The Transnational Social The Transnational Social Question:Question:

From Social Protection From Social Protection to Social Inequalities to Social Inequalities

Thomas FaistThomas Faist

Centre on Migration, Citizenship and Centre on Migration, Citizenship and Development (COMCAD), Department of Development (COMCAD), Department of

SociologySociology

Bielefeld UniversityBielefeld University

The Transnational Social The Transnational Social QuestionQuestion

Social QuestionSocial Question in the 19th century – in the 19th century – Transnational Social Question Transnational Social Question today? “Great today? “Great transformation“ transformation“ “second great “second great transformation“?transformation“?

Is there a transformation of mainly Is there a transformation of mainly national national social policysocial policy within welfare states to within welfare states to global global social policysocial policy in the 21st century? in the 21st century?

Increasing (perception of) global Increasing (perception of) global interdependencies: e.g. migration, military interdependencies: e.g. migration, military threats, environmental degradation, threats, environmental degradation, opportunity (such as professionals) -- and opportunity (such as professionals) -- and increasing awareness of global social increasing awareness of global social inequalities (e.g. MDG)inequalities (e.g. MDG)

Migration and Social Migration and Social ProtectionProtection

Migration can be seen as a form of social Migration can be seen as a form of social protectionprotection

Social protection provisioning is also important Social protection provisioning is also important for migrants due primarily to migrant-specific for migrants due primarily to migrant-specific vulnerabilitiesvulnerabilities

Issues involve (a) the access of migrants to Issues involve (a) the access of migrants to basic social benefits in the immigration basic social benefits in the immigration country, (b) the portability of social security country, (b) the portability of social security benefits, specifically pensions and healthcare benefits, specifically pensions and healthcare benefits, once they return to their home benefits, once they return to their home country, and (c) non-state support structures country, and (c) non-state support structures consisting of migrant networks, associations, consisting of migrant networks, associations, etc.etc.

Social Inequalities andSocial Inequalities andTransnational Social Transnational Social

ProtectionProtection Social protection reduces risks and Social protection reduces risks and

thus thus decreases social inequalitiesdecreases social inequalities Social rights and social policies Social rights and social policies

stabilize stabilize welfare capitalismwelfare capitalism as a as a legitimate system of social inequality legitimate system of social inequality on the national levelon the national level

How does cross-border migration How does cross-border migration contribute to social protection and contribute to social protection and (re)produce social inequalities?(re)produce social inequalities?

ArgumentsArguments

Methodologicalical transnationalism: Methodologicalical transnationalism: Overcoming static approaches to Overcoming static approaches to social protection & inequality which social protection & inequality which focus on one frame onlyfocus on one frame only

Empirical finding: Transnational Empirical finding: Transnational social protection addresses global social protection addresses global social inequalities, yet social inequalities, yet creates new creates new forms of inequalitiesforms of inequalities in both in both emigration and immigration regionsemigration and immigration regions

OutlineOutline

Part 1: Approaching Transnational Part 1: Approaching Transnational Social ProtectionSocial Protection

Part 2: Universal Social Rights and Part 2: Universal Social Rights and Fragmented Welfare StatenessFragmented Welfare Stateness

Part 3: The Rise of Migrants as Part 3: The Rise of Migrants as Development Agents and Changing Development Agents and Changing Principles Social OrderPrinciples Social Order

Part 4: The (Re-)Production of Social Part 4: The (Re-)Production of Social InequalitiesInequalities

Part 1: Part 1:

Approaching Approaching TransnationalTransnational

Social ProtectionSocial Protection

The Optics AvailableThe Optics AvailableNational, World, National, World, Transnational Transnational

Analyses of National Welfare States Analyses of National Welfare States are often are often concerned with (a) integration of migrants and concerned with (a) integration of migrants and their children (social integration) and (b) their children (social integration) and (b) functionings of welfare state as such (e.g. functionings of welfare state as such (e.g. demography) (national systems integration)demography) (national systems integration)

Neo-institutionalist (world) theoriesNeo-institutionalist (world) theories are are interested in how world-cultural ontology interested in how world-cultural ontology spreads into international and national law, e.g. spreads into international and national law, e.g. social rights as human rightssocial rights as human rights

Transnational OpticTransnational Optic so far has been mostly so far has been mostly concerned with practices of migrants and their concerned with practices of migrants and their significant others – yet little consideration of significant others – yet little consideration of changing institutionschanging institutions

Transnational Transnational AssemblagesAssemblages

Institutional AssemblageInstitutional Assemblage of of differentiated forms of welfare differentiated forms of welfare stateness and other forms of social stateness and other forms of social protection – modern and traditional / protection – modern and traditional / informal and formalinformal and formal

Transnational lensTransnational lens: National/regional : National/regional systems of protection criss-crossed systems of protection criss-crossed transnational spaces as reference transnational spaces as reference pointspoints

Part 2: Part 2:

Universal Social Rights Universal Social Rights

and Fragmented and Fragmented Welfare StatenessWelfare Stateness

Social Rights as Human Social Rights as Human RightsRights

Social rightsSocial rights include those listed in the include those listed in the General Declaration ofGeneral Declaration of Human RightsHuman Rights (1948): Elementary school education, health (1948): Elementary school education, health care, minimum income, secure employment, care, minimum income, secure employment, right to collective organization in the right to collective organization in the workplace, food, shelter, social securityworkplace, food, shelter, social security

Specifications:Specifications: International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), and the European Charter of Fundamental Rights (2000)

Social Security in Global Social Security in Global PerspectivePerspective

Beyond welfare stateness and bilateral Beyond welfare stateness and bilateral treaties there is little treaties there is little redistributionredistribution; ; nonetheless, there is nonetheless, there is regulationregulation (e.g. (e.g. European Union); European Union);

Globally mostly Globally mostly „soft law“„soft law“, such as , such as corporate social responsibility, social corporate social responsibility, social labels, codes of conduct (e.g. Global labels, codes of conduct (e.g. Global Compact)Compact)

Adequate concepts? Social rights Adequate concepts? Social rights social standards social standards capabilities (Sen) capabilities (Sen)

A Global Perspective: A Global Perspective: Fragmented Welfare Fragmented Welfare

StatenessStateness (1) Welfare stateness is mostly restricted to (1) Welfare stateness is mostly restricted to

national welfare states in the national welfare states in the OECD countriesOECD countries (2) In so-called (2) In so-called NICsNICs often considerable often considerable

evolution over the past decades in “human evolution over the past decades in “human investment sectors“ (education, health); cp. investment sectors“ (education, health); cp. transformation countriestransformation countries

(3) In so-called (3) In so-called developing countriesdeveloping countries often often only available to very select groupsonly available to very select groups

(4) In (4) In marginalized regionsmarginalized regions high degrees of high degrees of existential insecurity (Hobbesian world)existential insecurity (Hobbesian world)

The Four Worlds of Social The Four Worlds of Social SecuritySecurity

World 1

OECD

World 2

NICs / Transforma-tion states

World 3

„Developing World“

World 4

„Margina-lized World“

Working population

75-90 70-90 Informal Activities: 30-50

Informal Activities: 70-90

Extent of union organization

25-50 30-50 5-15 n.a.

Public expenditure as percentage of GDP

35-45 30-40 20-30 10-25

Welfare expenditure as percentage of GDP

20-30 15-25 5-10 2-5

Towards a Global Towards a Global Social Policy Model?Social Policy Model?

1970s/80s: Structural adjustment policies 1970s/80s: Structural adjustment policies (Africa, Latin America, South Asia)(Africa, Latin America, South Asia)

Followed by “post-Washington consensus”Followed by “post-Washington consensus”(1) combination of a liberal market (1) combination of a liberal market approach with market-based insurance and approach with market-based insurance and targeted policies for the “poor/needy”targeted policies for the “poor/needy”(2) Social capital and local community, e.g. (2) Social capital and local community, e.g. empowerment, capabilitiesempowerment, capabilities

Part 3:Part 3:

The Rise of Migrants The Rise of Migrants as Development Agents as Development Agents

and Changing and Changing Principles Principles

of Social Order of Social Order

Connecting the Four Worlds: Connecting the Four Worlds: Transnational MigrationTransnational Migration

Transnational social policy - problems: Transnational social policy - problems: (awareness of) interdependencies, suprastatal (awareness of) interdependencies, suprastatal authority, belief in effective policiesauthority, belief in effective policies

Migration as a strategic research site for Migration as a strategic research site for transnational social protectiontransnational social protection

MigrantsMigrants connect various connect various ““worlds“ and scales: worlds“ and scales: (1) (1) AgentsAgents: persons, groups, organizations; : persons, groups, organizations; (2) (2) SystemsSystems: different social protection systems: different social protection systems

The Virtuous Circle of The Virtuous Circle of Migration and DevelopmentMigration and Development

Degree of Development

Rate of Migration

•Remittances (individual und collective)

• Investments•Transfer of human capital and social remittances

Changing Concepts of Changing Concepts of Social Order Social Order

Principles of Social Order:Principles of Social Order: Stateness, Market and Community & Civil SocietyStateness, Market and Community & Civil Society

Stateness and Civil SocietyStateness and Civil SocietyNational development state National development state combinations of local combinations of local state, civil society (NGOs) and international state, civil society (NGOs) and international organizations; also: organizations; also: co-développement, co-développement, diaspora, diaspora, transnational communitiestransnational communities

Market and Civil SocietyMarket and Civil Society„„Market citizen“ as well as participatory/ grass roots Market citizen“ as well as participatory/ grass roots approachesapproaches

Part 4:Part 4:

Social Protection and Social Protection and the the

(Re-)Production (Re-)Production of Social Inequalitiesof Social Inequalities

Social Protection and Social Protection and MigrationMigration

Single most important determinant of Single most important determinant of life chances is the place (legal life chances is the place (legal citizenship) where a person is borncitizenship) where a person is born

Social insecurity (existential) and Social insecurity (existential) and social security: migration may expand social security: migration may expand a person’s capabilities – livelihood a person’s capabilities – livelihood approach and new economics of approach and new economics of migrationmigration

Social Protection inSocial Protection inTransnational Social SpacesTransnational Social Spaces

StructureStructure: Combinations of functionally highly : Combinations of functionally highly differentiated institutions AND small groups and differentiated institutions AND small groups and networks (e.g. kinship groups, religious networks (e.g. kinship groups, religious communities)communities)

ResourcesResources: financial remittances; „social : financial remittances; „social remittances“ Nonetheless: „brain drain“ in certain remittances“ Nonetheless: „brain drain“ in certain sectorssectors

SectorsSectors: Central for social protection is remittances : Central for social protection is remittances in sectors such as health and education; in sectors such as health and education; construction and small manufacturingconstruction and small manufacturing

Institutional Institutional Arrangements Arrangements

Degree of FormalizationDegree of Formalization Low --------------------------- High

Friendship networks Families/housheolds/Kinship groups

Hometown Associations Cultural Associations Rotating Credit Associations Funeral Societies (based on reciprocity)

Issue Networks NGOs (INGOS, HRINGOS)

Religious Communities

STATES: Bi- and

supranational conventionsExtra-territorial

social rights

The (Re-)Production of The (Re-)Production of Social Inequalities: An Social Inequalities: An

ExampleExample

Transnational personal care services Transnational personal care services market linking social protection in market linking social protection in regions of origin and destination; e.g. regions of origin and destination; e.g. care migration Romania / Ukraine – Italycare migration Romania / Ukraine – Italy

““Care drain“/“social orphans“– Care drain“/“social orphans“– reorganization of care in immigration reorganization of care in immigration and emigration regions (kinship; market) and emigration regions (kinship; market) – problems: aged/children– problems: aged/children

Mechanisms Generating Mechanisms Generating Inequalities Inequalities

- Some Examples - - Some Examples - Social Social Formation/ Formation/

General General Social Social MechanismsMechanisms

Small Groups /Small Groups /

NetworksNetworks

- Relational -- Relational -

Societies/Societies/

Societal systems Societal systems

- Systemic -- Systemic -

Social Social closure: closure:

In-/exclusionIn-/exclusion

BelongingBelonging (e.g. (e.g. access to networks access to networks and jobs)and jobs)

Citizenship Citizenship (e.g. (e.g. irregular status; visa irregular status; visa free travel; free travel; „transnational“ „transnational“ citizenship)citizenship)

Social Social closure: closure: Opportunity Opportunity hoardinghoarding

CliquesCliques

(e.g. reciprocity in (e.g. reciprocity in friendship networks, friendship networks, kinship systems)kinship systems)

LobbyingLobbying

(e.g. policy (e.g. policy brokerage of social brokerage of social scientists)scientists)

ExploitationExploitation Working conditionsWorking conditions

(e.g. household work)(e.g. household work)RedistributionRedistribution (e.g. (e.g. skills and care drain: skills and care drain: extraction from extraction from sending to receiving sending to receiving regions)regions)

Future ResearchFuture Research

Questionable concept: Questionable concept: ““remittances“remittances“

Intersectional patterns of the Intersectional patterns of the generation of inequality: class-generation of inequality: class-ization, gender-ization, ethnic-izationization, gender-ization, ethnic-ization

Perspectival Social Perspectival Social InequalitiesInequalities

Empirical finding: Empirical finding: Social inequalities Social inequalities

(1) may increase on one scale (e.g. (1) may increase on one scale (e.g. household) but may decrease on another household) but may decrease on another (e.g. regions)(e.g. regions)

(2) different positions in various contexts (2) different positions in various contexts (emigration vs. immigration) and (emigration vs. immigration) and transnational reference systemtransnational reference system

Normative question: Tolerate “small Normative question: Tolerate “small inequalities“ to address “bigger inequalities“ to address “bigger inequalities“?inequalities“?

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