." The POW must keep on searching. It may come by way of chance for rescue or chance for escape. Opportunity or luck may favor him through pris­oner exchange. They also serve who only stand and wait. The Lord helps those who hustle in the meantime.

These are the views of fighting men. And of men who have been prisoners of war-those who have "had it." Their con­victions, derived from experience, serve to dispel a popular fallacy-the misconception that a prisoner of war is, perforce, a hero. Conversely, they do not chalk his capture down to in­ferior performance. Everything depends on the individual and the circumstances involved.

Public Interests and Misconceptions Clearly one shoUld not generalize about POWs, lump them

all into a single slot, or jump from "some to all" conclusions. Public opinion tends to settle for generalities because they are convenient. The "single slot" is easy to handle. The some­equals-all deduction, quickly arrived at, does not entail bother­some thinking. But these handy and quick devices serve to distort factuality. Misconceptions result. If, in addition, there has been misinformation or lack of information, public opinion may go far askew.

In the case of American POWs-in particular, those taken prisoner in Korea-misconceptions are abundant, For the most part they are based on erroneous generalities and some­equals-all deductions. Too, for· reasons which will become

1

II

A BRIEF LOOK AT HISlO

From the Beginning of TimeFor a full understanding of tol

background knowledge of the J:established precedents which pr(to shed light on preparation for :

Primitive man and his barbalenslaved all foemen who were calthe conqueror to hold a capturedSuch a victim was Lot. Accorcb~ the forces of Abraham-perhlon record.

But the vanquished of the ancmination. One finds in Samuel:. . . go and smite Amalek and utspare them not." Saul was CODI

took a few Amalekite prisoners.of Syracuse was exiled for refuscaptives. But it seemed mankincto humane treatment of captivesancient. Code of Manu (about 201was enjoined to do no injury to thenemy.

Less humane, the Romans spooften using them for target pICaptives were tortured for publicriors rowed Caesar's naval galleyland were killed when they couldand slay onl" Germanicus ord"Do not take prisonersl We widestroyed." Thumbs sometimeseign gladiator or the stalwart Wf

But mercy to the conquered foe 1

Medieval ConceptsChivalry developed in the WE

Christian ·civilization, the concelthe Dark Ages, soldiering remaiknighthood served to ten:per tJ

clear, the public has heretofore not been fully informed on the details necessary for balanced judgment.

Definitions were and are unclear or lacking. To begin with, just what is a prisoner of war? The man and his situation may be readily visualized. But what is his military status? What conduct is required of ,the prisoner in regard to enemy interroga­tion? What rules and regulations must he follow during con­finement? What are his rights and privileges as codified by various international conventions and protocols?

What treatment may the .prisoner of war expect from the "detaining power," his captors? What conditions are imposed by the so-called "laws of war?" Can a POW be tried as a war criminal? What is a war criminal?

Did the American POW in Korea face some novel and alarming menace from his Communist captors? Were nearly all prisoners tortured or "brain washed?" Did many POWs in Korea adopt Marxist doctrine? Were there hundreds of subverted turncoats, traitors, voluntary collaborators? In punishing such malefactors was there divergence in the military Semces-some lenient; others "Spartan?"

On many of these and similar questions the citizen on the home front has remained largely uninformed. Too often the POW, himself, has not known the answers.

Appointment of the Defense Advisory Committee Every war has its disturbing aftermath. There is always

another side to the Victory coin. If the victory is not clearly imprinted and the war has ended in what seems a stalemate, the coin becomes suspect. In any event, there is usually a post-war inventory. If losses have been heavy and objectives obscure, the coin may seem debased.

The inventory after the War of 1812 was unpleasant. There were some rude reactions after the Spanish-American War.

In a great war, some battles are inevitably lost. Military leaders study these battles, determined to uncover .mistakes, if any were made, 80 that errors in kind may be avoided in the future.

Correction of possible errors and the need for a unified plan for the future led the Department of Defense to examine closely the prisoner-or-war situation in Korea. The Defense Advisory Committee on Prisoners of War was organized to study the problem.

ire not been fully informed on thed judgment.nclear or lacking. To begin with,,? The man and his situation mayThat is his military status? Whatloner in regard to enemy interroga­l.tions must he follow during con­hts and privileges as codified bytions and protocols?prisoner of war expect from the~? What conditions are imposediLr?" Can a POW be tried as ar criminal?in Korea face some novel and

ommunist captors? Were nearly'ain washed?" Did many POWs}trine? Were there hundreds of~, voluntary collaborators? InitS there divergence in the militarys "Spartan?"war questions the citizen on thegely uninformed. Too often ther the answers.

~ Advisory Committeeing aftermath. There is alwaysoin.H the victory is not clearlyndedin.what seems a stalemate,[n any event, there is usually aJ.h@ovebeenheavy and objectives~based. _ _r of-1812was unpleasant. Therer the Spanish-American War.lS are inevitably lost. Militaryletermined to uncover .mistakesIrs in kind may be avoided in th~

s and the need for a unified planent of Defense to examine closely11 Korea. The Defense AdvisoryVar was organized to study the

II

A BRIEF LOOK AT HISTORY

From the Beginning of Time For a full understanding of today's prisoner of war problem,

background knowledge of the past is essential. History has established precedents which provide the knowledge necessary to shed light on preparation for the future.

Primitive man and his barbarian descendant annihilated or enslaved all foemen who were captured. In time it occurred to the conqueror to hold a captured headman or leader as hostage. Such a victim was Lot. According to Scripture he was freed by the forces of Abraham-perhaps the earliest prisoner-rescue on record.

But the vanquished of the ancient world usually faced exter­mination. One finds in Samuel: "thus saith the Lord of Hosts . . . go and smite Amalek and utterly destroy all they have, and spare them not." Saul was considered disobedient because he took a few Amalekite prisoners. Six cen~uries later Hemocritus of Syracuse was exiled for refusing to slaughter all Athenian captives. But it seemed mankind had a conscience. In respect to humane treatment of captives, it found voice in India in the ancient. Code of Manu (about 200 B. C.). The Hindu warrior was enjoined to do no injury to the defenseless or to the subdued enemy.

Less humane, the Romans sported with their war-prisoners, often using them for target practice or gladiatorial shows. Captives were tortured for public amusement. Enslaved war­riors rowed Caesar's naval galleys to North Africa and Britain, and were killed when they could no longer pull an oar. "Slay, and slay on!" Germanicus ordered his Rhineland invaders. "Do not take prisoners! We will have no peace until all are destroyed." Thumbs sometimes went up for the valiant for­eign gladiator or the stalwart warrior who begged no quarter. But mercy to the conquered foe was usually a whim.

Medieval Concepts Chivalry developed in the Western World with the rise of

Christian civilization, the concept of "Do Unto Others." In the Dark Ages, soldiering remained savage, but the codes of knighthood served to ten:per the "Yarrior's steel. The true

3

nesty was granted to deserters buthe enemy. Duress or coercion "only in event of threatened immEfirst American definition of requirETreaty of 1785 no standa.rd of (conditions of confinement, care ane

The American Civil WarDuring the Civil Wat there was

ment afforded prisoners. About 3the Southern forces and about 5,4,armies joined the Federal army.

Prisoner conduct after capture w,ment General Or:der No. 207, 3 JulJthe order provided that it was theescape. This order apparently vspread practices of surrender andfurther combatant service. PrOSIbased on three criteria:

-misconduct where there v-active participation in co-failure to return voluntar

Nine years after the Civil War f

rights of prisoners was drafted 1(1874). It was signed by fifteen nthe agreement.

World War. I C1nd IIIn 1907 the Hague Regula.tions

to captivity in war. These regulaventions of 1929 and 1949. The ta.nd it recently ratified the GenevlConventions set forth in detail theshould be afforded prisoners, butscribe the conduct which a natronwho may become prisoners. Thistion by sovereign powers.

There are, however, several prwhich do require specific conduct.laws, regulations and orders in for,the detaining power. They may 1rules. They must divulge name,lof birth.

knight refused to slay for slaughter's sake. Conquering, he could be merciful to a gallant opponent. His prisoner was not a plaything for sadistic ente,tainment.

If the chivalric code was sometimes more honored in breach than in observance, the ideal-the Golden Rule-was there. It was threatened by intolerant ideologies and the fanaticism which fosters atrocities. Cruel pogroms and religious wars bloodied Medieval Europe. The Islamic conquests were savagery untrammeled. Woe to the Unbeliever captured by the stepsons of Abu Bekrl But even as it clashed with the sword, the scimitar acquired tempering. Possessed of his own code, the Moslem warrior could appreciate gallantry.

The knight was called upon to assume the obligations of noblesse oblige. Warrior or liegeman, facing battle, was pledged to remain true to his king or cause, even if captured. Under any circumstance treason would merit retributive punishment. Treachery, the disclosure of a trust or the deliverance of a friend to the enemy, was perfidious-the mark of Judas the Betrayer.

Thus rules for the fighting man in combat or in captivity were linked to knightly concepts of duty, honor, loyalty to friend, and gallantry to foe.

Some time during the Crusades a rule evolved in regard to prisoner interrogation. The captive knight was permitted to divulge his name and rank-admissions necessitated by the game of ransom. A necessity for prisoner identification, the rule holds today, as iInposed by the modern Geneva Conven~

tions: "Every prisoner of war, when questioned on the subject, is

bound to give only his name, rank, date of birth, and army, regimental, personal or serial number."

In Europe during the 17th Century the concept emerged that prisoners of war were in custody of the capturing sovereign or state. No rules for their treatment had yet been formulated, but they were protected from servitude and personal revenge. Later, during the 18th Century, captivity was considered '& means of preventing return to friendly forces. This was a step forward. Military prisoners were no longer considered guilty of crimes against the state.

The American Revolution To discourage desertions during the Revolution, the United

States established the death penalty for those. prisoners who, after capture, took up arms in the service of the enemy. Am­

4

laughter's sake. Conquering, heopponent. His prisoner was not

iainment.lmetimes more honored in breachJ-the Golden Rule-was there.tnt ideologies and the fanaticismuel pogroms and religious wars

The Islamic conquests were~ to the Unbeliever captured byBut even as it clashed with the~empering. Possessed of his ownld appreciate gallantry.)D to assume the obligations ofgeman, facing battle, was pledgedcause, even if captured. UnderlId merit retributive punishment.irust or the deliverance of a friend-the mark of Judas the Betrayer.Ian in combat or in capt.ivity weref duty, honor, loyalty to friend,

ades a rule evolved in regard to~aptive knight was permitted to-admissions necessitated by ther for prisoner identification, theby the modem Geneva Conven~

en questioned on the subject, isrank, date of birth, and army,

number."entury the concept emerged thatiyof the capturing sovereign or~ment had yet been formulated,servitude, and personal revenge.rry,captivity was considered atriendly forces. This was a step'ere no longer considered guilty

ing the Revolution, the United9nalty for those. prisoners who,~he service of the enemy. Am-

nesty was granted to deserters but not those who deserted to the enemy. Duress or coercion was'recognized as mitigating only in event of threatened immediate death. This was the first American definition of requir¢",prisoner conduct. In the Treaty of 1785 no standa.rd of conduct was prescribed but conditions of confinement, care and parole were define<J.

The American Civil War During the Civil War there was some regression in the treat­

ment afforded prisoners. About 3,170 Federal prisoners joined the Southern forces and about 5,452 prisoners of the Southern armies joined the Federal army.

Prisoner conduct after capture was mentioned in War Depart­ment General Or.der No. 207, 3 July 1863. Among other things, the order provided that it was the duty of a prisoner of war to escape. This order apparently was intended to curb wide­spread practices of surrender and subsequent parole to escape further combatant service. Prosecution for misconduct was based on three criteria:

-misconduct where there was no duress or coercion. -active participation in combat against Federal forces. -failure to return voluntarily.

Nine years after the Civil War a declaration establishing the rights of prisoners was drafted by the Congress of Brussels (1874). It was signed by fifteen nations, none of which ratified the agreement.

World War. I C1nd II In 1907 the Hague Regulations established rules pertaining

to captivity in war. These regulations led to the Geneva Con­ventions of 1929 and 1949. The United States signed all three, and it recently ratified the Geneva Conventions of 1949. The Conventions set forth in detail the rights and protections which should be afforded prisoners, but they do not.specifically pre­scribe the conduct which a nation may require of its personnel who may become prisoners. This is rightfully left for prescrip­tion by sovereign powers.

There are, however, several provisions of the Conventions which do require specific conduct. Prisoners are subject to the laws, regulations and orders in force within the armed forces of the detaining power. They may be punished for infractions of rules. They must divulge name, rank, service number and date of birth.

5

IIITHE AMERICAN FIGHTINGTHE KOREAN BATILE

.Our cause· was simple and jusKorean War were frequently conf

The Korean War had three af

War aspect.:-Notth Koreans fightrol of a dhided country. There'first United Nations' attempt to ssor. And there was the Cold WaIblocking the expansion of Commu

The causes of the war, Unitedneed for Anierican ·intervention "VI

the public mind. This lack of uncitizens and American.fighting mE

The Communists attempted tcondition in both internationalwith our prisoners of war.

Armed with Soviet weapons, Noinvl\ded South Korea on Junebattalion of· the U. S. 24th Info.:Korea from Japan. The divisiOIthe enemy on the outskirts of Seo

The United States began a piec1

forces in Korea. The first unitsprepared for combat. ThousancKorea. Many were veterans of 'at a factory or office job can sloHowever, by Novem,ber 1950, tlcompletely beaten, their capital "VI

remnant forceS were scattered anwas almost at its climax whencrashed over the Yalu.

That was on October 25th.opened a massive counter-offeruretreat. Early in De~ember,Amtrapped at the Chang-Jin Resenbroke the trap and fought ·their ,were evacuated. There ensued

A Code of Conduct Although all the Services had regulations, the U. S. Armed

Forces have never had a clearly defined code of conduct appli­cable to American prisoners after capture. There are piece­meal legal restrictions and regulations but no comprehensive codification. However, despite this lack of a code, American troops have demonstrated through all wars that they do not surrender easily, they have never surrendered in large bodies and they have in general performed admirably in their country's cause as prisoners of war.

6

B had regulations, the U. S. Armedearly defined code of conduct appli­rs after capture. There are piece-regulations but no comprehensive

~pite this lack of a code, Americanthrough all wars that they do not. never surrendered in large bodies~formed admirably in their country's

III

THE AMERICAN FIGHTING MAN AND KOREA

THE KOREAN BATTLE .Our cause was simple and just, but our objectives in the

Korean War were frequently confused in the public mind~

The Korean War had three aspects. There was the Civil War aspectr--Notth Koreans fighting South Koreans for con­trol of a dhided country. There was the collective aspect-the first United Nations' attempt to stop a treaty breaking aggres­sor. And there was the Cold War aspect-the Western powers blocking the expansion of Communist imperialism.

The causes of the war, United Nations'· objectives and the need for American ·intervention were not clearly delineated in the public mind. This lack of understanding prevailed among citizens and American.fighting men.

The Communists attempted to exploit to the fullest this condition in both international propaganda and in dealing with our prisoners of war.

Armed with Soviet weapons, North Korean Communist forces invl\ded South Korea on June 25, 1950. Six days later a battalion of. the U. S. 24th Infantry Division was rushed to Korea from Japan. The division was soon in action against the enemy on the outskirts of Seoul.

The United States began a piecemeal build-up of the fighting forces in Korea. The firs~ units to reach Korea were not well prepared for combat. Thousands of reserves were ·flown to Korea. Many were veterans of World War II, but five years· at a factory or office job can slow up a man's trigger finger. However, by Novem,ber 1950, the North Koreans had been completely beaten, their capital was in Allied hands, and their remnant forceS were scattered and disorganized. The 'victory was ahnost at its climax when the Chinese Red avalanche crashed over the Yalu.

That was on October 25th. A month later the Chinese opened a massive counter-offensive hurling our forces into retreat. Early in December, American and Allied Forces were trapped at the Chang-Jin Reservoir. By fierce fighting they broke the trap and fought their way to Htu;lgnam where they were evacuated. There ensued a winter of back-to-wall

7

Chinese and Korean authoritiesconformed with the rules of thprisaner received the same foodcaptive. Of course, the ChineseThe average American could notbroke out in the camps. Many 0

of dysentery.The men suffered much from

summer. Water was often searlBarracks were foul and unsanit&.r;1

In the best of the camps thewere sometimes given tobacco, asional mail. As will be noted, suas rewards for "cooperative condt! .

A few Red Cross pac~ges Ienemy consistently refused to pCross to inspect prisoner of war ca

Camps Varied from Bad to WOI

In the worst of the camps, theof their teeth and raw courage.were knoWn to lose 50 pounds we

The "bad" camps included theSuan, a camp known as "Dee.th ,camp called "The Valley," apKanggye. Among the worst calCenter" near Pukchin and a necalled "The Caves." This lastcaverns in which the men werlforced to sleep without blanketsthem. There were no latrinethe prisoners were reduced to a d~almost unbelievable. Those senoners accUl~ed of insubordination, .ing to escape, or committing 8'

The testimony of survivors suglseldom fitted by the punishmenttalk to military interrogaters wer,"The Caves."

npak's" Was No PalacePossibly the worst camp endl

Korea was the one knoWn as "Pak::

battling in subzero cold. It was during this gruelling period that most of the American POWs were captured.

Jmprisonment, North Korea During the Korean War a total ot 7,190 Americans were

captured by the enemy. Of these, 6,656 were Army troops' 263 wer.e Air Force men; 231 were Marines; 40 were Navy men: 'fhe Army bore the heaviest burden of prisoner losses.

The captives were marched off to various prison camps in the North Korean interior. Altogether there were 20 of these camps.

"Death Marches" The first ordeal the prisoner had to suffer-and· often the

worst-was the march to one of these camps. The North Koreans frequently tied a prisoner's hands behind his back or bound his arms with wire. Wounded prisoners were jammed into trucks that jolted, dripping blood, along broken roads. Many of the wounded received no medical attention until they reached the camp. Some were not attended to until days thereafter.

The marching prisoners were liable to be beaten or kicked to their feet if they fell. A number of the North Korean officers were bullwhip barbarians, products of a semi-primitive en­vironment. Probably they had neTer heard of the Geneva Conventions or any other code of war. The worst of this breed were responsible for the murder of men who staggered out of line or collapsed at roadside. They were particularly brutal to South Korean captives. Evidence indicates that many ROK prisoners were forced to dig their own graves before they were shot (an old Oriental custom applied to the execution of eriminals). Some Amencans, with hands tied behind back, were shot by the enemy.

So the journeys to the prison camps were "death marches." EspeciaJIy in the winter of. 1950-1951 when the trails were knee-deep in snow and polar winds flogged the toiling column. On one of these marches, 700 men were headed north. Before the camp was reached, 500 men had perished.

Facilities, Food, and Care Were Poor The camps were what might be expected in a remote corner

of Asia. Prisoner rations were scanty-a basic diet of rice occasionally leavened with Bome foul kind of soup. The Red

•

~ was during this gruelling period'OWs were captured.

a total ot 7,190 Americans werer these, 6,656 were Army troops;were Marines; 40 were Navy men.burden of prisoner losses.I off to various prison camps in thetogether there were 20 of these

ler had to suffer-and often theIle of these camps. The North[soner's hands behind his back orWounded prisoners were jammedping blood, along broken roads.d no medical attention until they'ere not attended to until days

lre liable to be beaten or kickedmber of the North Korean officersroducts of a semi-prinllitive en­lad neTer heard of the Geneva~ of war. The worst of this breedler of men who staggered out of

They were particularly brutalEvidence indicates that manydig their own graves before they~tom applied to the execution of

with hands tied behind back,

ill camps were "death marches."950-1951 when the trails wererinds flogged the toiling column.nen were headed north. Beforen had perished.

'ere Poor, be expected in a remote cornerre scanty-a basic diet of ricele foul kind of soup. The Red

Chinese and Korean authorities pointed out that this larder conformed with the rules of the Geneva Conventions-the prisaner received the same food as the soldiery holding him captive. 01 course, the Chinese were inured to a rice diet. The average American could not stomach such fare. Sickness broke out in the camps. Many of the men suffered long sieges of dysentery.

The men suffered much from cold in winter and heat in summer. Water was often scarce; bathing became difficult. Barracks were foul and unsanitary.

In the best of the camps the men behind the barbed wire ~ere som?times gi~en tobacco, a few morsels of candy, occa­SIOnal mail. As will be noted, such items were usually offered as rewards for "cooperative conduct."; ,

A few R:ed Cross paclP,iges got through. However, the enemy consIStently refused to permit the International Red Cross to inspect prisoner of war camps. There was good reason.

Camps Varied from Bad to Wone In the worst of the camps, the prisoners existed by the skin

of their teeth and raw courage. Men in the "bad" camps were knoWn to lose 50 pounds weight in a matter of weeks.

The "bad" camps included the so-called "Bean Camp" near Suan, a camp known as "Dea.th Valley" near Pukchin, another camp called "The Valley," apparently in the vicinity of Kanggye. Among the worst camps were the "Interrogation Center" near Pukchin and a neighboring disciplinary center called "The Caves." This l~t was literally composed of caverns in which the men were confined. Here they were forced to sleep without blankets. Their food was thrown at them. There were no latrine facilities. In "The Caves" the prisoners were reduced to a degree of misery and,degradation almost unbelievable. Those sent to "The Caves" were pris­oners accused of insubordination, breaking camp rules, attempt­ing to escape, or committing some other crime (so-called). The testimony of survivors suggests that the "crime" was seldom fitted by the punishment. Some mEm who refused tG· talk to military interrogaters were threatened with, or sent to "The Caves."

"Pak's" Was No Palace Possibly the worst camp endured by American POWs in

Korea was the one knoWn as "Pak's Palace." This was a highly

9

"Progressives." Prisoners who rlprogram often'remained in tougheconsidered "Reactionaries."

But the enemy followed no rigi<ment of prisoners was capriciocontempt for the man who reaThe prisoner who stood up to thean interrogator might be dismiss,quarters as mild as any-if any prcould be described as mild.

All in all, the docile prisonerdocility-and sometimes he gaine<defied Pak and his breed mightmight not. The ordeal was nevIeasy either for the combat troo:trenches.

Progressives and ReactionariesThe POW "political" schools in

patterned after the Soviet Ru~sia~mass program to spread MarxIan:International Communism. Theto deliver lectures, write pamplbroadcasts. Progressive leaders '\1

groups to harangue the men. ThlCapitalism and "American aggresized a. group known as "Peace F~

Fortunately, only a few officeever their influence was unfortumen: If the Captain can do it,signs a peace petition and orders t~follow orders, don't we? Altoget.spot. That many of them refuseerejected a promise, sometimes unluxuries, and mail call) says somEand non-coms. The men who gment-the active Reactionaries-

Breakdown of leadership wassired. Officers were usually segnatural leader stepped forwardProgressives were usually placedif they weren't obeyed by the otin store for the "insubordinate P

specialized interrogation center located near the city of Pyong­yang. The place was a brickyard flanked by Korean h6uses. It waS a North Korean establishment dominated by a chief interrogator, Colonel Pak. Pak was ably assisted by a hench­man who came to be called "Dirty Pictures" Wong by the POWs.

The camp was under the administration of a Colonel Lee, and there were several other interrogators on the team. But Pak and Wong were symbolic of the institution. Pak was a sadist, an animal who should have been in a cage. The team employed the usual questionnaires, the carrot-alid-prod tech­niques to induce answers. .Failing to induce them, they con­trived to compel them. The "Palace" wanted military infor­mation. Coercion was used as the ultimate resort. And for Pak, coercion began soon after a prisoner refused to talk. Then Pak would use violence. Abusive language would .be followed by threats, kicks, cigarette burns, and promises of further torture.

Several U. S. Army and Navy officers were questioned at "Pak's Palace." A few Army enlisted men went through this brickyard mill. The great majority of POWs held there were Air Force officers. They took a bad beating from Colonell'ak.

But the prisoners found ways to get around the beating. One way was to convince the captors' that you were dumb, stupid, the low man in your class. Undergoing interrogation, one officer convinced his inquisitors that he was the stupidest officer in the service. . He was awarded a contemptuous slap, and that was about all.

To the surprise of some prisoners at the "Palace," the inter­rogation team would sometimes open up with a wild political harangue. Then came the word that the enemy had established a system of indoctrination cours~s. The prisoner might start the hard way-and be punisheqrby restricted rations and other

.privations. If he began to show the "proper spirit"-to co­operate with his captors-he was lectured and handed Com­munist literature. A docile prisoner who read the literature and listened politely to the lectures, was graduated to a better class. Finally he might be sent to "Peaceful Valley." In this lenient camp the food was relatively good. Prisoners might even have tobacco. And here they were given all sorts of Marxian propaganda. .The graduates from "Peaceful Valley" and others who accepted Communist schooling were called

10

~ter located near the city of Pyong­:'1ck~ard :flanked by Korean heuses.:tablishment dominated by a chief

Pak was ably assisted by a hench­ed uDirty Pictures" Wong by the

e ~dministration of a Colonel Lee,~. mterrogators on the team. Butl>lic of the institution. Pak was ald have been in a cage. The teammnaires, the carrot-and-prod tech­Failing to induce them, they con­Ie uPalace" wanted military infor­1 as the ultimate resort. And forafter a prisoner refused to talknc.e. Abusive language would .b~cIgarette burns, and promises of

Navy officers were questioned atlly enlisted men went through thisnajority of POWs held there were,k a bad beating from Colone11")ak.ways to get around the beating.he captors· that you were dumb~l~s. Undergoing interrog~tion:

UlSltors that he was the stupidestas awarded a contemptuous slap,

isoners at the uPalace," the inter­nes open up with a wild political)rd that the enemy had established)urs~s. The prisoner might startedrOy restricted rations and other;how the uproper spirit"-to co-was lectured and handed Com­

prisoner who read the literaturectures, was graduated to a betternt ~ uPeaceful Valley/' In thiselatlvely good. Prisoners might,re they were given all sorts ofraduates from "Peaceful Valley">mmunist schooling were called

"Progressives'" Prisoners who refused to go along with the program often remained in tougher circumstances. They were considered "Reactionaries."

But the enemy followed no rigid system. Rather, his treat­ment of prisoners was capricious. Sometimes he showed contempt for the man who readily submitted to bullying. The prisoner who stood up to the bluster, threats and blows of an interrogator might be dismissed with a shrug and sent to quarters as mild as any-if any prison barracks in North Korea could be described as mild.

All in all, the docile prisoner did not gain much by his docility-and sometimes he gained nothing. The prisoner who defied Pak and his breed might take a beating, but again he might not. The ordeal was never easy. But things weren't easy either for the combat troops battling out there in the trenches.

Progressives and Reactionaries The POW "political" schools in North Korea were, of course,

patterned after the Soviet Russian design. They were part of a mass program to spread Marxian ideology and gain converts for International Communism. The Progressives were called upon to deliver lectures, write pamphlets, and make propaganda broadcasts. Progressive leaders were sent among Reactionary groups to harangue the men. They wrote speeches condemning Capitalism and uAmerican aggression in Korea." Theyorgan­ized e. group known as IlPeace Fighters."

Fortunately, only a few officers were Progressives. How­ever, their in:fluence was unfortunately strong on the enlisted men. If the Captain can do it, why can't I? If the Colonel signs a peace petition and orders the rest of us to do it, we have to follow orders, don't we? Altogether the enlisted men were on a spot. That many of them refused to join the Progressives (and rejected a promise, sometimes unfulfilled, of better food, minor luxuries, and mail call) says something for the spirit of privates and non-corns. The men who gave the Progressives an argu­ment-the active Reactionaries-were a rugged group.

Breakdown of leadership was exactly what the enemy de­sired. Officers were usually segregated. Then as soon as a natural leader stepped forward in a camp, he was removed. Progressives were usually placed in leadership positions. And if they weren't obeyed by the other POWs, punishments were in store for the "insubordinate prisoners."

11

of the POWs knew too little abolJideals and traditions. So the Chiadvantage.

The uninformed POWs were upanswer arguments in favor of COIlfavor of Americanism, because theyAmerica. The Committee heardstated that a knowledge of Comlthem to expose its fallacies to tlindoctrinators tried hard to win thlBut as one of them put it, "We'(Back home. We knew their line.'weapon;;Whil~ it might be argued that fe

converts to Communism-indeedhave been infinitesimal-the inalfor Democracy distressed loyal Iaside, there were other passive pThey lacked sufficient patriotism bedge of American Democracy.

It seemed that these POWs in (before they entered the Service.cans-the responsibility for theirthe school, the church, the commlArmed Forces, the Military Semdevelopment.

The Committee, stressing the I

tional bulwarks against enemy p(Jmends that the Assistant Secre~

and Personnel) be directed to iniwith the Department of Health, J

other agencies and institutions OJ

Brainwashing and Indoctrination

The Committee made a thorou~

washing" question. In some caEcoercive technique was used to (cases American prisoners of war ,physical torture, psychiatric pressment.

Most of the prisoners, however,washing, but were given a highpropaganda purposes.

By design and because some officers refused to assume leadership "responsibility, organization in some of the POW camps deteriorated to an every-man-for-himself situation. Some of the camps became indescribably filthy. The men scuffied for their food. Ho~ders grabbed all the tobacco. Morale decayed to the vanishing point. Each man mistrusted the next. Bullies persecuted the weak and sick. Filth bred disease and contagion swept the camp. So men died for lack of leadership and discipline.

Ordeal by Indoctrination When plunged into a Communist indoctrination mill, the

average American POW was under a serious handicap. Enemy political officers forced him to read Marxian literature. He was compelled to participate in debates. He had to tell what he knew about American politics and American history. And many times the Chinese or Korean instructors knew more about these .subjects than he did. This brainstorming caught many" American prisoners off guard. To most of them it came as a complete surprise and they were unprepared. Lec­

" tures-study "groups~iscussion groups-a blizzard of prop­aganda and hurricanes of violent oratory were" all a part of the enemy technique.

A large number of American POWs did not lmow what the Communist program was all about. Some were confused by it. Self-seekers accepted it as an easy out. A few may have believed the business. They signed peace petitions and peddled Communist literature.' It was not an inspiring spectacle. It set loyal groups against cooperative groups aild broke up camp organization and discipline. It made fools of some men and tools of others. And it provided the enemy with stooges for propaganda shows.

Ignorance lay behind much of this trouble. A great many servicemen were 'teen-agers. At home they had thought of politics as dry editorials or uninteresting speeches, dull as ditchwater. They were unprepared to give the commissars an argument.

Some of the POWs-among them men who became defec­tors-had heard of Communism only as a name. Many had never before heard of Karl Marx. And here was Communism held up as the salvation of the world and Marx as mankind's benefactor.

The Committee heard evidence which revealed that many

11

some officers refused to assumerganization in some of the POW

every-man-for-himself situation.Ie indescribably filthy. The meno~ders grabbed all the tobacco.Ihing point. Each man mistrustedid the weak and sick. Filth bred, the camp. So men died for lack

Immunist indoctrination mill, theunder a serious handicap. EnemyI read Marxian literature. He wasdebates. He had to tell wha;t he,ics and American history. Andr Korean instructors knew morei did. This brainstorming caughtIff guard. To most of them itand they were unprepared. Lec­sion groups-a blizzard of prop­iolent oratory were all a part of

ill POWs did not know what theabout. Some were confused by

s an easy out. A few may haveigned peace petitions and peddledLS not an inspiring spectacle. Itrative groups and broke up campIt made fools of some men andided the enemy with stooges for

I of this trouble. A great manyAt home they had thought ofuninteresting speeches, dull as

lpared to give the commissars. an

~ them men who became defec­;m only as a name. Many hadmr. And here was Communisme world and Marx as mankind's

ence which revealed that many

of the POWs knew too little about the United States and its ideals and traditions. So the Chinese indoctrinators had the advantage.

The uninformed POWs were up against it. They couldn't answer arguments in favor of Communism with arguments in favor of Americanism, because they knew very little. about their America. The Committee heard a number of ex-POWs who stated that a knowledge of Communism would have enabled them to expose its fallacies to their camp-mates. The Red indoctrinators tried hard to win the support of factory workers. But as one of them put it, "We'd heard all that guff before. Back home. We knew their line." Knowledge was a defense weapon.

While it might be argued that few·of the men became sincere converts to Communism-indeed, the percentage seems to have been infinitesimal-the inability of many to speak up for Democracy distressed loyal POWs. Active collaborators aside, there were other passive prisoners that "went along." They lacked sufficient patriotism because of their limited knowl­edge oi~American Democracy.

It seemed that these POWs in question had lost their battle before they entered the Service. Good citizens-loyal Ameri­cans-the responsibility for their building lies with the home, the school, the church, the community. When men enter t~e

Armed Forces, the Military Services must carryon with thIS development.

The Committee, stressing the need for spiritual and educa­tional bulwarks against enemy political indoctrination, recom­mends that the Assistant Secretary of Defens.e (Manpower and Personnel) be directed to initiate exploratory conferences with the Department of Health, Education, and WelCare, and other agencies and institutions on pre-service training.

Brainwashing and Indoctrination

The Committee made a thorough investigation of the "brain­washing" question. In some cases this time consuming and coercive technique was used to obtain confessions. In these. cases American prisoners of war were subjected to mental and physical torture, psychiatric pressures or "Pavlov Dogs" treat­ment.

Most of the prisoners, however, were not subjected to brain­washing, but were given a high-powered indoctrination for propaganda purposes.

13

American prisoners went beyond .number, d.ate of birth restriction.

Reviewing the interrogation mfCommittee felt that the steps taklForces had been decidedly inadequ

The Committee recommends thadevise a special training programmen the ways and means of resisl

What Can Be Done?

In a war for the minds of men,successfully combatted by militaIJtion. In battle and in captivitybetter than his training and educalteach him combat skills. Such k

The Committee recommendsinitiate &. coordinated training pro

First, general training. This itional training to he conducted 1servicemen during active and relltraining. This is designed for 8

troops. A code of conduct must aland training must be uniform am(est degree practicable.

In all Services training should 1Jof all ranks from the enlisted manbe realistic as well as idealistic. Awith understanding, skill and dla conviction in the heart, consde]man that full and loyal support of tlof his country, his comrades, anc:

But skill must be reinforced byby basic beliefs instilled in homelad enters the Military Service. ]for its principles-a sense o~ honosuch basics should be establishedand further developed after he ent

The Committee recommendseft'ective means of coordinatininstitutions, churches and othE",rovide better understanding of

In either' case the members of our Armed Forces should be given the best education and training possible in the future so that t.hey can resist and cope with these practices.

The Committee also learned that POWs in Korea were not drugged. Other methods such as denial of food or sleep were equally effective and more practical.

Behind the Barbed-Wire Curtain

Perhaps the Red enemy worked harder on the Americans than he did on the other prisoners. An American who signed &. propaganda leaflet, a peace petition, or a germ warfare con­fession, was a big feather in the enemy's hat. Many Americans in.Communist POW camps signed something or wrote some­thing. Out of 78 m~n under various forms of duress~ 38 signed germ warfare confesslOns. Forty others did not. Both groups were under coercion. Why did some men break, and some refuse to bend?

Many servicemen exhibited pride in themselves and their units. This was particularly pronounced where they had be­l?nged to the same unit for years. They stood»y one another like t~at u~and of brothers" inspired by NelSon. If a soldier ~as sIck, hIS fellow soldiers took care of him. They ,vllsh~d

~s .clothes, bathed him, and pulled him through. They ex­hibIted true fraternal spirit comradeship, military pride. These soldiers did not let each other down. Nor could the Korean Reds win much cooperation from them.

!nterrogation went' hand in glove with indoctrination. A prIsoner was questioned for military information. He was also ~ueried on his home life and educational background. The mterrogator made him put it in writing-a biographical sketch. Se~dom did the brief autobiography prove sufficient. The prls~ner w~ u~ually. compelled to write more, and in greater detail. If his lIterary efforts were painful, the d.iscomfort was only a. beginni~g. His autobiography was used against him. T~e slI~htest dIscrepancy, and he was accused of lying. He mIght discover thp,t he had written a confession of some kind ~d in any case, the information supplied theinterrogato~

WIth a useful leverage for more pressure. The author's mistake was in taking pen in hand.

Only a handful of the POWs in Korea were able to maintain absolute silence under military interrogation. Nearly all of the

14

ers of our Armed Forces should beIld training possible in the future soIe with these practices.ned that POWs in Korea were notmch as denial of food or sleep werepractical.

:urtain

worked harder on the Americans~isoners. An American who signedCle petition, or a germ warfare con­~he enemy's hat. Many AmericansI signed something or wrote some­r various forms of duress, 38 signed~orty others did not. Both groupsId some men break, and some refuse

ed pride in themselves and theiry pronounced where they had be­~e.ars.. They stood,by one another

msprred by Ne1$n. If a soldiertook care of him. They ""8sh~d

~ pulled him through. They ex­'It comradeship, military pride.iach other down. Nor could theleration from them.in glove with indoctrinati~n. AIlilitary information. He was alsold educational background. Thein writing-a biographical sketch.~iography prove sufficient. Theled to write more, and in greaterwere painful, the discomfort was

biography was used against hinIl.Id he was accused of lying. He7l'itten a confession of some kind.Iation supplied the interrogatorse pressure. The author's mistake

's in Korea were able to maintainr inteITogation. Nearly all of the

American prisoners went beyond the "absolute" name, rank, number, date of birth restriction.

Reviewing the inteITogation matter, the Defense Advisory Committee felt that the steps taken up to now by the Armed Forces had been decidedly inadequate.

The Committee recommends that the Department of Defense devise a special training program to teach American service­men the ways and means of resisting enemy interrogators.

What Can Be Done?

In a war for the minds of men, the enemy's methods can be successfully combatted by military training and civilian educa­tion. In battle and in captivity the fighting Ameriean is no better than his training and education. Military schooling can teach him combat skills. Such know-how is a t'must."

The Committee recommends that the Military Services initiate a coordinated training program including-

First, general training. This is motivational and informa­tional training to he conducted throughout the career of all servicemen during active and reserve duty. Second, specific training. This is designed for and applied to combat-ready troops. Acode of conduct must apply wiiformly to all Services, arid training must be uniform among the Services to the great­est degree practicable.

In all Services training should be adapted to cover the needs of all ranks from the enlisted man to the commander. It must be realistic as well as idealistic. Above all, it must be presented with understanding, skill and devotion sufficient to implant a conviction in the heart, conscience, and mind of the service­man that full and loyal support of the code is to the best interests of his country, his comrades, and himself.

But skill must be reinforced by will-by moral character and by basic beliefs instilled in home and classroom long before a lad enters the Military Service. Pride in a country and respect for its principles-a sense ot honor-a sense of responsibility­such basics should be established long before ubasic training," and further developed after he enters the Armed Forces.

The Committee recommends that the Services find an effective means of coordinating with civilian educational institutions, churches and other patriotic organizations to ~rovide better understanding of American ideals.

15

IV

A CODE OF CONDUCT FOI

The Services Voice Their Opinia

The leaders of the American A.r1Jof Staff-The Department of Defelplanning and policy-making boardiscussion and debate based on Ja Code of Conduct for United StalAdvisory Committee weighed oppcto the "name, rank, serial numberembodied in the Geneva Conventi,

The traditional view is that thextension of the battlefield where 1

to carry on the struggle with thefaith and courage.

The absolute restriction-name,and nothing more, has been called

To some persons, such a restricEspecially in the light of modAuthorities on the subject of inliron-bound "nothing more" of the:They pointed out that CommunisI

men of steel as Cardinal Mindszentgenerally conceded that "every 1

Many prisoners in World War IIrank and serial number." And nedivulged something. Why, then, 1

m8{l endure purgatory when hisThm view was publicized in an a:It was the author's opinion that Atold that "they may sign any docthem to, or appear on TV and delithem."

Referring to the case of a Marroto a fine officer who had been coelfare confession. Why not let Amat all? The United States couldfessions were obtained under dl

365488"0-55-4

War has been defined as "a contest' of wills." A trained

hand holds the weapon. But the will, the character, the spirit More than ever,of the individual-these control the hand.

in the war .for the ininds of men moral character, will, spirit

are important.As a serviceman thinketh so is he.

16

s "a contest of wills." A trainedut the will, the character, the spiritIntrol the hand. More than ever)f men moral character, will, spirit

80 is he.

IV

A CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE FUTURE

The Services Voice Their Opinions The leaders of the American Armed Forces-the Joint Chiefs

of Staff-The Department of Defense Committees-the various planning and policy-making boards-reach decisions through discussion and debate based on facts. In striving to design a Code of Conduct for United States fighting men, the Defense Advisory Committee weighed opposing points of view in regard to the "name, rank, serial number and date of birth'" provision embodied in the Geneva Conventions.

The traditional view is that the POW stockade is only an extension of the battlefield where the prisoners must be taught to carry on the struggle with the only weapons remaining­faith and courage.

The absolute restliction-name, rank, number, date of birth, and nothing more, has been called the "Spartan Code."

To some persons, such a restrictive code seemed unrealistic. Especially in the light of modern interrogation methods. Authorities on the subject of interrogation insisted that the iron-bound "nothing more" of the Spartan Code was impossible. They pointed out that Communist interrogators had bent such men of steel as Cardinal Mindszenty. Doctors and psychiatrists generally conceded that "every man has a breaking point." Many prisoners in World War II were forced beyond "name, rank and serial number." And nearly every prisoner in Korea divulged something. Why, then, the dissenters asked, should a man endure purgatory when his "breaking" was inevitable? This view was publicized in an article in a popular magazine. It was the author's opinion that American servicemen should be told that "they may sign any document the Communists want them to, or appear on TV and deliver any script the Reds hand them."

Referring to the case of a Marine colonel, the author pointed to a fine officer who had been coerced into signing a germ war­fare confession. Why not let American captives sign anything at all? The United States could announce that all such con­fessions were obtained under duress, and therefore invalid.

3654;88100-55-4 17

faiths. The Conunittee also E

valuable views of the leaders of ttions. All contrib.uted worthwhselect a code compatible- with Axjustice.

The Recommended Code of CcMter long study and earnest

came to its decision. That decConduct now proposed for all mE

The Committee recommendsConduct be promulgated in theThe Code demands high standar<these, each member of the Armecbe provided with specific .trainin~

to cope with all enemy efforts ainstructed as to his behavior andthe event of capture.

No prisoner of war will be foThe support and care of dependescribed by law. Every practicaestablish contact with, to supporlprisoners of war.

I

The United States servicemarhis nation. Any shirking of this I

ness to do his full part weakens tbI am an American fighting mal

guard.my country and our· way (my life in theil defense.

A member of the Armed ForiAs such, it is his duty to oppose ti:regardless of the circumstances iwhether in active participation iwar.

II

If individuals and commander,wh~never a situation seems to beopen invitation to all weak of wi]

I will never surrender of my (]I will never surrender my men 11

to resist.

In addition to the "Spartan view" and the "let them talk view" there were numerous advocates of in-between measures­talk, but don't say anything.

In Axis cainps and in Korea many prisoners had stood up against interrogation. Many had refused to sign on any dotted line. The idea that an officer or enlisted man might stand up to a microphone and denounce his country, his President, or his faith, remained repellent. Moreover, the man who signed a germ warfare or some other confession let himself in for a "war criminal" charge. Having obtained such a confession the unscrupulous enemy labeled him a war criminal and claimed that he was beyond the protecting Geneva Convention.

The Committee believes that this practice is another strong reason for our prisoners of war adhering to a wen defined code of conduct in any future conflict.

Pro and Con. There was much to be said on both sides. And there was something to be said by experienced officers who felt that a man could be taught to hold his own in the battle of wits against enemy inteITogators. Authorities pointed out that the Geneva Conventions did not impose "absolute silence" on the interrogated war,,:,prisoner. There were clauses indicating that he might discuss his employment, his finances, or his state of health, or "conditions of captivity" if necessity demanded. In short, he did not have to remain mute.

The Committee agreed that a line of resistance must be drawn somewhere and initially as far forward as possible. The llame, rank and service number provision of the Geneva Conventions is accepted as this line of resistance.

However, in the face of experience, it is recognized that the POW may be subjected to an extreme of coercion beyond his ability to resist. If in his battle with .the interrogator he is driven from his first line of resistance he must be trained for resistance in successive positions. And, to stand on the. final line to the end-no disclosure of vital military information and above all no disloyalty in word or deed to his country, his service or his comrades.

Throughout, the serviceman must be responsible for all of his actions. This in brief is the spirit and intent of the Code of Conduct which the Defense Advisory Committee recommends.

Prominent Civilians Stated Their View5 . The Committee discussed sociological and educational prob­

lems with leading educators. It consulted with labor leaders. The religious problem .was discussed with leaders of various

18

~an view" and the "let them talk,dvoc:ates of in-between measures-

lrea many prisoners had stood up'f had refused to sign on any dotteder or enlisted man might stand upDee his country, his President, or

Moreover, the man who signedler confession let himself in for aloving obtained such a confessionled him a war criminal and claimedecting Geneva Convention.hat this practice is another strongwar adhering to a well defined

l conflict.mch to be said on both sides. Andid by experienced officers who felt) hold his own in the battle of wits

Authorities pointedr50ut that theimpose "absolute silence" on the~here were clauses indicating thatrment, his finances, or his state}aptivity" if necessity demanded.emain mute.,a line of resistance must be drawnr forward as possible. The name,vision of the Geneva Conventionsistance.perience, it is recognized that the[l extreme of coercion beyond hisattlewith the interrogator he is'esistance he must be trained forons. And, to stand on the. finalof vital military information andor deed to his country, his service

I must be responsible for all of hisspirit and intent of the Code of,dvisory Committee recommends.

heir Viewsociological and educational prob­It consulted with labor leaders.

iscussed with leaders of various

faiths. The Comr.nittee also sought and received the in­valuable views of the leaders of the nation's veterans organiza­tions. All contrib.uted worthwhile suggestions. All helped to select a code compatible- with American precepts of honor and justice.

The Recommended Code of Conduct (See Addenda 2) After long study and earnest deliberation, the Committee

came to its decision. That decision is found in the Code of Conduct now proposed ·for all members of the Armed Forces.

The Committee recommends that the proposed Code of Conduct be promulgated in the form of an Executive Order. The Code demands high standards. To ensure achievement of these, each member of the Armed Forces liable to capture must be provided with specific .training designed to equip him better to cope with all enemy efforts against him. He will be fully instructed as to his behavior and obligations in combat and in the event of capture.

No prisoner of war will be forgotten by the United States. The support and care of dependents of prisoners of war is pre­scribed by law. Every practical means will be employed to establish contact with, to support and to gain the release of all prisoners of war.

I

The United States serviceman, by his service is protecting his nation. Any shirking of this responsibility or any unwilling­ness to do his full part weakens this defense and invites disaster.

I am an American fighting man. I serve in the forces which guard my country and our way of life. I am prepared to give my life in their defense.

A member of the Armed Forces is always a fighting man. As such, it is his duty to oppose the enemies of the United States regardless of the circumstances in which he may find himself, whether in active participation in combat, or as a prisoner of war.

II

If individuals and commanders were permitted to surrender wh.enever a situation seems to be desperate it would become an open invitation to all weak of will or depressed in spirit.

I will never surrender of my own free will. If in command I will never surrender my men while they still have the means to resist.

19

IVThe most despicable act an AmI

aid and 'comfort to the enemyharming fellow prisoners. Failurlcommensurate with rank is equally

If I become a prisoner of war,fellow prisoners. I will give no iany action which might be harmf.senior, I will take command. Itorders of those appointed over mevery way.

Informing, or any other actionprisoner, is despicable and is exprewar must avoid helping the enemymay have kD.owledge of particular 1

therefore be made to suffer eoerciStrong' leadership is essential 1

. cipline, camp organization, resistebe impossible. Personal hygiene,sick and wounded are imperativesioned officers of the United StatEtheir responsibilities and exercise tcapture. The senior line officerwithin the prisoner of war campassume command according to raregard to Service. This responsibnot be evaded. If the senior office]is incapacitated or unable to act flbe assumed by the next senior. Icannot be effected, an organizatioas provided for in Articles 79-81 4

to Treatment of Prisoners of Waltion, or both, will be formed.

VEvery serviceman possesses s(

formation of value to the enemy,cause the death of comrades or dthe defeat of major forces of the m

When questioned, should I becibound to give only name, rank, ~

birth. I will evade-canswering furof my ability. I will make no or~

As an individual, a member of the Armed Forces may never voluntarily surrender himself.. When isolated and he can no longer inflict casualties on the enemy, it is his duty to evade capture and rejoin the nearest friendly forces.

The responsibility and authority of· a commander never extends to the surrender of his command to the enemy while it has power to resist or evade. When isolated, cut off or sur­rounded, a unit must continue to fight until relieved, or able to rejoin friendly forces by breaking out or by evading the enemy.

III The fight is everywhere. Even in the prison camp. When

the use of physical weapons is denied, the mental and moral "will to resist" must be kept alive in every prisoner.

H I am captured I will continue to resist by aU means avail­able. I will make every effort to escape and aid others to escape. i will accept neither parole nor special favors from the enemy.

The duty of a member of the Armed Forces to continue resistance by all means at his disposal is not lessened by the misfortune of capture. Article 82 of the Geneva Conventions Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of August 12, 1949, pertains, must be explained, and covered in the training programs to be carried out by the Services.

Article 82 provides as follows: "A prisoner of war shall be subject to the laws, regulations

and orders in force in the armed forces of the Detaining Power; the Detaining Power shall be justified in taking j~dicial or discip~ary measures ~ respect of any off~nce

committed by a pnsoner of war agamst such laws, regulatIOns or orders. However, no proceedings or punishments contrary to the provisions of this Chapter shall be allowed.

IIIf any law, regulation or order of the Detaining Power shall .declare acts committed by a prisoner of war to be punishable, whereas the same acts would not be punishable if committed by a member of the forces of the Detaining Power, such acts shall entail disciplinary punishments only." He will escape if able to do so, and will assist others to escape.

Parole agreements are promises given the captor by a prisoner of war upon his faith and ~onor, to fulfill stated conditions, such as not to bear arms or not to escape, in consideration of special privileges-usually release from captivity or lessened restraint. He will never sign or enter into a parole agreement.

to

~r of the Armed Forces may neverf. ,When isolated and he can nohe enemy, it is his duty to evadet friendly forces.uthority of· a commander neveris command to the enemy while iti. When isolated, cut off or sur­e to fight until relieved, or able toking out or by evading the enemy.

III

Even in the prison camp. Whenis denied, the mental and moral, alive in every prisoner.rinue to resist by aU means avail­ort to escape and aid others tor parole nor special favors from

~ the Armed Forces to continues disposal is not lessened by the!e 82 of the Geneva Conventions, Prisoners of War of August 12,illed, and covered in the trainingthe Services.

rs:

e subject to the laws, regulationsarmed forces of the Detaining

rer shall be justified in takingLaures in respect of any offencemr against such laws, regulations~eedings or punishments contrary.pter shall be allowed.r order of the Detaining Power~d by a prisoner of war to beLe acts would not be punishableof the forces of the Detainingdisciplinary punishments only."" and will assist others to escape.! given the captor by a prisoner, to fulfill stated conditions, suchIcape, in consideration of speciall captivity or lessened restraint.a parole agreement.

IV The most despicable act an American can commit is to give

aid and comfort to the enemy by informing or otherwise harming fellow prisoners. Failure to assume responsibilities commensurate with rank is equally reprehensible.

If I become a prisoner of war, I will keep faith with my fellow prisoners. I will give no information nor take part in any action which might be harmful to .my comrades. If I am senior, I will take command. It not, I will obey the lawful orders of those appointed over me and will back them up in every way.

Informing, or any other action to the detriment of a fellow prisoner, is despicable and is expressly f?rbidden. ~risoners of war must avoid helping ihe enemy identIfy fellow pnsoners who may have Ioiowledge of particular Y'ah~e to the e~emy, ahd may therefore be made to suffer eoerClve mterrogatlOn., ,

Strong' leadership is essential to discipline. Wit~out dis­cipline, camp organization, resistance and ~ve? survIval may be impossible. Personal hygiene, camp samtatlOn, and care .of sick and wounded are imperative. Officers and non-comUllS­sioned officers of the United States will continue to carry out their responsibilities and exercise their al!thorit~ s~bsequent to capture. The senior line officer or non-comm18S1~ned offic~r

within the prisoner of war camp or group of pnsonex:s will assume command according to rank (or precedence) WIthout regard to Service. This responsibility and acco~~ability may not be evaded. If the senior officer or non-comm18S10ned officer is incapacitated or unable to act for any reaso?, commS?d 'Y'ill be assumed by the next senior. If the foregomg orgamz~tlon

cannot be effected an organization of elected representatIves, as provided for in Articles 79-81 Geneva Conven.tion Rela~ive to Treatment of Prisoners of War, or a clandestme organIZa­tion, or both, will be formed.

V Every serviceman possesses some import~t ~itary in­

formation of value to the enemy. By revealing It they may cause the death of comrades or disaster to' their unit, or even the defeat of major forces of the nation.

When questioned, sholild I become a prisoner of war, I am bound to give only name, rank, service number, and date of birth. I will evade answering further questions to the utmost of my ability. I will make no oral or written statements dis­

21

I will never forget that I amresponsible for my actions, and·which made my country free. I 1

the United States of America.The provisions of the Uniforrr

whenever appropriate continue t<Armed Forces while they are prisOIprisoners is subject to examinatiolcapture and through the period 0

for the rights of the individualconditions of captivity.

A member of the Armed Force!war has a continuing obligation tohis Service and his unit.

The life of a prisoner of war is hhope. He must resist enemy indowho stand firm and united agai:another in surviving this ordeal.

loyal to my country and its allies or harmful to their cause. When questioned, a prisoner of war is required by the Geneva

Conventions and permitted by this Code to disclose his name, rank, service number, and date of birth. A prisoner .of war may also communicate with the enemy regarding his individual health or welfare as a prisoner of war and, when appropriate, on routine matters of camp administration. Oral or written confessions true or false, questionnaires, personal history state­ments, propaganda recordings and broadcasts, appeals to other prisoners of war, signatures to peace or surrender appeals self criticisms or any other oral or written communication on b~half

of the enemy or critical or harmful to the United States its allies, the Armed Forces or other prisoners are forbidden. '

It is a violation of the Geneva Conventions to place a prisoner of war under physical or mental torture or any other form of coercion to secure from him information of any kind. If however, a prisoner is subjected to such treatment he will endeavor to avoid by every means the disclosure. of any in­formation, or the making of any statement or the performance of any action harmful to the interests of the United States or its allies or which will provide aid or comfort to the enemy.

. Russia and t~e Communist Bloc nations have made a sig­nificant reservatIOn to Article 85 of the Geneva Conventions of 1949: Under this reservation a prisoner of war who may be conVlcted of an alleged war crime under the laws of the captors, loses the protection afforded a prisoner of war by these Con­ventions. Therefore the signing of a confession or the making of a statement by a prisoner is likely to be used·to convict him as a "war criminal" and thus, according to this Communist Bloc device, deny to him any protection under the ~rms of the Geneva Conventions, including repatriation until his sentence is served.

VI An American is responsible and accountable for his actions.

Prisoner of war status doesn't change this nor does it change the obligation to remain faithful to the United States and to the principles for~ which it stands. Throughout his captivity a prisoner should look to his God for strength to endure whate~er

may befall. He should remember that the United States of ~erica wi}! neither forget, nor forsake him, apd that it will WID the ultlIDate victory.

22

s allies or harmful to their cause.ner of war is required by the GenevaI by this Code to disclose his namedate of birth. A prisoner ,of ws.:.

l the ene~ regarding his individualmer of war and, when appropriatep administration. Oral or writte~estionnaires, personal history state­19s and broadcasts, appeals to otherto peace or surrender appeals self. ,

>r written communication on behalfharmful to the United States its

other prisoners are forbidden. ',eva Conventions to place a prisonerental torture or any other form ofim information of any kind. If.. ,lected to such treatment, he will'{ means the disclosure. of any in­any statement or the performancee interests of the United States orde aid or comfort to the enemy.st Bloc nations have made a sig­e 85 of the Geneva Conventions ofm a prisoner of war .who may berime ~nder the laws of the captors,. a prisoner of war by these Con­~in~ of a confession or the making18 hkely to be used· to convict himus, according to this Communistprotection under the terms of the

ng repatriation until his sentence

VI

l and accountable for his actions.'t change this nor does it change~ul to the United States and to thels. Throughout his captivity, ad for strength to endure whatever1mber that the United States oflor forsake him, ap.d that it will

I will never forget that I am an American fighting man, responsible for my actions, and dedicated to the principles which made my country free. I will trust in my God and in the United States of America.

The provisions of the Uniform Code of Military Justice whenever appropriate continue to apply to members of the Armed Forces while they are prisoners of war. The conduct of prisoners is subject to examination as to the Circumstances of capture and through the period of detention with due regard for the rights of the individual and consideration for the conditions of captivity.

A member of the Armed Forces who becomes a prisoner of war has a continuing obligation to remain loyal to his country, his Service and his unit.

The life of a prisoner of war is hard. He must never give up hope. He must resist enemy indoctrination. Prisoners of war who stand firm and united against the enemy will aid one another in surviving this ordeal.

23

VKOREAN SUMMARYMisconduct by a Minority.

A total of 4,428 Am~rican figlenemy prison camps in Korea.with Operation "Little Switch'enough, the ~onth after StalinSoviet leadership. . The war ,Allied prisoners were returned imany Communist Chinese andsequent Operation "Big Switch"were recovered. At this time it.cans had died in Korean prisontoll-38%~was the worst sincE!

By joint action of the serviceswere screened by military intelwhose conduct was questioned.,after investigation. Of the renseparated from theservices; 3 1'4

2 were given restricted assignmeI1martial. As of July 20, 1955,cases pending are in various s1may never come to trial for vadisposed of by minor disciplinaHowever, it is fairly certain thawill be substantially less thanthan half that many. Some Qfdischarged soon after war's end I

Information which came to ligl:further action indicated. Themust be done in these cases-thecountry· and fellow prisoners D

who did not should be broughtThe Committee recommends

brought to trial iUhey are charg4which brought about the prosec1

Obviously a. charige from nnuc-divest a guilty wrong-doer of 1

365488m~55----5

V KOREAN SUMMARY Misconduct by a Minority

A total of 4,428 American fighting men were recovered from enemy prison camps in Korea. The prisoner exchanges began with Operation "Little Switch" in April 1953-significantly enough, the ~onth after Stalin died and Malenkov assumed Soviet leadership.. The war was almost over. Some 600 Allied prisoners were returned in exchange for ten times that many Communist Chinese and North Koreans. During sub­sequent Operation "Big Switch" most of the American prisoners were recovered. At this time it was learned that 2,730 Ameri­cans had died in Korean prison camps. This ghastly death­toll-38%-was the worst since the Revolutionary War. .

By joint actIon of the services, all of the prisoners recovered were screened by military intelligence agencies. Of the 565 whose conduct was questioned, 373 were cleared or dropped after investigation. Of the remaining 192 suspects, 68 were separated from the services; 3 resigned; 1 received reprimand; 2 were given restricted assignmen~s; 6 were cOllvicted by courts­martial. As· of July 20, 1955, 112 cases are pending. The cases pending are in various stages of investigation. Many may never come to trial for various reasons. Others will "be disposed of by miMr disciplinary action or may be· clear~d. However, it is fairly certain that thenwnber brought to trial will be substantially less than the 112 pending, perhaps less than half that many. Some of these last are men who were discharged soon after war's end and now have a civili"an status. Information which came to light after their separation made further action indicated. The Committee feels that justice must be done in these cases-the men who kept faith with their coUntry· and fellow prisoners need have no fear-:"'but those who did not should be brought 19 trial.

The Committee recommends that separated servicemen be brought to trial if.they are charged with crimes .similar to those which brought about the prosecution of other servicemen.

Obviously a change from uniform to civilian clothes does not divest a guilty wrong-doer of responsibility for a crime.. A

365488m r-55-5 25

a wallet from a dying man, forethe snow and leaving him theIU. N. prisoners crossing a streaI

There was an officer who alle~

tors' as soon as he reached priSIconfiscating the small tobacco:and eating more than his share ()he made the heartless remark,the more food for the rest of usmade propaganda broadcasts, alprisoners. There is no evidence

There is evidence that an enprisoners planning to escape. 1captors. He was put in chargein the punishment of "Reactionfor the job. No "brainwashingI

Many of the accused informe,times with dire consequences fOJseverely punished. The man .victimized by "ratting" was inInvariably he was accused of brlwhich "entitled" his captors tplaced in a hole in the ground aexistence. He might be sent tccompelled to stand for hours in

To the combat veterans, "ratable as treason.

The TurncoatsThe 21 turncoats who decided

here was another group,of "excluded men accused of informing'for electing to remain in the enecates that few of these 21 wel'lmunism. Expediency,opportuDless influenced some of the groul

Promises Were Not BrokenIt has been stated that menw,

can side by promises of clemen

civilian criminal would not be permitted to wear Army uniform as protective coloration. If action is indicated, the dischargees should be prosecuted in civil courts. When they cannot be tried in civili8in courts and the evidence warrants it, they can be brought to trial under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.

The Committee finds the Uniform Code of Military Justice adequate for the prosecution of misconduct cases of prisoners of war in Korea. The Committee recommends that the Uniform Code of Military Justice should govern the final, adjudication of cases stilI pending.

None Were Tried Unjustly Establishing fscts in the case against a prisoner charged with

misconduct is a lengthy process. Evidence must be studied and assessed. Witnesses must be produced. Depositions must be obtained. In the Armed Forces this amounts to the equivalent of the work a District Attorney's office must do before it presents a case to a Grand Jury. Consequently, there may seem to be a long delay before an accused service man is brought to formal trial. The Army has not been dila­tory in trying the present cases. Rather it has been thorough and exacting in its research and investigation.

The Committee finds that those servicemen who have been prosecuted and those who are facing trial were charged with serious crimes. Charges included homicide, and treasonable collaboration with the enemy, combined with informing on fellow prisoners. No man of any service-Army, Air Force, Navy or Marines-who might have .been charged with such crimes would have escaped disciplinary action. As in the past, the crimes enumerated are major offenses in the Armed Forces~

(Of course, such alleged misconduct must be substantiated by evidence before disciplinary action is taken.)

While the six thus far tried and sentenced to prison have been enlisted men, one officer was also disciplined; one was tried and acquitted; and other cases' coming up involve officers. They do not make pleasant r,eading.

A typical case involves an officer who is accused by 180 POWs of delivering anti-D. S. speeches, informing on fellow prisoners,hoarding food, teaching' classes in Communism, and ordering men to sign peace petitions. There is no evidence he suffered duress.

Another case involves a sergeant accused by many witnesses , of "ratting" on his prison-mates, beating a sick prisoner, stealillg

26

!>ermitted to wear Army uniform~tion is indicated, the dischargeescourts. . When they cannot be

~ evidence warrants it, they can"niform Code of Military Justice.~ Uniform Code of Militaryecution of misconduct cases ofl1e Committee recommends thatJustice should govern the final·

ling.

1 against a prisoner charged withlSS. Evidence must be studied1St be produced. Depositionsned Forces this amounts to thetrict Attorney's office must doa Grand Jury. Consequently,delay before an accused service, The Army has not been dila­~. Rather it has been thoroughd investigation.lose servicemen who have beenfacing trial were charged with

(ded homicide, and treasonable, combined with informing onany service-Army, Air Force,have:beencharged with such

ciplinary action. As in the past,or offenses in the Armed Forces~

nduct must be substantiated byction is taken.)Id sentenced to ·prison have been;0 disciplined; one was tried andCling up involve officers. They

officer who is accused by 180. speeches, informing on fellowmg" classes in Communism, andtions. There is no evidence he

lant accused by many witnesses, beating a sick prisoner, stealiIlg

a wallet from a dying man, forcing a fellow prisoner out into the snow and leaving him there to die, and drowning three U. N. prisoners crossing a stream.

There was an officer who allegedly courted favors of his cap· tors as soon as he reached prison camp. He is charged with confiscating the small tobacco ration dealt to the other men and eating more than his share of the food. It is recorded that he made the heartless remark, "The more men who die here, the more food for the rest of us." He signed peace petitions, made propaganda broadcasts, and evidently "ratted" on other prisoners. There is no evidence that he was coerced.

There is evidence that an enlisted man informed on fellow prisoners planning to escape. He wrote Red literature for his captors. He was put in charge of a spy system which resulted in the punishment of "Reactionaries" in his camp. He asked for the job. No "brainwashing" here.

Many of the accused informed on their prison-mates, some· times with dire consequences for the victims who were usually severely punished. The man who tried to "escape and was victimized by "ratting" was indeed a Soldier of Misfortune. Illvariably he was accused of breaking camp rules-a violation

. which "entitled" his captors to punish him. He might be placed in a hole in the ground and forced to endure an animal existence. He might be sent to "The Caves." He might be compelled to stand for hours in a latrine.

To the combat veterans, "ratting" was a crime as unforgiv. able as treason.

The Turncoats The 21 turncoats who decided to stay with the Communists­

here was another group of "exceptions." Their number in· eluded men accused of informing-which suggests a good reason for electing to remain in the enemy's country. Evidence iridic cates that few of these 21 were "sincere" converts to Com~ munism. Expediency, opportunism, and fear of reprisal doubt· less influenced some of the group.

Promises Were Not Broken It has been stated that men were Illured" back to the Ameri·

can side by promises of clemency. This misconception, like

27

No case was brought for courlwas evidence of duress, brain,coercion.

The Committee Onds that tlamong the services. The relalPOWs naturally shifted the hcases into the Army's columnsame screening procedures inAll services applied the same I

charges of misconduct. Result~

on the evidence in each case.

Prisoners UnrecoveredThe Korean Armistice Agreer

"each side would directly repatrwho desired repatriation." Ththis agreement. After repatriatthe U. N. command listed 944presumably in enemy hands. :finally accounted for by the Co:efforts this list has been reducedreason to believe were at some tiIn the United Nations, the Udemanded an accounting for the

The Committee believes that tstrictly accountable for the 471Information indicates tbey weiCommunist hands.

All have been declared legallymunists should account for theragreement with the UnitedStal

The Communists admitted hoIDepartment of Defense civilianwas mdirect violation of theGeneva Conventions.

Concern of Ex-PrisonersThe Committee also concern

service men who were discharglWar-men who have been returepatriated POWs who may ha1

Because of the misconduct clnumber of POWs, and the accusl

many others concerning the POWs, is far from the truth. The Army possesses a tape recording of the broadcast made to the men in question. No promise to the effect that they would not be prosel;uted was offered. What the broadcast said in. sub­stance was this: If the men returned they would not be charged with -desertion. "Ratting" was another matter entirely. Also other crimes which were subsequently revealed by investigation.

Finally the Uniform Code of Military Justice is devised for defense as well as prosecution. A military court often bends over backward in the interest of the accused. The man is assured a conscientious defense. If he cares to, he may pro­cure civilian lawyers. There is nothing "star chamber" about a modern military trial. After witnessing the~rial of a con­fessed "Progressive" charged with collaborating (and confessing to the charge), a reporter for the Christian Science Monitor wrote: /c • ••• perhaps a word of advice is not amiss; make a trip to one of your local, federal, state, or municipal courts; watch the procedures, then look in at a general court-martial."

The reporter went on to observe: "The (military) code pro­vides for post-trial procedure, including automatic reviews by the Staff Judge Advocate of the First Army and a special board of review in the Pentagon. If this does not satisfy the prisoner-and he can show good cause-the conviction and sentence can go to the Court of Military Appeals, composed of three civilian judges appointed by the President." And clemency is possible through the Executive branch of our government.

Service Action Not Divergent The public has been under the misapprehension that some of

the men court-martialed and sentenced for misconduct while in POW camps "had the book thrown at them" while others went free.

Each of the Services thoroughly investigated all alleged cases oj­misconduct. They used generally identical criteria in determin­ing the disposition of each case. Criteria considered tYl~e of misconduct, duress, and indications of informing or "ratting."

The Department of Defense :maintaiped, surveillance over cases brought to trial.

The disposition of all cases was governed by the facts and circumstances surrounding each case. and was as consistent, equitable, and uniform as could be achieved by any two or :more boards or courts.

>OWs, is far from the truth. Theling of the' broadcast made to thee to the effect that they would notWhat the broadcast said in sub­turned they would not be charged'as another matter entirely. Also·:quently revealed by investigation.of Military Justice is devised forn. A military court often bends~st of the accused. The man islse. If he cares to, he may pro-is nothing "star chamber" about

ter witnessing the \rial of a con­with collaborating (and confessing)r the Christian Science Monitor~d of advice is not amiss; make aleral, state, or municipal courts;ok in at a general court-martial."lserve: "The (military) code pro­, including automatic reviews byr the First Anny and a special~on. If this. does not satisfy thegood cause-the ccnviction andof Military Appeals, composed ofnted by the President." And1 the Executive branch of our

l'lt

jhe misapprehension that some ofientenced for misconduct while inU'own at them" while others went

rhly investigated all alleged cases of­illy identical criteria in determin­Lse. Criteria considered type ofitions of informing or "rattmg."se maintained surveillance over

was governed by the facts andeh case. and was as consistent,I be achieved by any two or more

, No case was brought for court-martial actlonin which there was evidence of duress, brainwashing or any other type of coercion.

The Committee Onds that there was no divergent action among the services. The relatively large number of Army POWs naturally shifted the largest number of misconduct cases into the Army's column. All services employed the same screening procedures in examining repatriated POWs. All services applied the same standards in weighing alleged charges of misconduct. Resultant service actions were based on the evidence in each case.

Prisoners Unrecovered

The Korean Annistice Agreement contained a proviso that "each side would directly repatriate all those prisoners of war who desired repatriation." The Communists did not honor this agreement. After repatriation operations were concluded, the U. N. command listed 944 servicemen as "missing" and presumably in enemy hands. Nineteen of this number were finally accounted for by the Communists. By our own U. S. efforts this list has been reduced to 470, some of whom we have reason to believe were at some time in the hands of the enemy. In the United Nations, the United States has consistently demanded an accounting for t.hem.

The Committee believes that the Communists should be held strictly accountable for the 470 men still missing in action. Information indicates they were at one time or another in Communist hands.

All have been declared legally dead. Nevertheless, the Com­munists should account for them in accor(l.ance with a signed agreement with the United States.

The Communists admitted holdtng 15 Air Force men and two Department of Defense civilian employees. Their detainment was in direct violation of the Armistice Agreement and the Geneva Conventions.

Concern of Ex-Prisoners

The Committee also concerned itself with the question of service men who were discharged at the close of the Korean War-men who have been returned to civilian status. Also repatriated POWs who may have remained in uniform.

Because of the misconduct charges brought against a small number of POWs, and the accusations of misconduct levelled at

29

VI

THE ROAD AHEAD FORARMED FORCES

Total War for the Minds of M,

America must view the Como:but another weapon in the WOI

men. The nation must recogniwhich pays no more than lip serv;

However, the United States csimilar policy. To do so mightthe United States refuses to sacSuch a justification of means forment of the cause for which Jconscience would revolt at such

The nation must continue toother threat to Democracy, witlciples. .The machines of war alprise, science and industry. T.America's founders, are more t.showcase display. They are preif the nation is to remaip. the glit is.

The responsibility for the rnathe United States and all it stashared by every citizen. Everyin the war for the minds of

Code of American Conduct

The battlefield of modern WI

there are no distant front lines,rear areas. The home front is 1front. In the dreaded event of :nuclear war-the doorstep mayof defense. Under such circumduct for the American servicemalcitizen.

a slightly larger number, some of the former POWs may have grown uneasy about the matter. The Committee considers that no man with a clear conscience need worry about a possible charge.

The repatriated POW has been entitled to special com­pensation for the period of his confinement. Every repatri­ated POW,could receive this money by applying for it, with this exception:· The war-prisoners who voluntarily, knowingly, and without duress gave aid to, collaborated with, or in any manner served the enemy, are excluded. All repatriated prisoners who receive this compensation have been cleared of any such misconduct charge.

30

·e of the former POWs may have,tter. The Committee considerslienee need worry about a possible

; been entitled to special com­his confinement. Every repatri­I money by applying for it, withDners who voluntarily, knowingly,to, collaborated with, or in anyare excluded. All repatriated

ompensation have been cleared:e.

VI

THE ROAD AHEAD FOR AMERICA AND THE ARMED FORCES

Total War for the Minds of Men

America must view the Communist treatment of captives as but another weapon in the world-wide war for the minds of men. The nation must recognize the duplicity of an enemy which pays no more than lip service to the Geneva Conventions.

However, the United States cannot oppose duplicity with a similar policy. To do so might be fighting fire with fire. But the United States refuses to saerifice principle for expediency. Such a justification of means for end would mean the abandon­ment of the cause for which America fights. The national conscience would revolt at such a sohltion.

The nation must continue to oppose Communism, or any other threat to Democracy, with American weapons and prin­ciples. The machines of war are assured by American enter­prise, science and industry. The principles, home-forged by America's founders, are more than an heirloom heritage for

.showcase display. They are precepts which must be practiced if the nation is to remain the guardian of man's liberties that it is.

The responsibility for the maintenance and preservation of the United States and all it stands for is one which must be shared by every citizen. Every American is in the front line in the war for the minds of men.

Code of American Conduct

The battlefield of modern warfare is all inclusive. Today there are no distant front lines, remote no man's lands, far-off rear areas. The home front is but an extension of the fighting front. In the dreaded event of another all-out war-a thermo­nuclear war-the doorstep may become the Nation's first line of defense. Under such circumstances, the new code of con­duct for the American serviceman might well serve the American citizen.

31

I

.

I

!

ADDI

1. Terms of Reference2. Code of Conduct3. Citizens, Former Prisone

Representatives Who ~

Advisory Committee 0

4. The Mind and the Spirit5. Prisoners of War in His16. Bibliography7. Charts

360488"0-55-6

The Code's high standards will serve as guides for Americans in uniform. Backed by adequate training and educatioll, they will support the assurance of Armed Forces leaders that Amer­ican fighting men will be fully prepared to meet the enemy on any front.

The Korean story must never be permitted to happen again.

1

32

will serve as guides for Americansllate training and education, theyArmed Forces leaders that Amer­r prepared to meet the enemy on

'er be permitted to happen again.

ADDENDA

1. Terms of Reference 2. Code of Conduct 3. Citizens, Former Prisoners of War, and Government

Representatives Who Consulted with the Defense Advisory Committee on Prisoners of War

4. The Mind and the Spirit in National Security 5. Prisoners of War in History 6. Bibliography 7. Charts

33

ADDENDJ

TERMS OF I

. I

ADDENDA NO.1

TERMS OF REFERENCE

35

THE SECRETAWASH

MEMORANDUM FOR THE CECOMMITTEE ON PRISONEF

SUBJECT: Terms of ReferenceI am deeply concerned with the

of providing Americans who serVEmeans we can devise to defeat thEsuccess of our Armed Forces it is e,the best weapons of the mind and 1machines of war.

Our national military needs mumember of the Armed Forces be theasily understood code to govern :However, this military need mustthe principles and precepts basic tcment must be accomplished with jt

I have appointed this Committee 1that you consider the methods we It

ploy, the obligation which nationalthe Armed Forces and the obligatictaction to its citizens in the custoddeliberation tow~rd the developmelCode of Conduct and indoctrinatifuture conflict. You will also consWar Problem areas which I will ml

Staff support will be supplied inStaff Director from the Office of(M&P), the Deputy Staff Director j

Staff, and one officer each from theCorps for full-time staff duty.

Legal counsel will be provided b(OSD), and research·assistance willAssistant Secretary of Defense (R&

Liaison between this Committee •Department of Defense will be COl

priata office in the Office of the Secthe Office of the Assistant Secretar~

It is desired that this CommitteEtwo months after its first meeting.

THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE WASHINGTON

May 17, 1955

MEMORANDUM FOR THE CHAIRMAN, DEFENSE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRISONERS OF WAR

I

SUBJECT: Terms of Reference I am deeply concerned with the importance to our national security

of providing Americans who serve their country in battle with every means we can devise to defeat the enemy's techniques. To assum the success of our Armed Forces it is equally as essential to arm them with the best weapons of the mind and body as it is to provide them with the machines of war.

Our national military needs must be met. This requires that each member of the Armed Forces be thoroughly indoctrinated with a simple, easily understood code to govern his conduct while a prisoner of war. However, this military need must be met in a manner compatible with the principles and precepts basic to our form of government. Enforce­ment must be accomplished with justice and understanding.

I have appointed this Committee to advise me on this matter. I request that you consider the methods we may expect our potential enemy to em­ploy, the obligation which national military needs impose on members of the Armed Forces and the obligation of the United States to afford pro­tection to its citizens in the custody of a foreign power. I direct your deliberation tow~rd the development of suitable recommendations for a Code of Conduct and indoctrination and training on preparation for future conflict. You will also consider certain other related Prisoner of War Problem areas which I will make known.

Staff support will be supplied in the form of a Secretariat, with the Staff Director from the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (M&P), the Deputy Staff Director from the Office of the Joint Chiefs. of Staff, and one officer each from the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps for full-time staff duty.

Legal counsel will be provided by the Office of the General Counsel (OSD), and research"assistance will be supplied through the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (R&D).

Liaison between this Committee and government agencies outside the Department of Defense will be conducted with the help of the appro­priate office in the Office of the Secretary of Defense as coordinated by the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (M&P).

It is desired that this Committee submit. its recommendations within t.wo months after its first meeting.

37

ADDEND.

CODE OF I

~!

,II!

ADDENDA NO.2

CODE OF CONDUCT

39

tI

~

~I

CODE OF CONDl

For Members of the Armed Fo

By virtue of the auPresident of the UnitEmander in Chief of ttUnited States, I' hereof Conduct for MembEof the United Statesthis order and hereby

Every member of tlUnited States is expectstandards embodied inwhile he is in combaensure achievement otmember of the Armedshall be provided wit]instruction designed tcounter and withstalagainst him, and shallto the behavior and (him during combat or I

The Secretary of Dtary of the Treasury ,wiGuard except when it iNavy) shall .. take suclnecessary to implemedisseminate and maketo all members of theUnited States.

3654880.0-55--7

~I

CODE OF CONDUCT

For f,'lembm of the Armed Forces of the United Slales.

By virtue of the authority vested in me as President of the United Statel', and as Com­mander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the United States, I' hereby prescribe the Code of Conduct for Members of the Armed ForceI' of the United States which is attached to this order and hereby made a part thereof.

Every member of the Armed Forces of the United States is expected to measure lip to the standards embodied in this Code of Conduct while he is in combat or in captivity. To ensure achievement of these standard", each member of the Armed Forces liable to eapture shall be provided with specific training and instruction designed to better equip him to counter and withstand all enemy efforts against him, and shall be fully instructed as to the behavior and obligations expected of him during combat or captivity.

The Secretary of Defense (and the Seere­tary of the Treasury with respect to the Coast Guard except when it is serving as part of the Navy) shall .. take such action as is deemed necessary to implement this order and to disseminate and make the said code known to all members of the Armed Forces of the United States.

41

,

t1

IV(continued)

When questioned, should I be­come a prisoner of war, I ambound to give only· name, rank,service number and date ofbirth. I will evade answeringfurther questions to the utmostof my ability. I will make nooral or written statements dis­loyal to my country and its alliesor har'inful to their cause.

c(

ofa1pITmortamIfefse7!Tc(

fo

rEpin:biminojmOJtiplaltlCIC(

01S101

ti,pIfompIhittmar

. ofw

thcobJhihiefiofC­pIC­pI

I am an American fighting man. I serve in the forces which guard my country and our way of life. I am prepared to give my life in their defense.

II I will never surrender of my own free will. If in command, I will never surrender my men while they still have the means to resist.

III If I am captured I will .continue to r.esist by all means available. I will make every effort to escape and aid others to escape. I will accept neither parole nor special' favors from the enemy.

IV If I become a prisoner of war, I will keep faith with my fellow prisoners. I will give no informa­tion nor take part in a'ny action which might be harmful to my' comrades. If I am senior, I will take command. . If not, I will obey the lawful orders of those appointed over me and will back them up in every way.

42

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

A member of the Armed Forces is always a fighting man. As such, it is his duty to oppose the enemies of the United States regardless of the circumstances in which he may find himself, whether in active participation in combat, or as a prisoner of war.

As an individual, a member of the Armed Forces may never voluntarilv surrender himself. When isolated and he can no longer inflict casualties on the enemy, it is his duty to evade capture and rejoin the nearest friendly. forces.

The responsibility and authority of a commander never extends to the sur­render of his command to the enemv while it has power to resist or evade. When isolated, cut off or surrounded, a unit must continue to fight until relieved, or able to rejoin friendly forces, by break­ing out or by evading the enemy. .

The duty of a member of the Armed Forces to continue resistance bv all means at his disposal is not lessened by the mis­fortune of capture. Article 82 of the Geneva Convention pertains and must be explained. He will escape if able to do so, and will .assist others to escape. Parole agreement,s are promises given the captor by a prisoner of war upon his faith and honor, to fulfill stated conditions, such as not to bear arms or not to escape, in consideration of special privileges, usually release from captivity or lessened· restraint. He will never sign or enter into a parole agreement.

Informing or any other action to the detriment of a fellow prisoner is despicable and is expressly forbidden. Prisoners of war must avoid helping the enemy identify fellow prisoners who may have knowledge of particular value to the enemy, and may therefore be made to suffer coercive interrogation.

Strong leadership is essential to disci­pline. Without discipline, camp organiza­tion, resistance and even survival may be impossible. .Personal hygiene, cafnp sani­tation, and care of sick and wounded are imperative. Officers and noncommis­sioned officers of the United States will continue to carry out their responsibjlities and exercise their authority subsequent to capture. The senior line officer or non­

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

A member of the Armed Forces isalways a fighting man. As such, it is hisduty to oppose the enemies of the UnitedStates regardless of the circumstances inwhich he may find himself, whether illactive participation in combat, or as aprisoner of war.

As an individual, a member of theArmed Forces may never vohintarilvsurrender himself. When isolated andhe can no longer inflict casualties on theenemy, it is his duty to evade captureand rejoin the nearest friendlv,forces.

The responsibility and authority of acommander never extends to the sur­render of his command to the enemvwhile it has power to resist or evade.When isolated, cut off or surrounded, aunit must continue to fight until relieved,or able to rejoin friendly forces, by break-ing out or by evading the enemy. '

The duty of a member of the ArmedForces to continue resistance bv all meansat his disposal is not lessened by the mis­'ortuneof capture. Article 82 of the3eneva Convention pertains and must belxplained. He will escape if able to do;0, and will assist others to escape.Parole agreements are promises given the:aptor by a prisoner of war upon his faithmd honor, to fulfill stated conditions,mch,as not to bear arms or not to escape,n consideration of special pri.vileges,Isually release from captivity or lessened·'estraint. He will never sign or enter into~ parole agreement.

Informing or any other action to theletriment of a fellow prisoner is despicable,nd is expressly forbiddell. Prisoners ofvar must avoid helping the enemydentify fellow prisoners who may have:nowledge of particular. value to thenemy, and may therefore be made touffer coercive interrogation.

Strong leadership is essential to disci­,line. Without discipline, camp organiza­ion, resistance and even survival may benpossible. .Personal hygiene, camp sani­ation, and care of sick and wounded arenperative.' Officers and noncommis­ioned officers of the United States willontinue to carry out their responsibjlitiesnd exercise their authority subsequent) capture. The senior line officer or non-

IV (continued)

When questioned, shoulO: I be. come a prisoner of war, I am bound to give only name, rank. service number and date of birth. I will evade answering further questions to the utmost of my ability. I will make no oral or written statements dis­loyal to my country and its allies or hal'inful to their cause.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

commissioned officer within the prisoner" of war camp or group of prisoners will assume command according to rank (or precedence) without regard to Service. This responsibility and accountability mav not be evaded. If the senior officer or -nonco'mmissioned officer is incapaci­tated or unable to act for any reason, com­mand will be assumed by the next senior. If the foregoing organization cannot be effected, an organization of elected repre­sentatives, as provided for in Articles 79-81 Geneva Convention Relative to Treatment of Prisoners of War, or a covert organization, or both, will be formed.

When questioned, a prisoner of war is required by the Geneva Convention and permitted by this Code to disclose his name, rank, service number and date of birth. A prisoner 'of war may also com­municate with the enemy regarding his individual health or welfare as a prisoner of war and, when appropriate, on rontine matters of camp administration. Oral or written confessions true or false, ques­tionnaires, personal history statements, propaganda recordings and broadcasts, appeals to other prisoners of war, signa­tures to peace or surrender appeals,. self criticisms or any other oral or written communication on behalf of the enemy or critical or harmful to the United States, its allies, the Armed Forces or other prisoners are forbidden.

It is a violation of the Geneva Conven­tion to place a. prisoner of war under physical or mental torture or any other form of coercion to secure from him infor­mation of any kind. If, however, a prisoner is subjected to such treatment, he will endeavor to avoid by every means the disclosure of any information, or the making of any statement or the perform­ance of any action harm~ul to ~he intere;ots of the United States or Its allles or WhICh

. will provide aid or comfort to the enemy. Under Communist Bloc reservations to

the Geneva Convention, the signing of a confession or the making of a statement by a prisoner is likely to be used to convict him as a war criminal under the laws of his captors. This conviction ha~ the effect of removing him from the prisoner of war status and according to this Communist Bloc device denying him any protection under terms .of. the Ge~eva Convention and repatriatIOn untIl a prison sentence is served.

43

i'f

ADDENDA

CITIZENS, FORMER PRISONERSMENT REPRESENTATIVES WHDEFENSE ADVISORY COMMWAR

VI I will never forget that I am. an American fighting man, responsi­ble for my actions, and dedicated to the principles which made my country free. I will trust in my God and in the United States of America.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

The provisions of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, whenever appropriate, continue to apply. to members of the Armed Forces while prisoners of war. Upon repatriation, the conduct of pris­oners will be examined as to the circum­stances of capture and through the period of detention with due regard for the rights of the individual and consideration for the conditions of captivity.

A member of the Armed Forces who becomes a prisoner of war has a continuing obligation to remain loyal to his country, his Service and his unit.

The life of a prisoner of war is hard. He must never give up hope. He must resist enemy indoctrination. Prisoners of war who stand firm and united against the enemy, will aid one another in surviving this ordeal.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

The provisions of the Uniform Code ofMilitary Justice, whenever appropriate,continue to apply. to members of theArmed Forces while prisoners of war.Upon repatriation, the conduct of pris­oners will be examined as to the circum­stances of capture and through the periodof detention with due regard for therights of the individual and considerationfor the conditions of captivitv.

A member of the Armed' Forces whobecomes a prisoner of war has a continuingobligation to remain loyal to his country,his Service and his unit.

The life of a prisoner of war is hard.He must never give up hope. He mustresist enemy indoctrination. Prisoners ofwar who stand firm and united againstthe enemy, will aid one another insurviving this ordeal.

1'(

ADDENDA NO.3

CITIZENS, FORMER PRISONERS OF WAR, AND GOVERN· MENT REPRESENTATIVES WHO CONSULTED WITH THE DEFENSE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRISONERS OF WAR

45

I I

IsmyIathej

I willfreeneverthey ~

-Ifl amto resistI will maand aid,accept ntfavors frQ

If I becomtwill keep Iprison ers. 1tion nor takwhich mighlcomrades. 1take commalobey the lal\apPointed OVE

them up in ev

42

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

do.0

he~leof

nylyetheto

isci­dza..y belani­I are

.mis­

.. wiIIlities

!1Uenti'non-

l

II

CITIZENS, FORMER PRISONERS OF WAR, AND GOVERN· MENT REPRESENTAliVES WHO CONSULTED WITH THE DEFENSE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRISONERS OF

, WAR

DR. ARTHUR S. ADAMS

Pre8ident, American Council on Education and

Chairman, Re8erve Force8 Policy Board HONORABLE ROBERT B. ANDERSON

Deputy Secretary of Defen8e MAJOR CLARENCE L. ANDERSON, U. S. Army Medical Corp8 MR. MAC ASBELL, JR. Chairman, Subcommittee for Military Affair8-Peace and PreparedMI8

Committee American Veteran8 of World War II COMMANDER RALPH M. BAGWELL, U. S. Navy

DR. A. BIEDERMAN

Ojficer8 Education and Re8earch Laboratory Air Research and Development Command U. S. Air Force MR. GEORGE BROWN

A88i8tant to the President American Federation of Labor HONORABLE HERBERT BROWNELL, JR.

The Attorney General of the United Statell HONORABLE WILBER M. BRUCKER

then General Coun8el, Department of Defense, now Secretary of the Army DR. LEONARD CARMICHAEL

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution COLONEL A. P. CLARK, U. S. Air Force Chief, Promotions & Separations Division Director of Military .Per80nnel ST-AFF SERGEA.NT RODERICK G. CONN, U. S. Air ForC4 GENERAL ORVAL R. COOK, U. S. Air Force Deputy Commander in Chief-Burope DR. MEREDITH P. CRAWFORD

Director, Human Re80urce8 Rellearch Oifiu George Washington Univer&ity CAPTAIN BIlRT CUMBY, U. S. Army

47

COI.ONEL K. K. LOUTHER, U. S. M,Assistant Director of PersonnelPersonnel DivisionLIEUTENANT COLONEL DAVID F. MMR. S. L. A. MARSHALL

Chief Editorial WriterThe Detroit NewsREVERE"D WILLIAM IVrARTI"

Presiding Bishop of Methodist ChurchtDB. CHARLES MAYO

The Mayo ClinicRochester, MinnesotaLIEUTENANT COLONEL JAMES L. M,Defense Prisoner OfficerOffice of the Director of PlansREAR ADMIRAL 1. H. NUNN, U. S. ,The Judge Advocate GeneralLIEUTENANT GENERAL EMMETT O'I

Deputy Chief of Staff, PersonnelCAPTAIN PAUL T. O'DOWD, U. S. ADR. WINFRED OVERHOLSER, M. D.

Superintendent, St. Elizabeths HospitaWashington, D. C.HOSPITALMAN 3D CLASS TED PAILLI

GENERAL W. B. P.\LMER, U. S. Ar71Vice Chief of StaffMAJOR MARION R. PANELL, U. S. .t

G-S Operations, General StaffRABBI DAVID DE SOLA POOL

National Jewish Welfare BoardADMIRAL ARTHUR \V. RADFORD, U.Chairman, Joint Chiefs of StaffMR. VICTOR REUTHER

AsBistant to the PresidentCongress of Industrial OrganizationsDR. SCOVEL RICHARDSON

Chairman, U. S. Board 'of PlUoleDepartment of JusticeHONORABLE ROBERT TRIPP Ross

AsBistant Secretary of Defense(Legislative and Public Affairs)DR. H. J. SANDER

Officers Education and Research Labor,Air Research and Development CommaU. S. Air ForceDB. CARLETON F. SCOFIELD

Human Resources Research OjficeGeorge Washington UniverBity

MAJOR GENERAL WILLIAM F. DEAN, U. S. Army DR. HAROLD W. DODDS

President, Princeton UniverBity MR. ALLYN DONALDSON

Director, Office of Special Counselor Services Department of State CAPTAIN RAY M. DOWE, JR., U. S. Army ADMIRAL DONALD B. DUNCAN, U. S. Navy Vice ChieFof Naval Operations LIEUTENANT GENERAL G. B. ERSKINE, U. S. Marine Corps (Ret.) Director, Special Operations Office of the Secretary of Defense CAPTAIN J. S. F AHY, U. S. Navy Officer Personnel Branch Bureau of Naval Personnel MR. CHARLES E. FOSTER

Assistant Director of Legislatioo Disabled American Veterans REAR ADMIRAL D. V. GALLERY, U. S. Navy Chief, Air Reserve Training REAR ADMIRAL ELTON W. GRENFELL, U. S. Navy Assistant Chief for Personnel Control and ACNO for Military Personnel Security Bureau of Naval Personnel LIEUTENANT COLONEL MONROE J. HAGOOD, U. S. Arnw Chief, Returnees Section G-2 Intelligence, General Staff CORPORAL JAMES L. HALE, U. S. Marine Corps FATHER THEODORE HESBURGH

President, Notre Dame University DR. LAWRENCE HINKLE

New York Hospital BRIGADIER GENERAL S. W. JONES, U. S. Army Assistant Judge Advocate General for Military Justice MR. MILES KENNEDY

Director, National Legislative Commission The American Legion MR. OMAR B. KETCHUM

Director; National Legislative Service Veterans of Foreign Wars MAJOR GENERAL A. M. KUHFIELD, U. S. Air Force The Assistant Judge Advocate General COLONEL H. S. LEViE, U. S. Army Chief, International Affairs DiviBion Office of the Judge Advocate General AMBASSADOR HENRY CABOT LODGE, JR.

United States Representative to the United Nations

48

EAN, U. S. Army

or Services

. S. ArmyJ. S. Navy

SKINE, U. S. Marine Corps (Ret.)

U. S. Navy

FELL, U. S. Navyrol and~rity

J. HAGOOD, U. S. Arnw

Marine Corps

I, U. S. Armyor Military Justice

nis8ion

LD, U. S. Air Forceralnyn

1E, JR.

:Jnited Nations

COI.ONEL K. K. LOUTHER, U. S. Marine Corps­Assistant Director of Personnel Personnel Division LIEUTENANT COLONEL DAVID F. MACGHEE, U. S. Air Force MR. S. L. A. MA.RSHALL

Chief Editorial Writer The Detroit News REVEREI'D WILLIAM MARTIN

Presiding Bishop of Methodist Churches, Dallas, Texas DR. CHARLES MAYO

The Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota LIEUTENANT COLONEL JAMES L. MONROE, U. S. Air Force Defense Prisoner Officer Office of the Director of Plans REAR ADMIRAL 1. H. NUNN, U. S. Navy The Judge Advocate General LIEUTENANT GENERAL EMMETT O'DONNELL, JR., U. S. Air Force Deputy Chief of Staff, Personnel CAPTAIN PAUL T. O'DOWD, U. S. Army DR. WINFRED OVERHOLSER, M. D.

Superintendent, St. Elizabeths Hospital Washington, D. C. HOSPITALMAN 3D CLASS TED PAILLETTE,' U. S. Navy GENERAL W. B. P.\LMER, U. S. Army Vice Chief of Staff MAJOR MARION R. P ANELL, U. S. Army G-S Operations, General Staff RABBI DAVID DE SOLA POOL

National Jewish Welfare Board ADMIRAL ARTHUR W. RADFORD, U. S. Navy Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff MR. VICTOR REUTHER

Assistant to the President Congress of Industrial Organizations DR. SCOVEL RICHARDSON

Chairman, U. S. Board ·of Pa.role Department of Justice HONORABLE ROBERT TRIPP Ross

Assistant Secretary of Defense (Legislative and Public Affairs) DR. H. J. SANDER

Officers Education and Research Laboratory Air Research and Development Command U. S. Air Force DR. CARLETON F. SCOFIELD

Human Resources Research Office George Washington University

49

ADDEND)

THE MIND ANIN NATIONA

DR. JULIU8 SEQAL

Human Resources Research OfficI George Washington University MAJOR HENRY A. SEGAL, U. S.-Army Medical Corps GENERAL LEMUEL C. SHEPHERD, JR.

Commandant, U. S. Marine Corps DR. FRANK STANTON

President, Columbia Broadca!lting System HONORABLE ROBERT T. STEVENIl

then Secretary oj the Army SERGEANT MARVIN E. TALBERT, U. S. Army HONORABLE HAROLD E; TALBOTT

Secretary oj the Air Force LIEUTENANT COLONEL WILLIAM G. THRA8H, U. S. Marine Corps HONORABLE CHARLES S. THOMAS

Secretary oj the Navy LIEUTENANT COLONEL C. H. THURSTON, U. S. Armv G-l Personnel, General Staff GENERAL NATHAN F. TWINING, U. S. Air Foree ChieJ oj Staff MR. BERNARD WEITZER

National Legislative Dir.ctor Jewish War Veterans oj U. S. A. DB. HAROLD WOLF

Department oj Medicine CorneU University

50

Army

, JR.

System

U.S.Armyr

G. THRA8H, U. S. Marine Corps

URSTON, U. S. Armll

U. 8. Air ForceADDENDA NO. 4

THE MIND AND THE SPIRIT IN NATIONAL SECURITY

51

THE MIND ANDIN NATIONAL

(An address by Admiral Arthur Radforof Stalf, before the Sccond National I

tions, Washingt.on, D. C., 25 October

President Eisenhower recentlv issuecorder to announce a Code of ConductForces.

In brief, pointed t.crms, the first articl,

"I am an American fighting m/l.n.my country and our way of life. lamdefense."

I believe most of J'ou realize this isPossibly some of you feel that it Lc; writtform. If so, you are not wrong. It is '1followed by the men in our Armed Fore!

I would suggest, however, that this CI

every American's /l.ttitude. There is nlack of meaning, when yotI pledge: "I secountry and our way of life." Theseplayed by the mind and the spirit in ourMilitant Liberty.

Ladies and gentlemen: Every Ameri,mission. It is not sufficient for only areStates. In our present peril, people ev,against militant international CommunAmerican way of life.

What is this"American way of life" ofI know it. We have lived it and enjoy'define something so nebulous?

Language is sometimes a peculiar thirus.' The word "Freedom" has far diffe'Communist lips. And in American sp'loosely used that its meaning begins to \I

It has become increasingly apparent toand nations who want to remain free IT

able to explain it-by their example as ,. It is obvious the Communists have rna

'they know what" they believe, why theThey are educated in it and completely

On the other hand, we who are free hahave lacked the verbal ability to explaiway of life really is. We must know wl

THE MIND AND THE SPIRIT IN NATIONAL SECURITY

(An address by Admiral Arthur Radford, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, before the Sccond National Conference on Spiritual Founda­tions, Washingt,on, D. C., 25 October 1955.)

President Eisenhower recently issued a widely publicized executive order to announce a Code of Conduct for the members of the Armed Forces.

In brief, pointed t.crtIis, the first article of this Code said:

"I am fin American fighting man. I serve ill the forces which guard my country and our way of life. I am prepared to give my life in trrBr defense."

I believe most of ~'ou realize this is written in the form of a. creed. Possibly some of you feel that it is written mostly for thof'e of us in uni­form. If so, you are not wrong. It is written as a guiding precept to be followed by the men in our Armed Forces.

I would suggest, however, that this creed could very well be a part of every American's attitude. There is no hidden meaning, nor is there lack of meaning, when yotI pledge: "I serve in the forces which guard my country and our way of life." These )Vords are the key to the part played by the mind and the spirit in our national security. They signify: Militant Liberty.

Ladies and gentlemen: Every American should be dedicated to this mission. It is not sufficient for only a relatively few to defend the United States. In our present peril, people everywhere must unite in the fight against militant international Communism, or any other threat to our American way of life.

What is this "American way of life" of which I speak? You know it and I know it. We have lived it and enjoyed its benefits. But how can we define something so nebulous?

Language is sometimes a peculiar thing; Sometimes it plays tricks on us." The word "Freedom" has far different meaning when spoken from ·Comn;;.unist lips. And in American speech, that word may become so loosely used that its meaning begins to wear thin and to become vague.

It has become increasingly apparent to me since WorId War II that men and nations who want to remain free must understand Freedom and be able to explain it-by their example as well as in their own words.

"It is obvious the Communists have made amazing gains, largely because 'they know what" they believe, why they believe it, and can explain it. They are educated in it and completely versed in it.

On the other hand, we who are free have many times been incoherent or have lacked the verbal ability to explain or defend completely what our way of life really is. We must know what we mean by it. We must be

53

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To the young person growing up· ineasy to consider the rights of man as a<to be won. The world can too easilypersonal eliort.

The lessons of history, however, teaclwith instances to prove that nations whapt to fall prey to tyrannical forces, fro

For every freedom there is a corresp<denies his responsibility, he runs the riscepts his responsihility, he C'.l.n do muchtions to follow.

In this same vein, teaching a personpendence and the Bill of Rights by merrnot enough, for you could teach a parr<

Instead, teaching him to understanrbetter. It is all important. We shouldsibilities" to go along with his "Bill of Riin him, a spirit of service to God and CI

Spreading the WordHaving established Faith, Responsj:

elem~nts of "the American way of life,'whole to the concept of the mind and thdo we go about perpetuating this "Arne:for our children tomorrow?

An important feature in the multi-fconviction and complete command of tl:been achieved in great part by the suieffectively spread by organized zeal<values and pretended to show that follodynamic way to economic security for:the United States with status quo poweonto the bounties they already possess.

Thus, the Free World, in spite of ivalues, has been sometimes outmaneuvifree have seemingly lacked the undersdefend our way of life.

The answer lies in the heart, the mineWe must teach a better understandingway of life"; we must rebuild the comto'that which God would have us followsacrifices.

We must spread the word, both aton the good ·offices and influence of theForces, to. develop the sound minds aninational security is fundamentally baNathan Hale, who, when asked by hissimply said: "I only regret that I have 1

convinced that it presents the very best way of life in today's world-and I think we are. But we must be able to explain this conviction to others.

Freedom My own understanding of the American way of life is many-foid.

First it is Freedom and Liberty. Freedom began with a belief in human dignity, and it grew with the

history of the world. Often it came in conflict with tyranny and despo­tism. Often it was knocked down, but always it arose to fight again. It would fight, and lose, and then fight again.

We learned this in history when Moses stood beforePharaoh and said: "Let my people go." We read it again when the barons stood before King John and the Magna Carta was embodied into laws. We lived it still again in the epic of Valley Forge.

Our Founding Fathers were adept at choosing the right words to explain the meaning of our way of life. Thomas Jefferson called it "Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness." .Patrick Henry summed it up when he said: "Give me liberty or give me death."

All of you know well the other meanings of our four freedoms: They are all part of the American way of life:-freedom of religion, freedom of press, freedom of assembly; freedom of speech, and many more. We have lived with these freedoms so long, and have enjoyed them so much, that we are prone to take them for granted.

Faith A second primary ingredient in our American way of life is faith.

Faith is essential. We must have it. The New Testament calls faith "the substance of things hoped for, the

evidence of things not seen." (Hebrews 11:1.) Let me repeat that. Faith is "the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen."

Faith is our belief in the equality of man in the sight of God. It is our belief in what Alexander Hamilton referred to as "the Sacred Rights of Mankind." Far beyond the point of lip-service, we must all believe that each and every human is entitled to "Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness." These are the "substance of things hoped for."

That cold winter at Valley Forge was truly an ordeal. The suffering from freezing and starvation almost led American troops to abandon their cause. Faith in their God; faith in their great leader, George Washington; and faith in the righteousness of their cause inspired the courage with which these men were victorious in their hour of trial. Thesc are the "evidence of things not seen," to return again to the words of the New Testament.

Without such faith, we could not be ready, as written in the Code of Conduct, "to give my life in their defense." But with it, we can meet successfully any future hour of trial.

Responsibilities Now, faith in the principles upon which this nation was founded auto­

maticall)' implies a third important element of "the American way oflife" ; namely, the individual acceptance ofresportsibility to defend these principles against any threat;

54

, best way of life in today's world-andble to explain this conviction to others.

American way of life is many-foid.

human dignity, and it grew with theae in conflict with tyranny and despo-but always it arose to fight again. It

ht again.Moses stood before. Pharaoh and said:~ain when the barons stood before Kingmbodied into laws. We lived it still

tept at choosing the right words toof life. Thomas Jefferson called it

:appiness." .Patrick Henry summed itor give me death."

anings of our four freedoms: They are-freedom of religion, freedom of press,speech, and many more. We havemd have enjoyed them so much, that;ed.

our American way of life is faith.t.~he substance of things hoped for, theews 11:1.) Let me repeat that. Faithor, the evidence of things not seen."'I of man in the sight of God. It is~on referred to as "the Sacred Rightsnt of lip-service, we must. all believeed to "Life, Liberty, and the Pursuitstance of things hoped for."

was truly an ordeal. The sufferingled American troops to abandon theirleir great leader, George Washington;leir cause inspired the courage with

their hour of trial. These are theturn again to the words of the New

be ready, as written ill the Code ofdefense." But with it, we can meet

which this nation was founded auto­ement of "the American way of life";

of responsibility to defend these

To the young person growing up in a country such as ours, it is too easy to consider the rights of man as accepted facts rather than as prizes to be won. The world can too easily seem his for the taking, without personal effort.

The lessons of history, however, teach us otherwise. History is replete with instances to prove that nations who take their liberty for granted are. apt to fall prey to tyrannical forces, from within as well as from without.

For every freedom there is a corresponding responsibility. If a person denies his responsibility, he runs the risk of losing his freedom. If he ac­cepts his responsibility, he C'ln do much to perpetuate freedom for gencra­tiom! to follow.

In this same vein, teaching a person to recite the Declaration of Inde­pendence and the Bill of Rights by memory, line by line, word for word, is not enough, for you could teach a parrot to do that.

Instead, teaching him to understand the meaning of liberty is much better. It is all important. We should always give him a "Bill of Respon­sibilities" to go along with his "Bill of Rights," and at the same time, instill in him, a spirit of service to God and country.

Spreading the Word Having established Faith, Responsibility, and Freedom as the three

elem~nts of "the American way of life," I am concerned with relating the whole to the concept of the mind and the spirit in national security. How do we go about perpetuating this "American'way of life," for us today and for our children tomorrow?

An important feature in the multi-faced Soviet threat has been their conviction and complete command of their doctrine. Their successes have been achieved in great part by the subversive appeal of an artful logic, effectively spread by organized zealots. They have denied spiritual values and pretended to show that following the Communist l;lystem is the dynamic way to economic security for the masses. They have associated the United States with status quo powers whose only motivation is to hold onto the bounties they already possess;

Thus, the Free World, in spite of its greater resources and spiritual values, has been sometimes outmaneuvered. Too many times we who are free have seemingly lacked the understanding conviction with which to defend our way of life.

The answer lies in the heart, the mind, and in the spirit of all Americans. We must teach a better understanding and appreciation of "the American way of life"; we must rebuild the conviction that our path is the closest to'th~t which God would have us follow, that it is truly worth;)' of personal sacrifices.

We must spread the word, both at home and abroad. We must call on the good offices and influence of the h~me, church, school, and Armed Forces, to. develop the sound minds and dedicated spirits upon which our national security is fundamentally based. We can take our cue from Nathan Hale, who, when asked by his· captors if he' had any last words, simply said: "I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country."

55

ADDEND.

PRISONERS OF VI

You, laclie'" and gentlemen, are among the teachers. By virtue of the great wisdom you possess, you are able to wield your power and influence on people everywhere. Therefore, you have perhaps a greater responsi­bility to Freedom.

Yes, you are accountable. You are accountable for your use of Freedom and, your powers to teach. Through your patriotic dedication, you can rekindle the fires of understanding conviction so that all Americans will proudl}' dedicate themselves to the words of our Founding Fathers in the Declaration of Independence:

"Alld for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance 011 the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually. pledge to _~ach other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor."

This; ladies and gentlemen, is the Mind and Spirit in our National Security.

56

l..'

re among the teaehers. By virtue of theore able to wield your power and influencelre, you have perhaps a greater responsi-

m are accountable for your use of Freedomrough your patriotic dedication, you caning conviction so that all Americans will;he words of our Founding Fathers in the

, Declaration, with a firm reliance 011 thece, we mutually pledge to .~ach other oursacred Honor."

s the Mind and Spirit in our National

,j,

ADDENDA NO. 5

PRISONERS OF WAR IN HISTORY

57

PRISONERS OF WA

Dungeon, Cell and StoclcadeThe captive knight languished in a

usually rugged. Facing "durance vil!

terred death to capture, refusing to BurlThe Medieval foot soldier continued

the hands of a conquering enemy. B\l

notable spokesman in Hugo Grotius-I

world's great democratic thinkers. },imprisoned. He contrived a remarka

cated himself to a study of internationa

rules which combatant nations could I

efforts to humanize warfare by legal msuccess. But they did publicize the pi

conscience.The concurrent rise of nationalism

As national armies grew, so did the c

Usually the conquering army had fe"captives. Castle dungeons were fewwere built to hold prisoners. The Bprison for soldiers captured during the

As cells overflowed, the captives werlThey were packed into airless prison st

guards were shorthanded, prisoners VI

Fortunately for the war-prisoner t1

One came in the device of the prisone

trom the concept that the soldier Inagovernment. As such he could not beactions of that government. Hence, hgoing to war. The prisoner had right

the "detaining state" and not from inon the problem of the "war criminl

involving the modern POW.The issue arose during the America

pertinent to the POW problem of todof captive by captor; prisoner conducescape; truce exchange or prisoner reexperience with these issues was not f

The First American POW'iGeorge III decreed that all Amer

authority were war criminals subjecWhipple of Rhode Island reminded thyou hang himI" But every Revoluti<under shadow of the gallows. Theproved impractical and English 1il

PRISONERS OF WAR IN HISTORY

Dungeon, Cell and Stockade The captive knight languished in a "donjon." The languishing was

usually rugged. Facing "durance vile," many Medieval warriors pre­ferred death to capture, refusing to !lurrender and battling until they feU.

The Medieval foot Boldier continued to risk death or enslavement at the hands of a conquering enemy. But in the 17th Century he found flo notable spokesman in Hugo Grotius-Dutch lawyer, humanist, one of the world's great democratic thinkers. At one time, Grotius himself was imprisoned. He contrived a remarkable escape. Thereafter, he dedi­cated himself to a study of international law, attempting to devise a set of rules which combatant nations could follow to mutual advantage. His efforts to humanize warfare by legal means did not meet with immediate­success. But they did publicize the problem and place it on humanity's conscience.

The concurrent rise of nationalism aggravated t~e prisoner problem: As national armies grew, so did the complexities of war and soldiering. Usually the conquering army had few facilities for confining a mass of captives. Castle dungeons were few and far between. Great bastilles were built to hold prisoners. The British constructed Dartmoor as a prison for soldiers captured during the Napoleonic Wars.

As cells overflowed, the captives were crowded into miserable stockades. They were packed into sirless prison ships or bleak compounds. Because guards were shorthanded, prisoners were frequently chained in droves.

Fortunately for the war-prisoner two lenitives eventually developed. One came in the device of the prisoner exchange. The second stemmed from the concept that the soldier In a national army was a servant of his government. As such he could not be held personally responsible for the' actions of that government. Hence, he was not subject to punishment for going to war. The prisoner had right of reparation, and it was due from the "detaining state" and not from individual captors. The point bears on the problem of the "war criminal"-one of the serious questions involving the modern POW.

The issue arose during the American Revolution. So did qther issues pertinent to the POW problem of today-questions involving treatment of captive by captor; prisoner conduct and allegiance; prison break and escape; truce exchange or prisoner rescue. The American patriot's first experience with these issues was not a happy one.

The First American POW'i George III decreed that all Americans who revolted against Crown

authority were war criminals subject to hanging. Doughty Abraham Whipple of Rhode Island reminded the king, "Always catch a man before you hang himl" But every Revolutionary soldier and sailor went to war under shadow of the gallows. The noose was relaxed only because it proved impractical and English liberals deplored such high-handed

59

~ij!

.~

I1

!~

II

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,Gustavus Conyngham and agrolJ.p of.made a get-away. Thereby, as ConyI

treason through His Majesty's earth."underground, the intrepid Joshua. Blescape. Eluding pursuers, he bluffed hiHolland in disguise-an exploit to ·ri,-born the tradition that the America:captivity.

"The Meaning of Treason"Laws affccting military discipline WE

codes prevailed. Treason was punish~ot be countenanced. The question ojprisoner of the enemy came up durinits decision-a precedent-wasrecordecThe accused faced trial for serving in I

claimed he was forced to do so underheld that the duress was insufficient, <would constitute adequate excuse,

Clearer cases of treason were made :their posts and went over to the enemyhis raider, the Ranger. The man, a Dhaven and tried to fi..larm the town. 1:

During the Civil War many prisonE3,170 Union captives exchanged blue fwent over to the Federal side. One j

Rebs" was sent West to man a frontier I

needed on the front.In cases involving disloyal prisoner!

or degree of duress-was weighed hAdvocate General. recognized caerdol"extrem.e suffering and privation whi<might justify his enlistment with themade no effort to escape when 0PPOdesertion charge. War Department (provided that It was the duty of a priswas designed to curb wholesale surrelland evade further military service.

The war was opposed by NorthEinclined to be lenient. Referring to"Should I hang a young soldier, andhim to desert?"

Lieber's CodeCivil War prison camps were harsh

Andersonville and Florence, men suffelack of medication. The UDion priso'was a bleak Alcatraz, and Union stpotomac were described as "hell hole:

Humane citizens, North and Southcaptive soldiery. In 1863 President]

tyranny; Soon after the outbreak of hostilities prisoner exchanges were begun and paroles arranged. Whipple himself was eventually captured. The Red Coats considered the "Informal Commodore" worth more as hostage than hangee.

Captive American seamen were'lodged in the worst of England's Daval prisons, the "Old Mill" at Plymouth. Early in the war Dr. Franklin informed Lord Stormont in Paris, "The United States are not unac­quainted with the barbarous treatment their people receive. when they hP.ve the misfortune of being your prisoners in Europe." Lord Stormont's answer was blunt. "The King's Ambassador receives no applications from rebels unlesathey come to implore His Majesty's mercy." Mal­treatment of captured Yankees led Paul Jones to raid Nova Scotia in a daring rescue effort. "Justly indignant at the suffering of these Ameri-' cans, I resolved to make the greatest efforts to succor them." His sensa­tional raid on England featured an attempt to kidnap the Earl of Selkirk to force a prisoner exchange.

A vie~ of Red Coat prisons in America comes from the pen of Ethan ~lIen, hImself made captive. "The prisoners who were brought to New 1: ork were crowded into churches by the slavish Hessian guards . . . .. I have seen sundry of the prisoner.:! in the agonies of death, in consequence of very hunger; and others speechless and near death, biting pieces of chIps; others pleading for God's sake for something to eat and at the sa~e ,time shivering with cold.... The filth was almost' beyond de­scriptIOn.... I have seen in one of the churches seven dead at the same time, lying among the excrement of their bodies.... I saw some sucking bones after they were speechlesd. . . . I was persuaded that it was a premeditated and systematized plan of the British Council to destroy the youth of our land."

From Bunce's Romance oj the Revolution comes an equally harrowing account. "Of all the atrocities committed, those in the prison ships of New York am the most execrable .... there is nothing in history to excel the barbarities there inflicted. Twelve thousand (American pris­oners) suffered death .•.• on board the filthy and malignant ships. The scenes enacted in these prisons almost exceed belief." Worst of the prison ships was the hulk "Old Jersey" anchored in Wallabout Bay, Brooklyn. The many dead, thrown overside, silted the bay with skele­tons. A poet patriot engraved the picture in verse:

"Let the dark Scorpion's hulk narrate, "The dismal tale of Red Coat hate; "Her horrid scenes let Jersey tell, "And mock the shades where demons dwell ..

The Red Coat leaders countered that the Yankees taned and feathered Tory loyalists and that captive British soldiers were worked in brutal !Dines. The claim was made (in some instances substantiated) that Con­tiI!ental Navy captains slew naval prisoners. But "Old Jersey" remained a blot on the record.

!n the "Old Mill" at Plymouth, England, some of the Revolution's greatest sea warriors were imprisoned. The prisoners were chained and placed under heavy guard. Yet the "Mill" featured two of the most remarkable. escapes in ?istory-exploits which inspire American fighting men to thiS day. With almost superhuman determination, Captain

60

ak of hostilities prisoner. exchanges were:~ipple himself was eventually captured.Informal Commodore" worth more as

e'lodged in the worst of England's naval!louth. Early in the war Dr. Franklin'is, "The United States are not, unac­atment their people receive. when theyprisoners in.Europe." Lord Stormont's

B Ambassador receives no applicationsimplore His Majesty's mercy." MaI­led Paul Jones to raid Nova Scotia inIdignant at the sUffering of these Ameri­;est efforts to succor them." His sensa­D attempt to kidnap the Earl of Selkirk

America comes from the pen of Ethanhe prisoners who were brought to Newby the slavish Hessian guards .....

I in the agonies of death, in consequence11ess and near death, biting pieces ofsake for something to eat, and at the. . The filth was almost beyond de­

of the churches seven dead at the samertheir bodies.... I saw some sucking. ... I was persuaded that it was a

n of the British Council to destroy the

~elJol~tion comes an equally harrowingmmltted, those in the prison ships of

there is nothing in history to:I. Twelve thousand (American pris­oard the filthy and malignant ships.; almost exceed belief." Worst of therersey" anchored in Wallabout Bayn overside, silted the bay with skele:picture in verse:s hulk narrate,Coat hate;

ersey tell,,here demons dwell "

hat the Yankees tarred and feathered'itish soldiers were worked in brutalae instances substantiated) that Con­·isoners. But "Old Jersey" remained

England, some of the Revolution'sld. The prisoners were chained andIe "Mill" featured two of the mostoits which inspire American fightinguperhumandetermination, Captain

,Gustavus Conyngham and agrO\lp orfcll0V{ pri~oners tunneled out and made a get-away. Thereby, as Conyngham dryly put it, "committing treason through His Majesty's earth." .Aided by friends in the English underground, the intrepid Joshua Barney contrived ~n over-the-wall escape. Eluding pursuers, he bluffed his way across England, and l'eached Holland in disguise-an exploit to ·rival anything in Dumas. So was born· the tradition that the American POW does not meekly accept captivity.

"The Meaning of Treason" Laws affecting military discipline were evolving. Of course, the basio

codes prevailed. Treason was punishable by death. Treachery could not be countenanced. The question of treasonable collaboration while a prisoner of the enemy came up during the Revolution. The case l!-nd its decision-a precedent--wasrecorded in 1781. Respublica vs. M'Car,ty. The accused faced trial for serving in enemy uniform after capture. He claimed he was forced to do so under compulsion of .duress. The court held that the duress was insufficient, only the threat of imminent death would constitute adequate excuse.

Clearer cases of treason were made against enlisted men who deserted their postsand went over to the enemy. Paul Jones had such a traitor in his raider, the Ranger. The man, a David Freeman, fled ship at Whi~e­haven and tried to alarm the town. If Jones had caught him-I

During the Civil \Var many prisoners of war changed unif.orm. /Some 3,170 Union captives exchanged blue for gJ:ay. About 5,452 Confederates went over to the Federal side. One famous company of "reconstructed Rebs" was sent \,yest to man a frontier outpost and relieve a Union garrison needed on the front.

In cases involving disloyal prisoners of war, the question of duress­or degree of duress-was weighed in the balance. Tlte Union Judge Advocate General· recognized coercion as a defense. It was held that "extreme suffering and privation which endangered the prisoner's life" might justify his enlistment with the enemy. However, if the prisoner made no effort to escape when opportunity offered, he was liable to a desertion charge. War Department General Order No. 207 (July 1863) provided that it was the duty of a prisoner of war to eseape. The order was designed to curb wholesale surrenders by men eager to obtain parole and evade further military service.

The war was opposed by Northern "Copperheads." Lincoln was inclined to be lenient. Referring to" "Copperhead" leaders, he asked, "Should I hang a young soldier, and free a wily politician who induces him to desert?"

Lieber's Code Civil War prison camps were harsh. In Southern camps, particularly

Andersonville and Florence, men suffered greatly from malnutrition and lack of medication. The Union prison on Johnson's Island in Lake Erie was. a bleak Alcatraz, and Union stockades at Point Lookout on the Potomac were described as "hell holes."

Humane citizens, North and South, appealed for lenient treatment of captive soldiery. In 1863 President Lincoln requested Professor Francis

61

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tion had been haphazard and disorganton Service which operated with McCunder Colonel Lafayette Baker, and aService put intelligence-gathering (anda modernized basis.

Spies were called "scouts." As old B

spy, caught in disguise, faced deat~..prisoner-of-war exemptions. The CIV:exploits. It also featured daring raids 1

for interrogation. In every war therEbe closely linked with prisoner interro~

The officer or man who gave his cadangerous to country and cause as the (enjoined "not to talk." Lieber set dOl

Honorable men, when captured, willinformation concerning their own armlmits no longer the use of any violerextort the desired information, or to ~

Information.Again the rule was easier to recite

there was the interrogator ordered bytion-intelligence which might win a bother hand, there was the prisoner, swmight cost a battle and the lives of his CI

forces for a cruel contest. By virtue «

odds are all against the prisoner. Hisome form of duress. Accordingly, Lthe captor.

Civilized men did their best to folloand Christian doctrine.

So another significant effort was mThe going was slow but the steps werlof something better for the POW was I

The International Red CrossIn 1864, the Swiss philanthropist l

set the stage for a conference at Gennational Red Cross. The Red Crosregardless of the flag they served.sanitary personnel might continue its 1

Through the determined campaigningjoined the convent~oni~ 1882, and th~

Dunant's work lDsplred the foundi:In 1874 a conference was held in BruSlGovernment. Delegates of all the I

A 'code, based on Lieber's, was pro;ratified. But it strongly influencedm~t at the turn of tl~e centurY·

The devoted me~ at .Geneva and 1internationailawB wll-ich "fould be eftrace prejudice, ancient grudges, super

Lieber to prepare a set of rules for immediate promulgation. Lieber's Instruction8for the Government of Armies of the United States were probably the first comprehensive codification of international law issued by a government. Based on moral precepts which recognized the enemy as a fellow human with lawful rights, they embodied the first code pertaining to prisoners of war. Lieber's code contained the following injunctions:

No, belligerent has the right to declare that he will treat every captured man In arms . • • . as a brigand or a bandit.

A prisoner of war Is subject to no punishment for being a public enemy, nor Is any revenge wreaked upon him by the Intentional Infliction of any sutrering, or disgrace, by cruel Imprisonment, want of food, by mutila­tIOIl, death, or any other barbarity.

A prisoner of war remaIns answerable ror his crimes commItted before the captor's army or people, (for crimes) committed before be was cap­tured, and for which he has not been punished by his own authorities.

A prisoner of war . . . • Is the prisoner of the government and not ot the captor.

Prisoners of war are subject to confinement or imprisonment such as may be deemed necessary on account of safety, but they are to be sub­jected to no other Intentional suffering or indignity.

A prisoner of war who escapes may be shot, or otherwise killed In mght; but neither death nor any other punishment shall be inflicted on Idm for his attempt to escape, which the law of order does not consider a crime. Stricter means of security shall be used after an unsuccessful attempt at escape. '

Every captured wounded man shall be medically treated according to the ability of the medical staff.

Lieber's code was a milepost on civilization's highroad. But its commandments were easier to publish than practice. For example, the code stipulated that prisoners should receive rations similar to those issued bis captors. Military and economic stringency often negated the inten­tion of this rule. The Confederacy agreed to recognize and apply the code. But under pressure of ,blockade, the South was slowly starving and Souther~ soldiers and their prisoners showed the effects of the scarcity of food.

Lieber reoognized that war was a harsh taskmaster. Prisoners would have to obey various prison-rules. They would be punished for infrac­tions. During the Civil War, prisoners were sometimes chained together, placed in brutal irons or "bagged" (a suffocating canvas Back tied over the head). They were placed in solitary confinement, and denied wster. These vicious measures were seldom used as disciplinary punishments. More often they were employed to wring information from a captive. Such "third degrees" were sub rosa and usually applied by military police or Secret Service agents.

Interrogation and Information

In the American Civil War, espionage, military intelligence, and counterintelligence were important features of the conflict. In the two previous wars fought by the United States few trained intelligence opera­tors had served the American forces. Efforts to gather military informa-­

62

for immediate promulgation. Lieber's4.rmies ojthe United States were probablytion of international law issued by aecepts which recognized the enemy as &

they embodied the first code pertaininge contained the following injunctions:leclare that he will treat every capturedor a bandit.o .punishment for being a public enemy,him by the intentional Infliction or anynprisonment, want of food, by mutlla-

erable for his crimes committed beforecrimes) committed before be was cap­!en punished by his own authorities.prisoner of the government and not of

conflnement or Imprisonment such aslunt of safety, but they are to be sub.ring or indill'nity,

may be shot, or otherwise killed in)ther punishment shall be inflicted onch the law of order does not considert1 shall be used after an unsuccessful

!tall be medically treated according to

on civilization's highroad. But its!ish than practice. For example, theI receive rations similar to those issuedc stringency often negated the inten­Lgreed to recognize and apply the code.the South was slowly starving andrs showed the effects of the scarcity

, harsh taskmaster. Prisoners wouldThey would be punished for infrac­

,ers were sometimes chained together(a suffocating canvas sack tied ove;itary confinement, and denied water.n used as disciplinary punishments.I wring information from a captive.,nd usually applied by military police

plonage, military intelligence, andeatures of the conflict. In the twoltates few trained intelligence opera-

Efforts to gather military informa-

tion had been haphazard and disorganized. The advent of the Pinker­ton Service which operated with McClellan, the Federal Secret Service under Colonel Lafayette Baker, and a well-organized 'Confederate Secret Service put intelligence-gathering (and defenl;live counter-intelligence) on a modernized basis.

Spies were called "scouts." As old as war was the rule that the enemy spy, caught in disguise, faced death. They were beyond the pale of prisoner-of-war exemptions. The Civil War featured many heroic spy exploits. It also featured daring raids on enemy lines to capture troopers for interrogation. In every war thereafter, military intelli~nce would be closely linked with prisoner interrogation.

The officer or man who gave his captors military information was as dangerous to country and cause as the deliberate traitor. So soldiers were enjoined "not to talk." Lieber set down the rule:

Honorable men, when captured, will abstain from giving to the enemy information concerning their own army, and the modern law of war per­mits no longer the use of any violence against prisoners, in order to extort the desired information, or to punish them for having given false information.

Again the rule was easier to recite than observe. On the one hand, there was the interrogator ordered by his chiefs to acquire vital informa­tion-intelligence which might win a battle and save many lives. On the other hand there was the prisoner, sworn to withhold information which might cost ~ battle and the lives of his countrymen. Here are the opposing forces for a cruel contest. By virtue of the fact that he is a captive, the odds are all against the prisoner. His refusal to' talk inevitably invites some form of duress. Accordingly, Lieber's Code outlawed violence by the captor.

Civilized men did their best to follow the precepts of the Golden Rule and Christian doctrine.

So another significant effort was made to regulate warfare by ethics. The going was slow but the steps were in the right direction. A promise of something better for the POW was coming from Geneva.

The International Red Cross

In 1864, the Swiss philanthropist Henri Dunant wrote a book which set the stage for a conference at Geneva and the' founding of the Inter­national Red Cross. The Red Cross offered relief to all combatants, regardless of the flag they served. All participants agreed that "the sanitary personnel might continue its duty in the presence of the enemy." Through the determined campaigning of Clara Barton the United States joined the convention in 1882, and th~ American Red. Cross w~ orga?iz~d.

Dunant's work inspired the founding of other prlsoner-rehef sOCIeties. In 1874 a conference was held in Brussels at the instigation of the Russian Government. Delegates of all the major European nations attended. A 'code, based on Lieber's, was projected. The Brussels code was ~oht

ratified. But it strongly influenced· the first Hague Conference whic met at the turn of· the centUI:Y. ,

The devoted men at Geneva and Brussels worked overtime to ttevise international laws which would be effective•. They were confronted with race prejudice, ancie~t gnidges, super nAtionalism, and mistrust.

63

Captain David Dixon Porter, U.during the Civil War. Past the Vickiboat bearing a huge sign advising: "]was probably the originator of the lasboats he flew kites over Vicksburg.letters on the besieged city. "Think

But organized propaganda.,-contrivileaflet barrages-the use of all kindsaudience or influence the enemy popnew. From the outset Germans anpowerful weapon. Offensively and <:

to the utmost. Again 1;he Germans wganda "threatened." Basically, proand it becomes repellent.

The Germans introduced anotherThis new element could be called "p(from propaganda, it involved the proltrination. In 1914 this came as aI:machination. The Germans did notscale. They were pioneering. But 1

At Limburg and Zossen, the Germarcal camps." To these camps were sejects for subversion. The inmates weIInstead of the normal prisoner rationable. Tobacco and candy were pllmonths of the war, Irish prisoners werl

As reported by Major H. C. Fookscommandant talked to his men and s1the downtrodden state of Ireland, anplaced in So separate camp, where thlbetter than the English captives. • .the Limburg Camp to give a series of

Casement was a famous Irish rebHe had slipped into Germany to or@attempts with the Irish prisoners ofFook one learns: "The lectures werereal purpose of them was disclosed sewherever Casement appeared; in factprotect him from the indignant Irishbeen held out for a long time, includilespecially the privilege of having argreen uniforms and a harp embroider'volunteered for the new. regiment fthirty-two were despised by their C(

Fook tells of a Roman Catholic pIthe Limburg camp by special arrangel1man, Father Corotty, refused to COOl

mans. He denounced them both tosoldiers to remain loyal to their oathsLimburg was a valiant pleader. He'Emil. Kapaun-a brave priest who di4

Czar Nicholas II sponsored the Hague Conference of 1899 which broadened the scope of Red Cross operations. Representatives of 26 nations attended the Conference. Discussed WP,t8 disarmament proposals and the possibility of establishing a world court. The delegates negotiated various agreements relating to warfare arid war-prisoners.

The prlsoner-of-war code adopted at the Hague was based on the one proposed at Brussels. It embodied many of Ueber's original stituplations. Prisoners of war were to be considered as lawful and disarmed enemies" They were captives of the hostile government (and not in the power of thE! individual captors or jailol'll). Humare treatment of prisoners was obligatory. And it was agreed that unruly prisoners could be punished for insubordination. .

Twenty-four of the attending powers ratified the Hague Convention. Signers included the United States, Germany, France, England and Rus­sia. A hopeful generation called the Conference the "First Parliament of Man."

Acting on a Russian proposal, the Netherlands called a second Hague Conference in 1907. During this conference, the powers affirmed their adherence to the principles previously adopted.

So the Red Cross raised its flag in the capitol of every modern nation including Russia. Eventually the Soviet Union agreed to follow the rules laid down by Hague and Geneva Conventions. At the outbreak of the Korean War, the North Koreans and subsequently the Red Chinese announced an intention to observe the rules. While the Red Cross was conspicuous by its absence in North Korea, a few of the POWs did receive mail and packages. And some of the Cbinese held their fire when medical troops were recovering wounded. The Red Cross was there in shadow, if not in substance.

The First Total War Another conference was in the making when the First World War

exploded. The German intentions seemed only too clear when the Kaiser's spokesman described a treaty with Belgium as a "scrap of paper."

The concept of total war-mustering an entire nation and its forces for the conflict-waB not new. But in the modern sense it was first advocated by the elder Von Moltke. If rules and codcs abetted the war effort, observe them. If they didn't, they were unrealistic and to be dispensed with. Total war was no gentleman's game. Any expedient that IIpel1ed victory was justifiable.

Von Moltke's concept was not entirelyacceptcd by the High Command, but the Prussian school generally endorsed a policy of Schreklichkeit (planned terror or "Frightfulness") to subdue defiant enemy peoples. Prussian "Frightfulliass" was amateurish, and not very effective. But it did represent a 20th Century development in psychological warfare. Its usefulness was countered because. it backfired in another area-propar­ganda warfare.

Organized propaganda was an innovation., The practice of propar­ganda .was as· old as preaching, electioneering or salesmanship. Early

.American war propaganda was written by Thomas Paine whose book Common Sens8 was the sensation of '76. Washington urged his troops to read it. And the phrases "summer soldier"and "sunshine patriot" scathed the faint-hearted of the Revolution.

64

the Hague Conference of 1899 which'oss operations. Representatives of 26

Discussed wp.l'6 disarmament proposals" world court. The delegates negotiated~rfare arid war-prisoners.~ed at the Hague was based on the one~ many of I.ie~er'soriginal stituplations.Idered as laWful and disarmed enemies"~overnment (aud not in the powel' of theHumaI'e treatment of prisoners waSiul.t unruly prisoners could be punished

Jowers ratified the Hague Convention.;, Germany, France,'England and Rus~

,he Conference the "First Parliament of

,he Netherlands called a second Hagueconference, the powers affirmed their

lsly adopted.in the capitol of every modern nationSoviet Union agreed to follow the rulesConventions. At the outbreak of theI and subsequently the Red Chinesethe rules. While the Red Cross was

. Korea, a few of the POWs did receivelIe Chinese held their fire when medicalThe Red Cross was there in shadow,

making when the First World War:eemed only too clear when the Kaiser'sBelgium as a "scrap of paper."ering an entire nation and its forcesut in the modern sense it was first. If rules and codes abetted the wara't, they were unrealistic and to be» gentleman's game. Any expedient

'rely accepted by the High Command,endorsed a policy of Schreklichkeitto subdue defiant enemy peoples.

urish, and not very effective. But itpment in psychological warfare. Itst backfired in another area-props--

movation., The practice of propa­ctioneering or salesmanship. Earlytten by Thomas Paine whose book'76. .Washington. urged· his troops

Der Boldier"and "sunshine patriot"Jlution.

Captain David Dixon Porter, U. S. N., pioneered with propaganda during the Civil War. Past the Vicksburg forts he floated a dummy gun­boat bearing a huge sign advising: "Deluded Rebels, Cave Inl" Porter was probably the originator of the leaflet barrage. From one of his gun­boats he flew kites over Vicksburg. A cut string would drop a bag of letters on the besieged city. "Think of chicken and biscuitsI"

But organized propaganda.,.-contrived press releases, editorial campaigns, leaflet barrages-the use of all kinds of mass media to reach a national audience or influence the enemy populace or army-this was something new. From the outset Germans and Allies saw it as a tremendously powerful weapon. Offensively and defensively, both sides employed it to the utmost. Again the Germans went wide of the mark. Their propa­ganda "threatened." Basically, propaganda is advertising. Force it, and it becomes repellent.

The Germans introduced another innovation during World War I. This new element could be called "Political Warfare." As distinguished from propaganda, it involved the process known today as political indoc­trination. In 1914 this came as an extraordinary (and an alarming) machination. The Germans did not employ it successfully or on a large' scale. They were pioneering. But they set the pattern for the future.

At Limburg and Zossen, the Germans set up what were known as "politi­cal camps." To these camps were sent prisoners who seemed likely sub­jects for subversion. The inmates were quartered in comfortable barracks. Instead of the normal prisoner ration they were fed the best viands avail­able. Tobacco and candy were plentiful. During the first eighteen months of the war, Irish prisoners were selected for these segregated camps.

As reported by Major H. C. Fooks in his book Pri80ners of War: "One comfuandant talked to his men and stated that the emperor was aware of the downtrodden state of Ireland, and wished that the Irish captives be placed in a separate camp, where they would be better fed and treated better than the English captives. • . . • Sir Roger Casement was sent to the Limburg Camp to give a series of lectures."

Casement was a famous Irish rebel-in British eyes an arch-traitor. He had slipped into Germany to organize an anti-British brigade. His attempts with the Irish prisoners of war were a pathetic failure. From Fook one learns: "The lectures were poorly attended and as soon as the real purpose of them was disclosed serious trouble developed in the camp wherever Casement appearedjin fact a lPlard had to be Bent with him to protect him from the indignant Irishmen. Mter every inducement had been held out for a long time, including freedom of the prison camps, and especially the privilege of having an Irish regiment of their own with green uniforms and a harp embroidered on the coat, only thirty-two men volunteered for the new. regiment from four thousand captivel5. The thirty-two were despised by their compatriots."

Fook tells of a Roman Catholic priest, an Irishman, -who was sent to the Limburg camp by special arrangement with tlle Vatican. '.rhis clergy­man, Father Corotty, refused to cooperate with Casement and the Ger­mans. He denounced them both to the prisoners and urged the captive soldiers to remain loyal to their oaths and their king. Father Corotty at Limburg was a valiant pleader. He would have his counterpart in Father Emil. Kapaun-a brave priest who died in a prison camp in North Korea.

65

Then, from the murk of Communllheadlines.

In 1937, the Kremlin staged a whoildefectors. Among the number broutoughest Red commil!8arB and no less 8

one of the ablest military strategists j

astounded to hear the accused standtreason. A number of them read ordesigns against the Soviet Union anipenitence for their deeds. With farconfessors condemned themselves atmercy. As they marched oft toface fithe world stared after them in astoni!

The techniques used. in the cases ofonstrated that they had a very· eft'ecmake false confessions. To some elitractive technique, sometimes refenployed on American prisoners of warconfessions and other statements for

Threats. Blows. Days in solitarJsips of water .Then questioning, hoeyes. Exhaustion, then, perhaps, su(brutality to smiling kindness. Anyt;And if the "kindness" fails, anotheThe simple carrot-and-prod procedurand evidently did, crack the stauwould succumb sooner. A Dutch d(psychological and physical pressurinl

The Geneva conventions outlawedcynical and ruthless enemy would herules. Moreover, he might claim tilphysical torture. In any event, thethe Nazi S. S. were concerned. Btthere was some hope that the professabide by the Geneva Code. It woul

The Second Total WarSeen as an extension of World W

Axis Powers produced nothing new j

ending. Unless it could be stated ththe battle front to the home front echild-on a potential firing line. Anthousands of civilians were taken prilcamps.

The conflict that would leave matrocities. The civilians suffered II

blasted. Lidice destroyed. Thous8.lshot. Victims beaten and torturestarved, flogged, mutilated, slain inments behind the walls of Oranienb

The horrors endured by captive ci

One may find another parallel in the 32 Irish converts who joined the German side in World War I and the 23 defectors who turned the coat in Korea. A final parallel comes from the World War I account. "After the failure of such methods the Irish captives were subjected to rigid discipline and limitation of liberty. The leaders in this antagonism to German diplomacy were removed from the main camp to • . . . • working camps where they were forced to live on the camp foods without receiving their packages and letters which would normally haVll been for­warded to them. Bitter complaints were made to the effect that men too ill to get out of bed were ordered to leave in violation of the orders of the medical officers . • .. Reprisals by the Germans were not un­common."

As a footnote to this political indoctrination program, Roger Casement was captured by British agents when a U-boat landed him in Ireland. Summarily tried as a traitor, he was found guilty and executed.

At war's end approximately 2,200,000 prisoners were in the hands of the Central (Germanic) Powers. The Allies were holding 615,900. The Americans had captured some 49,000 Germans.· The Germans captured 4,120 Americans. A total of 147 Americans died in the enemy's prison camps. Few Americans escaped from Germany, but daring attempts were made. .

By and large, the American prisoners had been well treated. Undoubt­edly the Klaiser's military leaders foresaw the results of America's entry into the conflict. With the handwriting on the wall it was only expedient to treat captured Doughboys with lenience.

In reviewing World War I-the First Total War--one may note four major developments:

Scientific intelligence warfare. Psychological warfare. Propaganda warfare. Political warfare.

All dealt with the human mind, and all would be brought to bear on future prisoners of war--in World War II and in Kor~.

Star Chamber Confessions Intelligence warfare, psychological warfare, propaganda warfare and

political warfare did not end with the signing of the Armistice. World War II began almost as soon as the First World War was terminated. Out of Europe's ruins crawled Fascism and Nazism. CoIilmunism had already taken root in the wreckage of Imperial Russia.

Began a war for the minds of Europe's people-those millions con­temptuously looked upon by War Lord and dictator as "the masses." While spies and subversives swarmed across the Continent, the "masses" were deluged with propaganda appeals. Salute with upraised hand, with clenched fist and cocked elbow-here comes the Millenniuml The Rebirth of the Roman EmpireI The Thousand Year Reichl International Com­munisml The democratic nations looked on in helpless alarm.

The Fascist Terror seemed mostly bugaboo. But Nazi Germany pro­duced a horror of pogroms. Concentration camps. Torture chambers. Finally, in the early 30's, Hitler's Blood Purge.

66

1 the 32 Irish converts who joined thethe 23 defectors who turned the coat'om the World War I account. "After:rish captives were sUbjected to rigid~y. The leaders in this antagonismved from the main camp to . . . . .~ced to live on the camp foods withoutI which would normally have been for­ts were made to the effect that menred to leave in violation of the orders;>risals by the Germans were not un-

.octrination program, Roger Casementnen a U-boat landed him in Ireland.1as found guilty and executed.10,000 prisoners were in the hands of:'he AIIies were holding 615,900. The)0 Germans.· The Germans captured\.mericans died in the enemy's prison'rom Germany, but daring attempts

lers had been well treated. Undoubt­>resaw the results of America's entryiting on the wall it was only expedientenience./irst Total War-one may note four

~IIigence warfare.I warfare.lI'"arfare.'are.

md all would be brought to bear onVar II and in Korea.

II warfare, propaganda warfare andhe signing of the Armistice. WorIde First World War was terminated.ism and Nazism. ComDlUnism hadIf Imperial Russia..:urope's people-those millions con­Lord and dictator as "the masses."I across the Continent, the "masses",Is. Salute with upraised hand, with~omes the Millenniuml The Rebirthon.d Year Reichl International Com­loked on in helpless alarm.bugaboo. But Nazi Germany pro­

ltration camps. Torture chambers.tood Purge.

Then, from the murk of Communist Russia, came a startling series of headlines.

In 1937, the Kremlin staged a whoiesaIe purge of Bolshevik traitors and defectors. Among the number brought to trial were some of Russia's toughest Red commissars and no less a figure than Marshal Tukhachevsky, one of the ablest military strategists in Europe. Western observers were astounded to hear the accused stand up in court and openly confess to treason. A number of them read or recited long speeches, admitting to designs against the Soviet Union and the regime in power, and voicing penitence for their deeds. With fantastic self-abnegation, some of the confessors condemned themselves and recommended jud~ment without mercy. AJJ they marched oft toface firing squads or the oblivion of Siberia, the world stared after them in astonishment.

The techniques used in the cases of the Russian political prisoners dem­onstrated that they had a very' effective means of forcing individuals to make false confessions. To some extent this special intensive and pro­tractive technique, sometimes referred to as "brainwashing", was em­ployed on American prisoners of war in Korea. It was used to elicit false confessions and other statements for propaganda purposes.

Threats. Blows. Days in solitary confinement. Driblets of food and sips of water Then questioning, hour after hour, a brilliant light in the eyes. Exhaustion, then, perhaps, sudden leniency. An abrupt shift from brutality to smiling kindness. Anything to throw the victim of! balance. And if the "kindness" fails, another resort to remorseless punishment. The simple carrot-and-prod procedure. Months of such treatment could, and evidently did, crack the Btaunchcommissars. A sensitive man would succumb sooner. A Dutch doctor coined the term for this type of psychological and physical pressuring-"menticide."

The Geneva conventions outlawed duress and physical torture. But a cynical and ruthless enemy would hardly balk at the breakage of humane rules. Moreover, he might claim that·mental torture did not constitute physical torture. In any event, the question seemed academic as far as the Nazi S. S. were concerned. But as.Germany marched toward war there was some hope that the professional Wehrmacht commanders would abide by the Geneva Code. It would appear that many of them did.

The Second To.al War Seen as an extension of World War I, the global war exploded by the

Axis Powers produced nothing new in the way of warfare until its atomio ending. Unless it could be stated that air raids and buzz bombs extended the battle front to the home front and put every civilian-man, woman, child-on So potential firing line. And for the first time in modem history, thousands of civilians were taken prisoner and impounded in concentration camps.

The conflict that would leave millions of dead was an anthology of atrocities. The civilians suffe.red most. Rotterdam blasted. Coventry blasted. Lidice destroyed. Thousands of peasants herded to the wall and shot. Victims beaten and tortured by their S. S. captors. Resisters starved, flogged, mutilated, slain in endurance tests and medical experi­ments behind the w8lls of Oranienburg and other "special prisons."

The horrors endured by captive civiIianll in Nazi.hands defy assessment.

67

backward country at century's turn.duced to meager rations. The Philiplundergoing non-stop bombardment.supplies were at barrel-bottom. The I

But beheadings, torture, Palawan mwwere on the record. Like the Malmeclike Buchenwald and Belsen, they awaipeople of the United Nations demande l

The Germans applied other and seenmethods. Consider the testimony ofwas an interrogator stationed at AusweThis was the camp where all captllre,brought for questioning. Every Amerithe Germans was sent to Oberursel.From "all but a handful" he obtained twork was 80 successful that he came t.Justice. After the war he was broughtable methods.

As it evolved, Scharff's methods wer,said that he "killed his. victims withNazi terrorist or anS. S. savage, thefronting a genial English-speaking GEfriendly as a new acquaintance on thopen the interview by offering the priSO]tenant, it is my duty to ask you certname, rank and serial number?"

The prisoner would cheerfully compl;.lations required him to "maintain silenc1

identification."Now, then," Scharff would go on ~

Are you a bomber? Or a fighter pUohome addreBB,. Lieutenant?"-No answfly?"-The Lieutenant grins and sha"I see I can't get anything out of yoStars and Stripes. I'll be baok in a few

The ohair, the oigarette, the Stars (I

cunningly contrived to set the prisonelretirement gives the prisoner a chancecaught off guard. The next move bJmoves in this game he has the advantagcall the initiative) puts him in touch wBeute und N achrichten Abteilung, whi(and Information." At this BUNA centhing recovered from downed pilots. 'Iuous as mees-hall tickets, book matchlanything else scavanged from pilots I

informative items were letters, snapshon the dead or taken from prisoners.were salvaged whenever possible. Ifthe pieces were recovered and shippedBUNA.

The BUNA center also contained t'

Their sum may never be totaled. The authors of the Blood Purge silenced many of their captives and saw to it the records were destroyed.

Prisoner Interrogation-A Battle of Wits During World War II a total of 129,701 Americans were .captured by

the Axis enemy. Perhaps fearing reprisal more than public opinion, the German military

were fairly.punctilious in handling American POWs. Americans captured in Italy were awarded similarly "correct" treatment. The prisoners were usually allowed to organize in groups. Captured officers assumed com­mand according to rank. The POWs often ran their own work details. In lenient camps sports and shows were permitted. Red Cross packages were distributed, and mail call was the happiest moment of the month. But the men were behind barbed wire, and Americans behind barbed wire are never happy men.

In the matter of prisoner interrogation the German military seem to have been punctilious enough. At least toward the Americans. There was none of the brutalizing that was evident in such Japanese camps as Ofuna and Asbio, where American submariners were tortured. .

The Americans captured by General Homma's forces on the Bataan Peninsula and at Corregidor counted themselves fortunate if they reached a prison camp alive. In the "Bataan Death March" General Wainwright's surrendered troops endured one of the most excruciating ordeals of the war. Britons and Australians caught at Singapore were similarly brutalized. The veneer of civilization was thin on the Emperor's soldiery. It peeled off like varnish as the Rising Sun blazed in triumph over the Southwest Pacific.

Airmen and submariners bore the brunt of interrogation ordeals. Reason: they usually possessed information of more value to the enemy than an infantryman's. They may have flown from a carrier or perhaps from some hidden island base. The name of the flattop, the location of the base-this was vital intelligence. The submariner knew a dozen secrets: his sub's cruising range, its radar and sonar devices, its torpedo gear. One of the best kept secrets of the war (and one of the most im­portant) was the depth at which a U. S. submarine could operate.

So pilots and submarine sailors who were captured "got the works." The Japanese did not employ subtle interrogation methods. Nor did they employ the methods associated with "menticide." Prisoners were flogged and tortured. They were treated to such Oriental punishments as judo experts and hatchet men could devise. One submarine captain who took it was a skipper whose vessel had been battered into surrender. Cigarette burning, bamboo splinters under the fingernails-this officer's ordeal hardly bears recital. But the Japanese did not extract from him the diving depth of U. S. submarines.

In the South Pacifio after the war, Americans found the graves of captured destroyermen. Several of the bluejackets had been beheaded. And on Palawan Island was found -a trench containing the bodies of American prisoners who had been drenched with gasoline and burned alive. Their story was told by a survivor who had escaped this horror.

These grim reports from the PaoifIo may be detailed as the exception. Late in the war Japanese prison camps were on a par with those in some

68

~he authors of the Blood Purge silencedt the records were destroyed.

of Wits

129,701 Americans were captured by

n public opinion, the German military,merican POWs. Americans capturedrrect" treatment. The prisoners wereIpS. Captured officers assumed com­Ws often ran their own work details.were permitted. Red Cross packagesthe happiest moment of the month.

~e, and Americans behind barbed wire

gation the German military seem toleast toward the Americans. There

,s evident in such Japanese camps aslbmariners were tortured.eral Homma's forces on the Bataan.themselves fortunate if they reachedDeath March" General Wainwright's

l most excruciating ordeais of the war.Singapore were similarly brutalized.n the Emperor's soldiery. It peeledazed in triumph over the Southwest

he brunt of interrogation ordeals.~mation of more value to the enemyilave flown from a carrier or perhapsname of the flattop, the location ofe. The submariner knew a dozenradar and sonar devices, its torpedo)f the war (and one of the most im­. S. submarine could' operate.ho were captured "got the works."lterrogation methods. Nor did they'menticide." Prisoners were floggedsuch Oriental punishments as judoOne submarine captain who took it

battered into surrender. CigaretteIe fingernails-this officer's ordeallese did not extract from him the

Lr, Americans found the graves of,he bluejackets had been beheaded.a trench containing the bodies ofched with gasoline and burned alive.10 had escaped this horror.l may be detailed as the exception.18 were on a par with those in some

backward country at century's turn. The blockaded Japanese were reo duced to meager rations. The Philippines and the Home Islands were undergoing non-stop bombardment. Consequently food and medical supplies were at barrel-bottom. The POW's received the leftovers.

But beheadings, torture, Palawan massacre and "Bataan Death March" were on the record. Like the Malmedy massacre in the Belgian Bulge, like Buchenwald and Belsen, they awaited an accounting. The outraged people of the United Nations demanded retributive justice.

The Germans applied other and seemingly more effective interrogation methods. Consider the testimony of Hanns Joachim Scharff. Scharff was an interrogator stationed at Auswerstelle West, Oberursel, Germany. This was the camp where all capt!Jred aviators (except Russian) were brought for questioning. Every American fighter pilot made prisoner by the Germans was sent to OberurseI. Scharff questioned 500 of them. From "all but a handful" he obtained the information he was after. His work was so successful that he came to the notice of the Department of Justice. After the war he was brought to America to explain his remark­able methods.

As it evolved, Scharff's methods were not so remarkable. It might be said that he "killed his victims with kindness." Expecting to face a Nazi terrorist or an B. S. savage, the captured pilot found himself con­fronting a genial English-speaking German who seemed as polite and friendly as a new acquaintance on the college campus. Scharff would open the interview by offering the prisoner a chair and a cigarette. "Lieu­tenant, it is my duty to ask you certain questions. May I have your name,rank and serial number?"

The prisoner would cheerfully comply. At that date U. S. Army r~gu­lations required him to "maintain silence" after he had spoken the reqUIred identification.

"Now then" Scharff would go on amiably. "That number of yours. Are you' a bo:Uber? Or a fighter pilot?"-No answer.-"What is your home address, Lieutenant?"-No answer.-"What type of plane do you fly?"-:-The Lieutenant grins and shakes his head. Scharff chuckles. "I see I can't get anything out of you. Here take a look at the latest Stars and Stripes. I'll be back in a few minutes."

The chair the cigarette, the Stars and Stripes-these are stage props cunningly c~ntrived to set the prisoner at ease. The interrogator's brief retirement gives the prisoner a chance to relax. A relaxed man may be caught off guard. The next move by the interrogator (and in all the moves in this game he has the advantage and maintains what chess players call the initiative) puts him in touch with BUNA. The initials stand for Beute una Nachrichten Abteilung, which tl'anslates roughly into "Booty and Information." At this BUNA center the Germans assembled every­thing recovered from downed pilots. The booty included things as innoc­uous as mess-hall tickets, book matches, bits of maps, lucky pieces, and anything else scavanged from pilots shot down over the. li~es. More informative items were letters, snapshots, or newspaper ohppmgs found on the dead or taken from prisoners. Needless to say, wrecked aircraft were salvaged whenever possible. If the planes were blown to pieces, the pieces were recovered and shipped to an assemblage base similar to BUNA.

The BUNA center also contained thousands of dossiers on prisoners.

69

prisoBer refuses to speak. Sehr gut, 1is locked up with his cellmate-a pIcaptured early in the war. "Huh!''Bud'' nods grimly, "Yeah, but .theyout of me." And at that moment themicrophone. Perhaps from the pleaslOhio before he returned to his home (

So most of Scharff's victims werewith thumbscrews and cigarette burcraft, misleading geniality, glib queriefeints of a boxer. The average prisonhopeless disadvantage. He was som4who might be compelled to improvisland wily District' Attorney.

In the war .there were many SchalGerman side. Adept Allied interrocase-hardened Luftwaffe pilots anddays of lIhe war they pumped their rivamong them Joachim Scharff. In thifound themselves hoist on their own pe

The prisoner in an interrogation ce'has all the say. At the end of Worldwas this: It i8 virtually impo8sibleinterrogator.

But the experts came up with anothinterrogator cannot be resi8ted, he ma

. prisoner may dodge loaded questions,

Treason Trials, World War IIAs in World War I, and, indeed, ev,

World War disgorged a number offirst arrested by the United Nations 1willingly cooperated with the Nazis.

In Holland, Belgium, Norway, De:treasonable collaborators. were summtheir heads shaved by angry partisanskangaroo court and shot.

Some British servicemen were colaboration with the enemy while they'pleaded coercion as a defense. As hWar, the British military judges tookThey seem to have been severely exa Navy stoker. Rose had been captuand shown two terrifying corpses. (l:at its worst.) The sailor then blurtwanted. The British found him glsentenced him to 16 years hard labC)other hand, Major Cecil Boon, charglfor the Japanese in Hong Kong, and iplot, was acquitted on the score tbthe "punishment of death."

And thousands of dossiers on offioers who had not been taken prisoner. Suppose the captured Lieutenant were a football hero. Doubtless when he enlisted the old home town published his name in the paper and his photograph with it. The chancel! were that BUNA had his name, his address, his picture, and the names of his uncles, his cousins and his aunts. Also his nickname-"Bud." Perhaps even the fact that his father was president of the local bank. If "Bud" graduated from college or military school or academy, his picture would be in the classbook along with those of his fraternity brothers. All of which made it easier for Interrogator Scharff. (The Germanll were not the only ones who assem­bled suoh information. It was said that when the war broke out the British knew the name and address of every officer and man in the Nazi Navy.)

Now, the game beoame relatively simple for Soharff. Armed with background information from BUNA, he would return smiling to the contest. "Well, Bud, you see I have found you out. You flew over here in a P-38. Your squadron commander, Jack Williams, is in prison down the line. He's a nice guy. I couldn't get anything out of him, but my intelligence boys came across a'news clipping. You fellows flew in here from Tunbridge Wells. Nice going. By the way, how's your little sister Peggy? We've got a chap in my outfit who used to live in Oak Park. I understand your father is president of the First National Bank."

What could be more disarming than this routine? Of course, it wasn't always that easy. The Lieutenant might refuse to rise to the bait. BUNA might have more trouble acquiring biographical information. But the illustration suffices. Nine times out of ten a prisoner would be completely "beaten" when the interrogator came up with his nickname, the name of his squadron leader, and intimate details of his home. Not to mention the type of plane he flew, the armament carried by the plane, its rate of climb, and so on.

So Scharff was able to report that he "broke" almost 500 American pilots. After the opening breach, the follow-through was usually easy. The prisoner would be invited out for a stroll in the park. . Scharff would take him to some quiet beer garden for a friendly Bock. A few aimless remarks about nothing at all. Then Scharff would slip in the trick question, shrouding it with indirection-an indifferent tone, an offhand manner, or a yawn. That was the way it was done. A game of words. A battle of wits,

And what if the prisoner proved obdurate and buttoned up into absolute silence? Then would come the glass-of-water trick. Or one of its many variations. There were ways to slip a pill into the prisoner's glass. ·Ten minutes after drinking, he might become a very sick man. Nothing fatal or injurious. Nothing worse than something that felt like acute indiges­tion.

As the prisoner doubles up, sweating, the interrogator is most solicitous. "Lieutenant! You are sick! It may be peritonitis! You' must go to the hospital immediately. Surely you have a family. You will want us to notify your next of kin if-!"

No prisoner wants to be buried in an unknown grave. Even so, a man might remain defiant. And Scharff would then encourage such defiance. "Hal You won't tell me the name of your squadron com­mander. What is the name of your commanding genera!?" The defiant

70

3er8 who had not been taken prisoner.were a football hero. Doubtless whenblished his name in the paper and' hisI were that BUNA had his name, hisIles of his uncles, his cousins and his, Perhaps even the fact that his fatherIf "Bud" graduated from college or

cture would be in the classbook alonglers. All of which made it easier for.ns were not the only ones who assem­~id that when the war broke out thes of every officer and man in the Nazi

ely simple for Scharff. Armed with'NA, he would return smiling to theve found you out. You flew over heremander, Jack Williams, is in prisoncouldn't get anything out of him, but

a .news clipping. You fellows flew ingoing. By the way, how's your littlen my outfit who used to live in Oak~resident of the First National Bank."lan this routine? Of course, it wasn'tlt might refuse to rise to the bait.

acquiring biographical information.times out of ten a prisoner would be

3rrogator came up with his nickname,ld intimate details of his home. Notv, the armament carried by the plane,

lat he "broke" almost 500 Americanthe follow-through was usually easy.Lt for a stroll in the park., Scharff. garden for a friendly Bock. A fewall. Then Scharff would slip in theindirection-an indifferent tone, anwas the way it was done. A game of

>durate and buttoned up into absolutes-of-water trick. Or one of its manyI a pill into the prisoner's glass. ·Ten:ome a very sick man. Nothing fatalomething that felt like acute indiges-

Ilg, the interrogator is most solicitous.!loy be peritonitisl You' must go to[)U have a family. You will want us

in an unknown grave. Even so, aScharff would then encourage suche the name of your squadron com­commanding general?" The defiant

prisomer refuses to speak. 8ehr gut, he goes back. to his cell. There he is locked up with his cellmate-a pleasant fellow from Ohio who was captured early in the war. "Huhl Did they sweat you out?" And ''Bud'' nods grimly, "Yeah, but .they couldn't get General Jones' name out of me." And at that moment they've got it. Perhaps by concealed microphone. Perhaps from the pleasant cellmate who lived ten years in Ohio before he returned to his home Germany.

So most of Scharff's victims were tricked. They were not tortured with thumbscrews and cigarette burns. They were baffled by stage­craft, misleading geniality, glib queries that were as fast as the jabs and feints of a boxer. The average prisoner who faced Scharff was at almost hopeless disadvantage. He was somewhat in the position of a civilian who might be compelled to improvise his own defense against a skilled and wily District Attorney.

In the war .there were many Scharffs. Not all of them were on the German side. Adept Allied interrogators pumped information from case-hardened Luftwaffe pilots and U-boat skippers. In the closing days of "he war they pumped their rivals-captured Nazi interrogators­among them Joachim Scharff. In this duel among experts the Germans found themselves hoist on their own petards.

The prisoner in an interrogation center is a fly in a web. The enemy has all the say. At the end of World War II the consensus of the experts was this: It i8 virtually impos8ible Jor anyone to resist a determined interrogator.

But the experts came up with another consensus: AUhough a determined . interrogator cannot be resi8ted, he may be evaded by the pri80ner. The prisoner may dodge loaded questions.

Treason Trials, World War II As in World War I, and, indeed, every previous major war, the Second

World War disgorged a number of indigestible traitors. Among the first arrested by the United Nations powers were the Quislings who had willingly cooperated with the Nazis.

In Holland, Belgium, Norway, Denmark and other occupied countries treasonable collaborators were summarily dealt with. Those who had their heads shaved by angry partisans got off easily. Some were tried by kangaroo court and shot.

Some British servicemen were court-martialed for treasonable col­laboration with the enemy while they were prisoners of war. The accusp.d pleaded coercion as a defense. As had the Federal judges of the Civil War, the British military judges took into account "degree of coercion." They seem to have been severely exacting in the case of Henry Rose, a Navy stoker. Rose had been captured, beaten, threatened with death, and shown two terrifying corpses. (An example of German interrogation at its worst.) The sailor then blurted out the information his captors wanted. The British found him guilty of "aiding the enemy," and sentenced him to 16 years hard lab<,>r (subsequently reduced). On the other hand, Major Cecil Boon, charged with writing a propaganda letter for the Japanese in Hong Kong, and informing them of a prisoner escape plot, was acquitted on the score that they had threatened him with the "punishment of death."

71

ij

i!II!

IIII'-

Slavic soldiers sought reprisal. Butdesigns. Doubtlel!B to the surprise o!captured invaders were herded into "ing Panzer officers and Stuka pilots fomissars shoved them into colossal indark, week in, week out, the prisoners 1

It would seem that their crime, after:had been guilty of anti-CommunismI

The Soviet campaign to indoctrinaCommunist ideology emerges as one 01The Reds, of course, were copying theWorld War I when they tried to indoBut the early German attempt was :program. The German attempt faigram gained hundreds of German COl

a figure than General Von Paulus, calWhile Soviet Communists were hal

Chinese Reds, waging civil war, adprisoners were herded into "politicalChinese version of Marxian doctri~

Nazi-indoctrinated German demandeevangelism.

It was nothing more tha~ a high-glinvolve "menticidal" pressuring or I

washing," Boiled down, it amountelIn America there were some who

tising. Alarmists thought the way t,the subject. Push it out of sight.example, caused the banning of Da~

and public libraries. Such censorslJstature far beyond their value.

The way to combat such a subjector hide from it. The way to coml:have the means at hand-The Billor Republican Government, or the AIledge of American principles-andAmerican fighting man possesses a :wrested from him in combat or in cat:

AB in the interrogation battle, theof wits. It will not be lost by the '*necessary education.

American prisoners of war charged with treasonable conduct included Sergeant John Provoo of theU. S.Army, and Chief Signalman Hirshberg of the Navy. Another case involved an Army sergeant who wrote to a Japanese surgeon, offering to aid the, enemy.

Altogether it would seem that the Americans taken prisoner in World War II established a remarkably fine record for courage, endurance, and unyielding loyalty. Like their fathers itl the A. E. F. of World War I, they stood up to a ruthless enemy, and stood up better than well. For the most part, the soldiers or the aviators who talked to German inter­rogators were tricked into talking by experts at the game.

The troops went to Normandy and Guadalcanal knowing Why We Fight and The Nature of the Enemy. The American soldier and his sailor team-mate were well informed on Hitler and Tojo.

So American POWs of World War II knew pretty much what it was all about. There were no Arnolds, but many Wainwrights.

Of the 129,701 American prisoners in Axis captivity, 14,090 died in the enemy's prison camps. The percentage--l0.9o/'cr-was cruel. -But un­questionably it would have been higher had morale been as low as it was in the subsequent Korean War.

Geneva Conventions of 1949 Troubled by the terrible death-toll of prisoners in World War II, dele­

gates of the many countries met at Geneva in 1949 to formulate and define higher standards of treatment for POWs. The articles of the earlier Geneva Convention were clarified and strengthened. Fifty-seven nations signed the new Geneva Treaties.

Although the Russians had not participated in the Geneva (POW) Conventions of 1929, the Soviet Union signed the 1949 Convention. So did eight other nations in the Communist bloc. The U. S. S. R. and its satellites held out, however, on certain points. One of their reservations concerned Article 85, Relative To The Treatment' of Prisoners of War. The Article reads:

Prisoners of War prosecuted under the laws oC the Detaining Power for acts committed prior to capture shall retain, even if convicted, the benefits of the present Convention.

The Soviet delegate entered the following reservation: The Union oC Soviet Socialist Republics does not consider itself bound

by'the obligation, which follows from Article 85, to extend the application oC the Convention to prisoners of war who have been convicted under the law oC 'the Detaining Power, in accordance with the principles oC the Nuremberg trial, Cor war crimes and crImes against humanity, it being understood that persons convicted oC such crimes must be subjected to the- conditions obtaining in the country in question Cor those who undergo their punishment.

This reservation is a disturbing indication of Soviet intention so far as applying the conventions is concerned.

The Americ:an Way The Russians held thousands of German soldiers in captivity at the

close of World War II. Brutality breeds brutality. Hitler's legions had murdered thousands of Russian and Ukrainian peasants. And the patriotlo

72

rged with treasonable· conduct included• Army, and Chief Signalman Hirshberg>Ived an Army sergeant who wrote to athe,enemy.the Americans taken prisoner in Worldfine record for courage, endurance, and

lthers ill the A. E. F. of World War I,y, and stood up better than well. ForI aviators who talked to German inter­by experts at the game.y and Guadalcanal knowing Why We1/. The American soldier alld his sailorHitler and Tojo.'ar II knew pretty much what it was allut many Wainwrights.ers in Axis captivity, 14,OIJO died in thecentage-1O.9"a-was cruel. But un­ligher had morale been as low as it was

~on of prisoners in World War II, dele­at Geneva in 1949 to formulate and

It for POWs. The articles of the earlierand strengthened. Fifty-seven nations

t participated in the Geneva (POW)fnion signed the 1949 Convention. Solmunist bloc. The U. S. S. R. and itsl.ain points. One of their reservations, The Treatment of Prisoners of War.

lder the laws of the Detaining Powerre shall retain, even if convicted, the1.

following reservation:lpublics does not consider itself bound1m Article 85, to extend the application'ar who have been convicted under theiccordance with the principles of theLnd crimes against humanity, it beingof such crimes must be subjected to

iltry in question for those who undergo

'ndication of Soviet intention so far asled.

, German soldiers in captivity at thebreeds brutality. Hitler's legions hadUkrainian peasants. And the patriotio

ij

f

l:1,I

I

Slavic soldiers sought reprisal. But the men in the Kremlin had other designs. Doubtlees to the surprise of many Russian Army veterans, the captured invaders were herded into "political camps." Instead of shoot­ing Panzer officers and Stuka pilots for outrages committed, the Red com­missars shoved them into coloseal indoctrination mills. From dawn to dark, week in, week out, the prisoners were besieged with Marxian doctrine. It would seem that their crime, after all, was not invading Russia. They had been guilty of anti-CommunismI

The Soviet campaign to indoctrinate masses of German prisoners with Communist ideology emerges as one of the strangest war-moves in history. The Reds, of course, were copying the tactics employed by the Germans in World War I when they tried to indoctrinate Irish prisoners with KUltUT. But the early German attempt was picayune compared with the Soviet program. The German attempt failed. The Red indoctrination pro-' gram gained hundreds of German converts. Prize of the lot was no less a figure than General Von Paulus, captured at Stalingrad.

While Soviet Communists were haranguing German war-prisoners, the Chinese Reds, waging civil war, adopted similar tactics. Nationalist prisoners were herded into "political camps" and barraged with the Red Chinese version of Marxian doctrine. But the reindootrination of a Nazi-indoctrinated German demanded a high-powered approach akin to evangelism.

It was nothing more tha~ a high-gear recruiting campaign. It did not involve "menticidal" pressuring or anything akin to so-called "brain­washing." Boiled down, it amounted to a~vertising.

In America there were some who took fright at Communist adver­tising. Alarmists thought the way to combat it was to hilJc it. Taboo the subject. Push it out of sight. The fear of l\'larxist literature, for example, caused the banning of DaB Kapital from a number of school and public libraries. Such censorship gave Marx and his writings a stature far beyond their value.

The way to combat such a subject as Communism is not to hide it­or hide from it. The way to combat it is to explode it. Americans have the means at hand-The Bill of Rights. Or call it Democracy, or Republican Government, or the American Way. Armed with a know­ledge of American principles-and a knowledge of the cnemy's--the American fighting man possesses a sword and shield which cannot be wrested from him in combat or in captivity.

As in the interrogation battle, the war for the minds of men is a war of wits. It will not be lost by the serviceman who is equipped with the necessary education.

73

ADDEND

BIBLlOC:

The research bibliographytains primarily classified nreader the following unclass

ADDENDA NO.6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The research bibliography used by the Committee con­tains primarily classified material. For the interested reader the following unclassified articles are suggested.

75

PRISONER OF WAR DOClSOUF

Department of the NavyNM 001-056.06 NMRI, Bethesda, M

Evaluation of the effects of certain dinvolved in Hying. 1952NR 143-06o-University of RochestESTUDIES OF MOTION 8ICKNE~

Vestibular functioDB .and psychologi<NR 173-o71-Indiana University, DlDETECTION OF DECEPTION, ~

Determination of reliable indicatorsgraphic recordings of physiological allNR 173-181-John E. Reid & AssociRESEARCH ON SIDE-TONE DE

Interrogation devices and procedueasily used methods of causing lying E

themselves. Completed May 1953.

Office of the Surgeon General, DeA paper written by the five survivi

repatriated prisoners from Korea.prisoner of war camps in Korea. UrMedical Association 24 June 1954.

Office of the Assistant Secretary 0

PublicationsArntzen, F. I., "PsychologicalObservat

Journal oj Psychiatry, 104, 1948, 4~

Book, F. and Godin, W., Russian PiViking Press, New York, 1950

Bettelheim, Bruno, "Individual andtioDB," JouT1&6l oj Abnormal and417-452.

Brill, N. Q., "Neuropsychiatric E:Recovered from Japanese Prison (Medical Department.

Jeffrey, Manfred, and Bradford, E. J.of War," British Journal of Medical

Kinnan, B. H. "Mental Disorder in ]of Mental Science, 92, 1946,803-81:

Newman, P. H. "The Prisoner-of­Journal 1; January 1, 1944,8ff

PRISONER OF WAR DOCUMENTS FROM OFFICIAL· SOURCES

Department of the Navy NM 001-056.06 NMRI, Bethesda, Md. CDR S. V. Thompson (MC)

Evaluation of the effects of certain drugs on the performance of personnel involved in tlying. 1952 NR 143-06o-University of Rochester, G. R. Wendt STUDIES OF MOTION 8ICKNESS, 30 June 1954

Vestibular functions .and psychological and physiological effects of drugs. NR 173-071-Indiana University, Douglas ElIson DETECTION OF DECEPTION, Sept. 1952

Determination of reliable indicators for deception measurements through graphic recordings of physiological and motor responses. NR 173-181-John E. Reid & Associates, Chicago RESEARCH ON SIDE-TONE DELAY

Interrogation devices and procedures. Project to develop novel and easily used methods of causing lying subjects to think they have betrayed themselves. Completed May 1953.

Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army A paper written by the five surviving Medical Corps officers who were

repatriated prisoners from Korea. Medical experiences in Communist prisoner of war camps in Korea. Undated. Presented to the American Medical Association 24 June 1954.

Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (R & D) Publications Arntzen, F. I., "Psychological Observations of Prisoners of War." American

Journal oj Psychiatry, 104, 1948,446-447. (German PWs in U. 8.) Book, F. and Godin, W., Russian Purge and the Extraction oj Confession.

Viking Press, New York, 1950 Bettelheim, Bruno, "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situa­

tions," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology; XXXVIII 1943, 417-452.

Brill, N. Q., "Neuropsychiatric Examination of Military Personnel Recovered from Japanese Prison Camps," Bulletin of the U. S. Army Medical Department.

Jeffrey, Manfred, and Bradford, E. J. G., "Neurosis in Escaped Prisoners of War," British Journal oj Medical PSllchologll,20, 1945-46,422-435

Kinnan, B. H. "Mental Disorder in Released PriBOners of War," Journal oj Mental Science, 92, 1946,803-813

Newman, P. H. "The Prisoner-of-War Meiltality," British Medical Journal 1; January 1, 1944, 8ff

77

Department of State

Foreign Service Despatch 2543, ParisAmerican University Field Staff Stud

Department of the Army

HQ, 500th Military Intelligence Grcinstructions in Chinese dated 25 Iand the Handling of PWs," issuedCCF. 3 pp, no date.

Newspapen

Washington Evening Star, " 'Brain 'VWashington Evening Star, "20 E:q

Forge Hospital," May 2, 1953Washington Evening Star, "Return

After 'Brain Washing'," May 4 (orThe Washington Post, ",Freed AF C

April 27, 1953The Washington Post, "All Released

25, 1953The Washington Post, "Teaching a:

Washing," July 11, 1954, by LloydWashington Daily News, "US Fears

Lucey, April 4, 1953The New York Times, "Some GI C

13, 1953The New York Times, In The Natio:

fare for the Brain' " by Arthur KIThe New York Times, "Some Prisl

1953The New York Times, "Ex-Captive

27,1953The New York Times, "Red LectUl'i

Johnson, May 3, 1953The New York Times, "Red TorturE

1953The New York Times, "US Calls 0

Korea," October 29 (or 30), 1953New York Journal American, On T.

by Bob Considine, February 25, 1New York Journal American, "Tell

20, 1953 .New York Mirror, "UN POWs Ma;

1953New York Mirror, Inside Labor, byChristian Science Monitor, "Retur

Reds," April 20, 1953Christian Science Monitor, "Chine!

solved in Favor of China," by Wi:

Legal Geneva Conventions of 12 Aug. 1949 for the Protection of War Victims,

DA Pamphlet No. 20-150, Oct. 1950. Vol. 55, 80th Congress, Public Law 810, Laws Relating to the Department

of the Army, 1948. Manual for Court Martial, 1951. Title 18, U. S. Code.

Documents Pertaining to Conduct in Event of Capture

War Dept., FM 27-10, 1947, "Rules of Land Warfare"

Department of State

"Chinese Communist Methods of Extracting Confessions for Political Ends" IR-6198, dated 19 Feb 53

Operations Research Office, Johns Hoplcins Univenity

"Study of Combat Stress in Korea," ORo-T-41 (FEC), dated Dec 52,

Department of the Air Force

"Psychiatric Report," AF-RDB Report Control Symbol, DD-RDS (A) 48 ARDCD3, Project 7732, "Unclassified Intelligence Methodology"

Article: Col. John J. Driscoll, Air Force Magazine, Nov 1952, Subj: It Could Have Been You.

Far East Command

"Communist Utilization of Prisoners of War," Hq. USA, Far East, Ad­vanced, OACofS, G-2.

Department of the Air Force

Memorandum: For Secy of Air Force, Commandant U. S. Marine Corps, by General Erskine, Asst. to the Secy of Defense, Subj: Statements Regarding Biological Warfare by Members of USAF and USMC.

-RAND Corporation

"Are the Cominform Countries Using Hypnotic Techniques to Elicit Confession in Public Trials?", Irving L. Janis, RM-161, dated 25 April 49

-Miscellaneous

"Technique of Communist 'Confession' ", Edward Crankshaw, New York Herald Tribune, dated 10 Dec 52.

"The Policy of the Soviet Union in Regard to Prisoners of War Prior to and at the Start of World War II", Anthony S; Kawczynski, Undated

"New Facts on U. S. Germ WarCare in Korea and China" (Supplement to "People's China"), 15 Mar 53, (No.6, Issue) (re Schwable and Bley)

Selected Articles, 1952-1953, "High Level U. S. Denials of Germ Warfare."

78

!l9 for the Protection of War Victims,950.810, Laws Relating to the Department

in Event of Capture

~ of Land Warfare"

Extracting Confessions for Political

IS Hopkins University

ORQ-T-41 (FEC), dated Dec 52,

port Control Symbol, DD-RDS (A)la.ssified Intelligence Methodology"Force Magazine, Nov 1952, Subj:

, of War," Hq. USA, Far East, Ad-

~, Commandant U. S. Marine Corps,Secy of Defense, Subj: Statements{embers of USAF and USMC.

ng Hypnotic Techniques to Elicitving L. Janis, RM-161, dated 25

l' ", Edward Crankshaw, New York

tegard to Prisoners of War Prior to, Anthony S; Kawczynski, Undatedin Korea and China" (Supplementlo. 6, Issue) (re Schwable and Bley),vel U. S. Denials of Germ Warfare."

"j

Department of State

Foreign Service Despatch 2543, Paris, May 19, 1953 American University Field Staff Study

Department of the Army

HQ, 500th Military Intelligence Group, item 9-204752, Mimeographed instructions in Chinese dated 25 September 1951, titled "PW Policy and the Handling of PWs," issued by the Political Section, 422dRegt, CCF. 3 PP. no date.

Newspapers

Washington Evening Star, " 'Brain Wash' Possibility," April 17, 1953 Washington Evening Star, "20 Exposed to Propaganda Reach Valley

Forge Hospital," May 2, 1953 Washington Evening Star, "Returned POW Says He Signed Petition

After 'Brain Washing'," May 4 (or 5), 1953 The Washington Post, ",Freed AF Captain Tells of Forced Red Study," . April 27, 1953 The Washington Post, "All Released POWs To Be Treated Alike," May

25, 1953 The Washington Post, "Teaching Gi's to Withstand Communist Brain­

Washing," July 11, 1954, by Lloyd Shearer Washington Daily News, "US Fears 'Confessions' of POWs," by Charles

Lucey, April 4, 1953 The New York Times, "Some GI Captives'May Seem Pro-Red," April

13, 1953 The New York Times, In The Nation, "Allen W. Dulles Describes 'War­

fare for the Brain' " by Arthur Krock, April 16, 1953 The New York Times, "Some Prisoners Report Poor Care," April 21,

1953 The New York Times, "Ex-Captive Says 17 Took Red Lessons," April

27, 1953 The New York Times, "Red Lecturers Bored Most P. W.s," by Mac R.

Johnson, May 3, 1953 The New York Times, "Red Torture Cited by Chinese Bishop," May 18,

1953 The New York Times, "US Calls on UN to Scan Atrocities by Reds in

Korea," October 29 (or 30), 1953 New York Journal American, On The Line, "Red Torture Techniques,"

by Bob Considine, February 25, 1953 New York Journal American, "Tell of Red Propaganda Pressure," April

20, 1953 ' New York Mirror, "UN POWs May Get 'Brain Washings'," March 31,

1953 New York Mirror, Inside Labor, by Vict.or Riesel, M~y 1, 1953 Christian Science Monitor, "Returning GIs Report Indoctrination by

Reds," April 20, 1953 Christian Science Monitor, "Chinese-Soviet Divergences on Korea Re­

solved in Favor of China," by William R. Frye, April 18, 1953

79

"Prisoners; Perversion of Loyalties","Indian Village; Prisoner Exchange",

Current History"Disposition of POWs; Complete Tel

Department of State Bulletin"Thought Control in The Soviet UniOl

1951, 844-51: Dec 3, 1951, 895-9m"Communist War In POW Camps,""Release of Anti-Communist PrisOIl

spondence", June 29, 1953, 28: 901"Communist Charges Regarding ReI

Letter Sent On June 29, 1953, Jul:"Communist Retention of U. S. POViDulles, J. F., "Report of POWs: Wi

in Korea", Aug 24, 1953, 29: 235-~Mayo, C. W., "Role of Force~ COl

Warfare Propaganda CampaIgn;1953, 29: 641-7

Fortune"Germ Warfare: The Lie That Won'

International Conciliation"Issues Before The 8th General ABse:

Life"Back After Eight Years," Apr 6, 19"Photos Reveal Some GIs Not On E"Into Eager Arms A Few Come HOIlBrinkley, William, "Valley Forge I

May 25, 1953, 108-124Heiden, K., "Why They Confess," J,Fahy, E. E., "Burial Above Ground"Big Switch Is Open," Aug 17, 1953,Lee, Kyoo Hyun, "Heroism of Gen

Famous POW Is Set Free," Sept 1"Prisoners of ?ardon," Oct 5, 1953, :"POWs of the Reds Do Not W~

Photographs"," Oct 19, 1953"We Got Everything You Wanted,""Panmunjon Dilemma," Oct 19, 195"Prisoner's Door To Freedom," Oct"Prodigal and His Kin," Nov 2, 195:"Big Lie; How Reds Got Germ ConMartin, D., "Iron Empire of Panmt

Christian Soience Monitor, "LeGay Tells How Reds Aimed to Confuse PWs," by Cpl. Donald LeGay, May 5, 1953

Information and "Reference Section, Radio Free Asia (Source: Interna­tional Free Trade Union News, 3-53), "Chinese Observer Says He Saw Reds Torture UN POW's, Push Indoctrination Program," March 13, 1953

Sources: RfJaders Guide to Periodical Literatur6, May 1945 through 18 December 1953.

America "Caution at Panmunjon", Apr 1953, 89: 65 "PWs: A Red Sop?", May 2, 1953, 89: 99 "Pros on Trial", Aug 29, 1953, 89: 511 "Wind-up of Operation Big Switch", Sep 19, 1953,89: 585 "Resistance to The Death by PWs", Oct 3, 1953, 98: 1 "Pro-Communist 23", Oct 10, 1953, 90: 35 "Conflict Over POWs", Oct 17, 1953, 90: 63 "Operation Persuader Backfires", Oct 31, 1953, 90: 115 "India Learns About Reds; Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission,"

Nov 1, 1953, 90; 167 "Puzzlement in the Pentagon", Nov 14, 1953, 90: 102-3 "Atrocities in Korea", Dec 12, 1953, 90: 283

Business Week "Nor Prison Bars A Cage", Nov 14, 1953, p. 157

Christian Century 'Djang, R., "What Do They Confess", Aug 20, 1952,69: 946-8 Stockwell, F. G., "What Is Brainwashing?", Jan 28, 1953,70: 104-5 "Back to The Days of Hostages", Mar 18, 1953, 70: 308 Foreman, K. J., Jr., "What Is Brainwashing?", (Reply and Rejoinder),

May 6, 1953, 70: 537-8 ' "Korean Missionary Prisoners Freed", May 6, 1953, 70: 531 "Prisoners Describe Reality of War", Aug 12, 1953,70: 907 "Prisoner of War", Nov 4, 1953, 70: 1254-6

Colliers Spellman, F., "How Red China Tortures Protestant and Catholic Mis­

sionaries", May 10, 1952, 129: 15-17 Victoria, Sister Mary, "I Was A Prisoner of The Chinese Reds", May 9,

1953, 131: 68-73 Fay, B., "It's Easy To Bluff Americans", May 16, 1953, 131: 20-3 B. Stapleton and T. D. Harrison, "Why Didn't Some GIs Tum Commu­

nist?" Nov 27, 1953, 132: 25-8

Commonwealth "BraiI;lwashed", May 15, 1953, 58: 138 Hock, S., "Heresy, Yes: Conspiracy, No", May IS, 1953, 58: 155-6 "Exchange of Prisoners", Aug 21, 1953, 58: 479

80

Tells How R«!ds Aimed to Confuseay 5,1953I Radio Free Asia (Source: Interna­53), "Chinese Observer Says He Saw[ndoctrination Program," Maroh 13,

il LiteratuT6, May 1945 through 18

89: 6519: 99IISep 19, 1953, 89: 585Oct 3, 1953, 98: 1~O: 35190: 63t 31, 1953, 90: 115Nations Repatriation Commission,"

14, 1953, 90: 102-390: 283

1953, p. 157

, Aug 20, 1952,69: 946-8ling?", Jan 28, 1953, 70: 104-5~r 18, 1953, 70: 308washing?", (Reply and Rejoinder),

, May 6, 1953, 70: 531Aug 12, 1953, 70: 907254-6

;ures Protestant and Catholic Mis­7ner of The Chinese Reds", May 9,

IS", May 16, 1953, 131: 20-3Iy Didn't Some GIs Turn Commu-

Iro", May 15, 1953, 58: 155-61,58: 479

"Prisoners; Perversion of Loyalties", Oct 16, 1953, 59: 26-9 "Indian Village; Prisoner Exchange", Oct 30, 1953, 59: 75

Current History "Disposition of POWs; Complete Tex~", Sept 1953, 25: 181-4

Department of State Bulletin "Thought Control in The Soviet Union," Nov 5,1951,25: 719-2:1: Nov 26,

1951, 844-51: Dec 3, 1951, 895-903 "Communist War In POW Camps," Feb 16, 1953, 28: 273 "Release of Anti-Communist Prisoners From UN Camps and Corre­

spondence", June 29, 1953, 28: 905-8 "Communist Charges Regarding Release of Korean Prisoners"; Text of

Letter Sent On June 29, 1953, July 13, 1953, 29: 46-7 "Communist Retention of U. S. POWs", July 20, 1953,29: 73-4 Dulles, J. F., "Report of POWs: Witnessing the Return of U. S. POWs

in Korea", Aug 24, 1953,29: 235-6 Mayo, C. W., "Role of Forced Confessions In The Communist Germ

Warfare Propaganda Campaign; Statement Oct 26, 1953", Nov 9, 1953, 29: 641-7

Fortune "Germ Warfare: The Lie That Won", Nov 1953, 48: 92

International Conciliation "Issues Before The 8th General Assembly", Sep 1953, 493: 6

Life "Back Mter Eight Years," Apr 6, 1953, 34: 30-1 "Photos Reveal Some GIs Not On Exchange List," May 11, 1953, ~7-31 "Into Eager Arms A Few Come Home," May.ll, 1953,36-40 Brinkley, William, "Valley Forge GIs Tell of Brainwashing Ordeal,"

May 25, 1953, 108--124 Heiden, K., "Why They Confess," June 20, 1949, 92-4 Fahy, E. E., "Burial Above Ground," Sep8, 1952, 33: 126-130 "Big Switch Is Open," Aug 17, 1953,35: 22-3 Lee, Kyoo Hyun, "Heroism of General Dean Is Revealed When Most

Famous POW Is Set Free," Sept 14, 1953,35: 45 "Prisoners of ?ardon," Oct 5, 1953,35: 26 "POWs of the Reds Do Not Want To Come Home To America;

Photographs'," Oct 19, 1953 "We Got Everything You Wanted," Oct 19, 1953, 35: 45 "Panmunjon Dilemma," Oct 19,1953,35: 45 "Prisoner's Door To Freedom," Oct 26, 1953,35: 44-5 "Prodigal and His Kin," Nov 2, 1953,35: 45 "Big Lie; How Reds Got Germ Confessions," Nov 9; 1953, 35: 51 Martin, D., "Iron Empire of PanmunjoD," Nov 30, 1953, 31S: 137-8

81

Recd~r's DigestSwift, S. K, "How They Broke Card'

Reporter"Sent To The Cleaners", May 26, I!"Indians Test", Oct 27, 1953, 9: 2"Panmunion-Out", Nov 24, 1953,

Saturday ReviewWolfe, H. C., "Story Of A Shock", ]

Saturday Evening PoslGallery, D. V., "We Can Baffle theMartin, H. H., "They Tried To Mal

1951, 224: 25White, L., "I Was Stalin's Prisoner

17-19; Nov 10,1951,29·; Nov 3,111951, 30; Dec 1, 1951, 30.

Bryan, Robert T., Jr., "I Came Ba(1953, 28: 116-118; Jan 24, 1953,Feb 7, 1953, 28: 114-118

"GIs Outshine Eggheads In Resistill"What Price UN Pledge To The Ani"Asiatic paws Throw The Book At"Red Murder of 6,000 GIs Finally,

Science DigestKeempft'ert, W. "Prescription For 0

Science News leHer"Forced Confessions; Menticide", JlVogler, R. A. "Analyze Mind Wasbi"Not Necessarily Commie", Oct 11,

Scholastic"Torture Techniques of Communisl

tries", Mar 15, 1950, 56: 22"Lie Detector: Message Claimed T.

Officers Who Are paws", Sept 24"Freedom For A Few," Apr 29, 195"They Refuse To Go Home", Oct 7"They Chose Freedom", Oct 28, 191"Prisoner Talks Stalled", Nov 4, 19"Red's War Crimes Bared; Red ExDean, W. R., "American Hero; Inte

look Wilson, Richard, "How U. S. Prisoners Broke lTnder Red 'Brainwashing' ",

June 2, 1953, 8~83

Nation

"Brainwashing At Valley Forge," May 23, 1953, 176: 425-6 Oct 10, 1953, 177: 281

New Republic

"New Dangers Ahead In Korea; Chinese and North Korean Soldiers Under Indian Custody," Oct 12, 1953, 129: 3

"Dogs, Rats and Now, Men, Germ Warfare Tortures," Nov 9, 1953, 129: 8

New York Times Magazine

Lawrance, W. H., "Why Do They Confess!," May 8, 1949, 7 Palmer, C. R, "War For The POW's Mind," Sept 13, 1953, 13

Newsweek

"How The Reds Treat American paws and How The UN Cares For Communist paWs," Dec 17, 1951, 38: 36-7

"Communist Trial," May 12, 1952, 39: 106 (Robert A. Vogler) "Snafu At Valley Forge," May 18, 1953,44-46 "And Buddy-Buddy; Washed Brains of POWs: Can They Be Rewashed?,"

May 4, 1953,41: 35-7 "UN Tells Panmunion Reds: 'Time, Patience Running Out'" May 11

1953, 37-38 ' , "Without Honor," July 13, 1953, 42: 30 "What About Reds Among Freed U. S. Prisoners?," Aug 17, 1953, 42: 21 "Terror And Torture: 5 Prisoners' Stories," Aug 17, 1953, 42: 32 "Sick paws," Aug 17, 1953,42: 58 "Propaganda and Reality; Photographs," Aug 17, 1953, 42: 30 "Back From Red Death Camps, paws Rediscover Freedom" Aug 17

1953, 42: 29 ' , "Rats," Aug 24, 1953, 42: 30 "VN Reds Move Into New Phase," Sept 21, 1953, 42: 40 "Op. Big Switch," Sept.21, 1953, 42: 90 . "Riots And Repatriation Rules," Oct 12, 1953, 42: 36 "Lo, The Poor Indian Troops, Berated and Belabored By All" Oct 19

1953, 42: 58 ' , "Father Mao Thrown For Loss But POW Came Far From Over," Oct 26

1953, 42: 60 ' "There's Joy in Crackers Neck," Nov 2, 1953, 42: 22-3 "Captive Sales Audience," Nov 2, 1953, 42: 81 "Stalled Truce," Nov 2, 1953,42: 42 . "Son Of A Dog," Nov 9, 1953, 42: 38 "Thimayya of India and ·Korea," Nov 16, 1953,42: 40 "Fear In No Crime," Nov 16, 1953, 42:.47 "It Is Inhuman," Nov 16, 1953, 62: 32 "Korea Bunkers: Winter Watch," Nov 23, 1953, 42: 38 . "July 4 on January 22," Nov 30, 1953, 42: 47 "Patriot's Tears," Dec 14, 1953, 42: 24

82

rs Broke IInder Red 'Brainwashing''',

8Y 23, 1953, 176: 425-6it 10, 1953, 177: 281

:binese and North Korean Soldiers953, 129: 3'arfare Tortures," Nov 9,1953, 129: 8

onfes87," May 8, 1949, 7I Mind," Sept 13, 1953, 13

JWs and How The UN Cares For38: 36-79: 106 (Robert A. Vogler)153,44-46)f POWs: Can They Be Rewashed?,"

Patience Running Out'," May 11,

30S. Prisoners?," Aug 17, 1953, 42: 21ories," Aug 17, 1953, 42: 32

hs," Aug 17, 1953,42: 30Ws Rediscover Freedom," Aug 11,

ept 21, 1953, 42: 40)012,1953, 42: 36~d and Belabored By All," Oct 19,

)W Came Far From Over," Oct 26,

2, 1953, 42: 22-33,42: 81

16, 1953, 42: 401:.47

'{ 23, 1953, 42: 38 .,42: 47~

Reeder's Digest

Swift, S. K., "How They Broke Cardinal Mindszenty", Nov 1949, 55: 1-10

Reporter

"Sent To The Cleaners", May 26, 1953, 8: 2 "Indians Test", Oct 27, 1953, 9: 2 "Panmunjon-Out", Nov 24, 1953, 9: 31-2

Saturday Review

Wolfe, H. C., "Story Of A Shock", May 10, 1952, 35: 14-15

Saturday Evening Posl

Gallery, D. V., "We Can Baffle the Brainwashers", 22 Jan. 1955. Martin, H. H., "They Tried To Make Our Marines Love Stalin", Aug 25,

1951, 224: 25 White, L., "I Was Stalin's Prisoner" (R. A. Vogler), Oct 27, 1951, 224:

17-19; Nov 10,1951,29,; Nov 3,1951,36-37; Nov 17, 1951,29; Nov 24, 1951, 30; Dec 1, 1951, 30.

Bryan, Robert T., Jr., "I Came Back From A Red Death Cell", Jan 17, 1953, 28: 116-118; Jan 24, 1953, 34: 58-63; Jan 31, 1953, 27: 83-86; Feb 7, 1953, 28: 114-118

"GIs Outshine Eggheads In Resisting Reds", Oct 31, 1953, 226: 10 "What Price UN Pledge To The Anti-Red POWs?", Oct 31, 1953, 226:10 "Asiatic POWs Throw The Book At Reds", Nov 14, 1953,226: 10 "Red Murder of 6,000 GIs Finally Angers Us", Nov 28, 1953, 226: 10

Science Digest

Keempffert, W. "Pres.cription For Our POWs", Dec 1953, 34: 29-30

Science News Le"er "Forced Confessions; Menticide", July 21, 1951, flO: 43 Vogler, R. A. "Analyze Mind Washing", May 16, 1953,310-311 "Not Necessarily Commie", Oct 11, 1953, 64: 230

Scholastic

"Tortur~ Techniques of Communist Prosecutors In Iron. Curtain Coun­tries", Mar 15, 1950, 56: 22

"Lie Detector: Message Claimed To Have Been Signed By 38 American Officers Who Are POWs", Sept 27, 1950, 57: 13

"Freedom For A Few," Apr 29, 1953, 62: 14 "They Refuse To Go Home", Oct 7,1953,63: 17 "They Chose Freedom", Oct 28,1953,63: 12 "Prisoner Talks Stalled", Nov 4, 1953,63: 19-20 "Red's War Crimes Bared; Red Explainers Fail", Nov 11, 1953, 63: 33 Dean, W. R., "American Hero; Interview"; Nov 18, 1953, 63: 6

83

"General Clark Reports on Korea; TAug 6, 1953", Aug 14, 1953, 35: 82­

Peterson, C. B., "Prisonera Swayed;1953, 35: 28

"Back To The Germ Warfare Hoax, '1Sept 18, 1953,35: 20-4, Sept 4, 195

"Korean Puzzle: Americans Who Sta;Russell, R. B., "For The Prisoners WJ

Letter to Defense Secretary WilSOIOct 16, 1953, 35: 51-3 .

"Articles From The Macon (Ga.) TelEThan Confess Germ Warfare", Oct

"Big Flop At Pammunjon", Oct 30, I!Mayo, G. W., "Destroying American

Text of Report To Political CommiDickenson, 8. 8. "Why Some GIs Su

1953,35: 33"Where are 944 Missing GIs?", Dec]Lawrence, D., "To Th~ Unreturned F

Vital SpeechesLew, D. H. "Brainwashing In 8talinisDouglas,P. E., "Korean POW Issue"Bokolzky, O. X. "Where Are Our BonSheen, Fulton, "Changed Concept of

Time "Brainwaahing", Oct. 8, 1951, 58: 39-40 "Brainwashing At Work", May 26,1953,59: 41 "Welcome To Freedom", Apr 27, 1953,32 "Prisoners: Anly 149 American", May 4, 1953,33 "The Boys Come Home", May 11, 1953, 30 "Big Switch", Aug 17, 1953,62: 20 "Ugly Story", Aug 24, 1953, 62: 18 "Reactionaries", Sept 7, 1953, 62: 32 "Blackmail Scheme", Sept 21, 1953, 62: 33 "Tough Prisoners", Sept 21, 1953,62: 28-9 "Just A Stone's Throw; Anti-Communist North Korean and Chinese

Prisoners", Sept 28, 1952, 62: 19 "23 American", Oct 5, 1953,62: 33 "Sin ~f Omission", Oct 12, 1953,62: 26 "To A Young Progressive", Oct 19, 1953,62: 32 "Frustration At Panmunjon", Oct 19, 1953, 62: 42 "One Who Won't Return", Oct 26, 1953,62: 27 "Door to Taiwan", Oct 26, 1953, 62: 32 "Story of Blood", Nov 2, 1953,62: 27 "Stymied", Nov 2, 1953, 62: 28 "One Changed His Mind", Nov 2, 1953, 62: 25-6 "Cowardice In Korea", Nov 2, 1953,62: 31 "Germ Warfare: Forged Evidence", Nov 9, 1953,62: 22 "2nd Humiliation; The Explainers", Nov 9, 1953,62: 26 "Go Slow", Nov 16, 1953, 62: 24 "Towards Disenchantment In India", Nov 23, 1953, 62: 35 "Towards January 22", Nov 30, 1953, 62: 41 "Soldier's Soldier", Dec 7, 1953, 62: 27 "Other Side", Dec 14, 1953, ~2: 40

U. N. Bulletin "Prison Breaks Threaten Armistice", July I, 1953, 16: 8-10

U. N. World Domaitre, E., "Why Do They Confess", Dec 1949, 3: 22-4

U. S. News and World Report Hayes, John D. "I Saw Red China From Inside", Mar 13, 1953,26-32 Dulles, Allan W., "Brain Warfare-Russia's Secret Weapon", May 8, . 1953, 54-58 (It Explains The "Confessions" of Captured Americans) "Real Story of Returned Prisonera", May 29, 1953, 54-63 (Tape Record­

ings of GIa Back From Korea) "Korean War Prisoners-It'll Be a Long Trail Home", June 5, 1953, 22

. i'Prisoners Who Broke", Aug 1, 1953, 36: 30 "Report of POWs' Text of Agreement and Supplementary Agreement",

Aug 7, 1953, 35: 92-4 "Missing In Action: 8,000 Now Known To Be Dead", Aug 7, 1953,35: 28 "Truth VB Promises In Korea", Aug 14, 1953, 35: 35

84

-40.953,59: 41i3,32Ly 4, 1953, 33953, 30

52: 33: 28-9nunist North Korean and Chinese

26953,62: 32, 1953, 62: 42~53, 62: 2732r

53,62: 21H162: 31~ov 9, 1953, 62: 22~ov 9, 1953, 62: 26

Nov 23, 1953, 62: 35,62: 417

July 1, 1953, 15: 8-10

~", Dec 1949, 3: 2H

om Inside", Mar 13, 1953,26-32:tussia's Secret Weapon", May 8,essions" of Captured Americans).lay 29, 1953, 54-63 (Tape Record-

ng Trail Home", June 5, 1953,2235: 30and Supplementary Agreement",

1 To Be Dead", Aug 7, 1953, 35: 284, 1953,35: 35

"General Clark Reports on Korea; Text of Dieeul!sion at The Pentagon, Aug 6, 1953", Aug 14, 1953, 35: 8~5

Peterson, C. B., "Prisoners Swayed; Didn't Fall, Interview", Aug 28, 1953,35: 28

"Back To The Germ Warfare Hoax, Tortures; U. S. Officers' Own Story", Sept 18, 1953, 35: 20-4, Sept 4, 1953, 35: 24

"Korean Puzzle: Americans Who Stay", Oct 9, 1953, 35: 3HO Russell, R. B., "For The Prisoners Who Broke, Kindness or Punishment?

Letter to Defense Secretary Wilson With Statement by Mr. Wilson", Oct 16, 1953, 35: 5l-3

"Articles From The Macon (Ga.) Telegraph: Fliers Ready to Die Rather Than Confess Germ Warfare", Oct 16, 1953, 35

"Big Ftop At Panmunjon", Oct 30, 1953, 35: 30-2 Mayo, G. W., "Destroying American Minds; Russians Made It a Science;

Text of Report To Political Committee, UN", Nov 6, 1953,35: 97-101 Dickenson, 8. S. "Why Some GIs Stay With Reds: Interview", Nov 13,

1953,35: 33 "Where are 944 Missing GIs?", Dec 18, 1953, 35: 77-8 Lawrence, D., "To Th.e Unreturned Prisoners", 35: 100

Vital Speeches Lew, D. H. "Brainwashing In Stalinist China", June 1, 1952, 18: 497-501 Douglas,P. E., "Korean POW Issue", July 1, 1953, 19: 568-70. Sokolzky, O. X. "Where Are Our Bons?", Sept 1, 1953, 19: 678-9 Sheen,Fulton, "Changed Concept of Man", Nov 15, 1953, 20: 83-5

-...

85

ADDEND,

CH.A

NO. 1 POW BREAKDOWNNO. 2 BREAKDOWN BY SER'NO. 3 HOW POW'S WERE PNO... HOW SUSPECTS WERE

ADDENDA NO. 7

CHARTS

NO.1 POW BREAKDOWN NO. 2 BREAKDOWN BY SERVICE NO.3 HOW POW'S WERE PROCESSED NO• .4 HOW SUSPECTS WERE INVESTIGATED

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::.:» .....

THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE

November 1955 •

This official Department of Defense publication is for the use of

personnel in the Military Services.

Charles E. Wilson

93

By ORDER OF THE SECRETARIES OF THE ARMY AND THE

AIR FORCE:

MAXWELL D. TAYLOR, General, ["nite.d States Army,

OFFICIAL: Ohief of Staff· JOHN A. KLEIN,

Major General, United States A7'1n,ll,

The Adjutant General.

N. F. TWINING, OFFICIAL: Chief of Staff, United States Air Force.

E. E. TORO, Colonel, United States Air Force,

Air Adjutant General.

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army: Three copies per 100 Officers and Enlisted Men PLUS:

Gen Staff, DA (2) SS, DA (2) . Tee Svc, DA (2) Hq CONARC (15) Army AA Comd (15) OS Maj Comd (15) MDW (15) Armies (15) Corps (5) Div (.5) Tng Div t5)

Brig (5) Regt (5) Bn (5) Instl (5) USMA (75) PMST (2) CrtIit Dist (2) Cruit Main Sta (2) MAAG (2) Mil Msn (2) ARMA (2)

NG and USAR: Div (3); Brig (3); Regt (3); Bn (3); Co (1).

For explanation of abbreviations used, see SR 320-50-1.

U. 5. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1955 94