THE TEMPUS PROGRAM EU

NATIONAL & KAPODISTRIAN UNIVERSITY OF ATHENSFACULTY OF LAW, ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCEDEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

MASTER'S DEGREE IN SOUTHEAST EUROPEAN STUDIES

The European Union's protection and enlargement

through the reformation

of the higher educational structures of third countries:

The TEMPUS Program

by

Anastasia Petraki

Project within the framework of

‘European Integration in Southeastern Europe’

Supervisor: Dr. D. Anagnostou

ATHENS - JANUARY 2004

The European Union's protection and enlargement through the reformation of the higher educational structures of third countries: The TEMPUS Program

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .................................................................................................................2

1. Introduction. . ..............................................................................................................2

2. The political scene. ......................................................................................................3

3. The Tempus program....................................................................................................5

3.1. Origin of the Tempus program...............................................................................6

3.2. Targets of Tempus program...................................................................................6

3.3. Activities of Tempus program.................................................................................7

3.4. Participants....................8

3.5. Administration and financial management ...........................................................9

3.6. The broader Tempus context..................................................................................10

3.6.1. The CARDS context......................................................................................10

3.6.2. The MEDA Context. .....................................................................................10

3.6.3. The Tacis Context. . ......................................................................................11

4. Discussion .................................................................................................................11

5. Conclusions. . ..............................................................................................................16

Appendix A: Statistical data tables......................................................................................18

Bibliography

1


Abstract

It is common knowledge that in the days to come only large and powerful alliances will

outlive. History has taught that an alliance beneficial to the allies and of increased

survivability requires the formation of a set of common interests, in the name of which the

allies will fruitfully collaborate in terms of dialogue and politics and not in terms of threats

and guns. In the recent years and in the area of Europe, we have witnessed the birth of such an

alliance, called 'European Community' (EC), which evolved in the present 'European Union'

(EU). Serious efforts have been put in this modern alliance for prosperity and development.

Another fact that we have witnessed is the fall of the former so-called 'Eastern block'; that is

the group of countries under the explicit or implicit administration of the former Soviet Union.

The day after this fall, found, on one hand, the EU representing the 'West' and, on the other

hand, a large group of newly formed countries (called New Independent States - NIS) in the

European neighbor with serious economical and social problems, representing the 'East'. For

the EU, this situation was a milestone. It was then decided that the NIS should be approached

and supported because this was for the best interest of the EU. The present work examines the

EU support provision to the NIS through a series of projects (Tempus program) for the

modernization and reformation of the higher educational structures of these (third) countries.

In more details, the current work describes the challenge, before which the EU found itself,

presents the Tempus program (statistical data are included in the Appendix) and analyzes its

political dimensions, among which the most important ones are the protection and the

enlargement that the EU wishes to achieve through the Tempus program.

1. Introduction

History has proven that 'unity is strength', meaning that units, in terms of people, group

of peoples, even nations, may achieve better results if they join together on a basis of common

interests. To this direction, numerous large and strong alliances, as well as great empires, were

formed and finally vanished under the pressure of various factors. Those formations that had a

fair and balanced administration, respected the dissimilarity of the participants but, at the same

time, reinforced the existence of common characteristics, suffered the least problems and

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lasted longer. Those formations that were based on fear, force and violence, experienced a

great many conflicts, fights and wars, finally resulting in their violent fall1.

In the recent years and in the area of Europe, such a new alliance was borne. It was the

'European Community' (EC), which now has the form of the 'European Union' (EU)2. Serious

efforts have been put in this modern alliance for prosperity and development. Although serious

problems did appear in various moments, the EU had and still has a positive dynamic, thus

strengthening its presence in the global status. Another fact that took place in the recent years

is the fall of the former so-called 'Eastern block'; that is the group of countries under the

explicit or implicit administration of the former Soviet Union3. The new status was, on one

hand, the EU representing the 'West' and, on the other hand, a large group of newly formed

countries (New Independent Countries - NIS)4 with serious economical and social problems,

representing the 'East'. For the EU, this situation was critical. A politically wrong handling of

the situation could jeopardize the EU itself. On the contrary, a politically correct handling of

the situation could be beneficial for the EU. Facing this reality, the EU decided to provide the

NIS with support, one form of which was through programs for the modernization and

reformation of the higher educational structures of those countries5. In addition, the EU

extended the application of such programs so that other non-EU members, either from the

former 'Eastern block' or the Mediterranean basin, could participate. Within this frame, the EU

introduced the Tempus program with the CARDS, MEDA and TACIS context6. The EU had

now the unique opportunity to update and reinforce its position in the global status by

enlarging its domain and extending its range of influence through vital allies, something that,

some decades ago, was beyond the wildest imagination7.

2. The political scene

After the fall of the 'Eastern block', the citizens of those countries were facing a dreadful

reality: it was very difficult to earn their living in their own homelands, while delinquency was

increasing at the same time. The actually much better quality of life that the EU citizens

1 [14]: Beginnings: war and peace2 [14]: From three communities to the European Union3 [15]: A brief history of european integration4 [1]: pp.9, pp.155 [3]:pp.236 [16]:part 1- pp.127 [15]: The enlargement of the Union

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enjoyed made them consider moving to an EU country as their only ticket to a better life. As a

result, and since those citizens were finally allowed to leave their countries in order to visit a

‘Western block country’, huge population immigrations took place from eastern countries to

EU during the last years8. These immigrants were given only a traveling visa, which is a

limited time visa. Nevertheless, they remained in EU after their visa expiration, thus causing

serious and multiple social and economical problems. For instance, when someone remained

illegally in a country, he/she could not afford to have demands, which means that he/she

accepted to work longer shifts and for less money, thus introducing major problems in the

labor class of the specific EU country. In addition, in case of diseases, illegal immigrants

preferred to say nothing fearing that they will loose their job or that they will be deported in

case they go to a hospital, thus introducing problems in terms of public health. Furthermore,

not only people wishing to find a work and live a respectful life immigrated, but also people

who thought that it would be more profitable to expand their delinquent activities in the richer

EU countries, thus introducing problems in terms of public order and safety9.

This was exactly the situation that the EU had to face some years ago. It was a very

serious situation because the EU could not absorb and support so many immigrants and

especially the populations of immigrants that would follow in the next years. Experience had

proven that trying to accommodate all immigrants was not possible, while such efforts, even

with poor results, made even more potential immigrants to finally immigrate. Experience had

also proven that a police state was not the solution either, meaning that even if the police

patrols and controls were constant and frequent, only some illegal immigrants were caught and

deported, while these very same immigrants were to be back in a few days, illegally again.

The reason for this persistence in coming back was the fact that they had no hope in their

homelands10. Therefore, the key for the solution to this problem was to provide (potential)

immigrants with serious motives so that they would finally (stay at) return to their homelands.

This could be achieved only through an international collaboration between the EU and the

NIS, a fact that both parts realized soon enough.

The NIS faced tremendous problems in economy11 and, at the same time, they had to

deal with the completely different political and economical structures and systems of the West, 8 [18]9 [18]10 [17]11 [3]:pp.11

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which seemed to be the one who sets the rules of the game12. The NIS were in need of foreign

support otherwise their prosperous future most probably was not yet to come13. They knew

that and this is the reason why they were willing to cooperate with countries that used to be

sworn enemies with.

The EU had long realized that the uncontrollable immigration from the NIS was a major

threat to the EU economy and in order to prevail its prosperity, the EU should provide its

eastern neighbors with adequate support. Nevertheless, an intelligent support provision from

the EU towards the NIS could not only protect the EU economy but also provide the

opportunity for a new dynamic development. A close collaboration with the NIS suggested

great market openings for the EU enterprises, not only for selling products but also, if not

firstly, for producing products since the labor cost in these countries was and still is

significantly lower than that in EU. On top of that, it should be kept in mind that almost all

NIS were not underdeveloped; on the contrary, they were proud to present significant

achievements, both in technology and in literature. In addition, these countries are very rich in

row materials, a factor that plays a most significant role in the industrial production. From all

the above, it was beyond any doubt that not only was it crucial for the EU but also it was for

its best interest to invest in the NIS14.

3. The Tempus program

As it was previously mentioned, under the new political status, the EU decided to invest

in the NIS and in other third countries within the Tempus framework, which was an extended

program for the modernization and reformation of the higher educational structures of those

countries. In order to analyze the political dimensions of the Tempus program and the way it

contributed and still contributes to a peaceful enlargement of the EU, it is inevitable to present

this program using the official EU definitions and descriptions.

3.1. Origin of the Tempus program

The Tempus program is the EU cooperation scheme for Higher Education15. It provides

financing to encourage interaction and balanced cooperation between universities in the 12 [17]13 [17]14 [4]:pp.1315 [1]:pp.12, [16]:pp.5

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partner (third) countries and the EU. In this way, the process of transformation to market

economies and democratic societies in the New Independent States (NIS) and Mongolia and in

the non associated countries of Central and Eastern Europe is supported. The Tempus program

is based on the understanding that higher education institutions are of particular importance

for the social and economic transition process as well as for the cultural development; they are

also pools of expertise and of human resources and provide for the training of new generations

of leaders16.

The first Tempus program lasted from 1990 until 1994. The program was consolidated and

renewed for the 1994-1998 and 1998-2000 periods and, again, for the 2000-2006 period. It has

become customary to refer to these periods of the program as ‘Tempus I’, ‘Tempus II’,

‘Tempus II bis’ and ‘Tempus III’ respectively.17

3.2. Targets of Tempus program

The main targets of the Tempus framework are the following18:

• Establishment of new courses or reformation of old ones (i.e. new university syllabus or new

courses, introduction of modern, student-focused teaching methodologies etc)

• Restructure of the educational institutions (i.e. introduction of modern techniques for

university management and academic planning)

• Support of the design and implementation of reform policies and the development of

strategies. For example, Tempus can contribute to the development and introduction of a

credit system or a strategy for university-industry co-operation at university and/or national

level.

In addition, the Tempus framework:

• Encourages the development of networks between academic and non-academic institutions

• Assists the transition process in the wider social, economic and political community outside

the strictly-defined academic field – for example, by developing, organizing and delivering

training courses for customs officials.

16 [16]:part1-pp.517 [16]:part 1 -pp.518 [16]:part 1-pp.6

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• Provides material aid required to achieve the objectives of Tempus-funded projects. Tempus

can help, for example, in reconstituting libraries, with subscriptions to academic journals,

purchase of computers and other teaching materials.

It is strongly emphasized that the Tempus program is not designed to support research.

3.3. Activities of Tempus program

The activities of the Tempus program may categorized in three groups:

• Joint European Projects (JEP)19: These are projects aiming at clearly defined objectives over

two, or three year periods, and for which grants are awarded primarily to groups of

institutions/universities co-operating together (‘consortia’). These projects represent the main

activity of the Tempus framework and are divided in four categories:

a) University Management projects20, which should focus on the reconstruction of the

management and administration of the universities and the modernization of all

administrative processes, so that the universities of the third countries will adapt

efficiently to a changing internal and external environment.

b) Curriculum Development projects21, which should focus on the content and quality of

higher education in the relevant priority areas. In the long term, these projects should

promote renewal and reform of the partner countries' higher education system in a

particular subject area and in the short term, they should aim to create centers capable of

disseminating good practice to other universities / institutions within the partner

countries.

c) Institution Building projects22, which should focus on the development of the

administrative and institutional structures of partner countries, in particular with a view

to promoting democracy and the rule of law.

d) Mobility projects23, which should focus on the structured implementation of student

mobility by a network of universities, institutions, industries and companies and should

create long term cooperation between the partners involved in student exchange.

19 [1]:pp.18, [16]:pp.920 [1]:pp.1821 [1]:pp.2022 [1]:pp.2223 [1]:pp.24

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• Structural and Complementary Measures: These are shorter-term support activities, targeted

at specific needs, with grants awarded through a relatively light selection and award

procedure. These activities can have a duration from a few weeks to one year.

• Individual Mobility Grants24: These grants are awarded to individuals (i.e. professors,

lecturers, members of staff or ministry officials) in order to help them to travel to other

countries for work related to a particular reform process. These grants can vary in duration

from one to eight weeks.

Deadlines for applications are once a year for Joint European Projects, twice a year for

Structural and Complementary Measures and three times a year for Individual Mobility

Grants.

3.4. Participants

Tempus program participants range from higher education institutions through to non-

academic institutions such as non-governmental organizations, business companies, industries

and public authorities. The participant countries are separated in two large categories: those

that can be financed and those that may participate in Tempus projects, but only on a self-

financing basis. In the first category the following countries belong to25:

• The Member States of the European Community (currently fifteen – Austria, Belgium,

Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the

Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom);

• The Partner Countries – currently including the Western Balkan Countries of Albania,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the former Yugoslavia Republic of Macedonia, and

Serbia and Montenegro; the Eastern European and Central Asian Countries of Armenia,

Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Russian

Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan; and the Mediterranean

Partners, consisting of Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, the Palestinian

Authority, Syria and Tunisia.

In the second category, the following countries belong to:

• The Acceding Candidate Countries (currently ten – the Czech Republic, Estonia,

Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Cyprus and Malta).

24 [1]:pp.4725 [1]:pp.15

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• The remaining Candidate Countries (currently three – Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey).

• Members of the Group of 24 other than the Member States of the European

Community; (currently Australia, Canada, Iceland, Japan, Liechtenstein, Norway, New

Zealand, Switzerland and the United States of America).

It is clarified that Bulgaria, Romania as well as the Central and Eastern European

Acceding Countries participated in Tempus from 1990-2000 as Partner Countries and have a

wealth of experience and positive results which could prove useful to project consortia.

3.5. Administration and financial management26,27

The Tempus program is managed by the European Commission (Directorate-General for

Education and Culture), which is based in Brussels, Belgium. More particularly, three separate

entities are involved in the policy development and the technical assistance:

• The Directorate General for Education and Culture, which is in overall charge of the

program.

• The Directorate General for External Relations, which co-ordinates the external relations

activities of the European Commission.

• EuropeAid Co-operation Office, a service of the European Commission established in 2000,

which is responsible for the execution of most of the external aid instruments of the European

Commission. Finance for the Tempus Program is drawn from the three general programs for

the regions involved, as approved by the European Community’s budgetary authority (the

European Parliament and the Council).

With regard to country’s specific priorities, Partner Countries’ authorities actively

participate in the identification of those priorities which best meet national needs. The Tempus

program involves a large number of actors. However, a part from the other members of a

consortium, participating institutions or individuals would normally deal only with the

European Commission and with the European Training Foundation’s Tempus Department.

3.6. The broader Tempus context

26 [16]: part 1–pp.927 [16]: part1-pp.11

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The Tempus program provides part of the European Community’s assistance to the

transition process in the Partner Countries, which is more generally governed by three

programs28:

• Stabilization and Association Agreements (CARDS) for the Western Balkans

• Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (MEDA) for the Mediterranean countries

• Partnership and Co-operation Agreements (Tacis) for Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

3.6.1.The CARDS context29

The developing Stabilization and Association Process offers Albania, Bosnia and

Herzegovina, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro,

a prospect of European integration, based on a progressive approach adapted to the situation of

each country. These countries have agreed to gear their political, economic and institutional

development to the values and models underpinning the European Community, with particular

emphasis on democracy, respect for human rights and a market economy. The Stability Pact,

launched at the initiative of the European Community in June 1999, aims to bring peace,

stability and economic development to the region. The Stability Pact embraces the countries of

the area as well as many other European and non-European countries and organizations.

3.6.2.The MEDA Context30

The South and East Mediterranean and the Middle East together represent an area of

vital strategic importance for the European Union. The European Union’s policy towards the

Mediterranean region is governed by the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership launched at the 1995

Barcelona Conference between the European Union and its Mediterranean Partners. The

Barcelona Declaration adopted at the Conference also recognizes the essential contribution

civil society can make in the process of development of the Euro-Mediterranean partnership,

promoting understanding and closeness between peoples, and the importance of encouraging

contacts and exchanges between young people in the context of programs for decentralized co-

operation.31 The extension of Tempus to the Mediterranean partners (2002) was seen as a

28 [16]:pp.1129 [16]:pp.1230 [16]:pp.1331 [13]:pp2

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reinforcement of this overall process and as part of the wider strategy to strengthen dialogue

between peoples and cultures in the European Union and the Mediterranean.

3.6.3.The Tacis Context32

Since the beginning of the nineties, the EU has developed a much more formal and

political relationship with 13 countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia: building strong

trading links is a major objective, but the overall aim is to foster enduring political, economic

and cultural links, so as to ensure peace and security. In order to ensure co-ordination of all

activities of the European Union and its Member States, the EU has drawn up common

strategies, setting out overall policy guidelines for activities with individual countries. The

development of bilateral relations between the EU and individual partner countries has been

achieved through the negotiation of Partnership and Co-operation Agreements (PCAs), now in

force with ten of the Eastern European and Central Asian countries. Launched by the EC in

1991, the Tacis Program provides grant-financed technical assistance to 13 countries of

Eastern Europe and Central Asia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan,

Kyrgystan, Moldova, Mongolia, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan),

and mainly aims at enhancing the transition process in these countries. When Tacis was

initiated, technical assistance was a stand-alone activity, whereas the program is now part of

the complex and evolving relationship with each of the 13 countries concerned.

4. Discussion

The Tempus program originated as a European Union (EU) support to third countries in

their effort for reconstruction and adaptation towards the changes and the challenges of the last

years. This program, as all programs of similar orientation, appears to have a very gentle

motive. Nevertheless, politics lie in the background and, although it sounds very cruel, it is

true that there is no such thing as a pure altruistic and humanitarian part of politics. For the

Tempus case, the analysis of the deeper political targets of the program reveal nothing else but

a very structured and well organized effort of the EU not only to protect its existence but also

to enlarge its domain towards third countries. This may sound as a dramatic exaggeration but

it is not, as the following thoughts will illustrate.

32 [16]:pp14

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The argument that the Tempus program served as a protection shield is supported by two

facts, the former being the provision of modern equipment and know-how towards the third

countries33 and the latter being the implicit financial support that the EU provided itself with!

In more details, as it was mentioned in the second part of the current work, the massive

immigration from third countries to the EU was a threat, the key for the solution to this

problem being nothing else but to provide (potential) immigrants with serious motives so that

they would finally (stay at) return to their homelands. The only motive that a citizen has in

order not to immigrate is to live in dignity and prosperity. A state is in a position to provide

such goods if it has a strong and healthy economy, which was not the case with the third

countries. At the same time, the changes and challenges taking place all over the world

suggested that only those being able to actively participate in these changes could expect good

days in the future. Evidently, it was necessary for the third countries to become able to

participate in those challenges and changes, otherwise their future would be doubtful and the

massive immigrations would remain a threat for the EU. This is the reason why the EU

provided the third countries with modern technology through the purchase of equipment

(communicational and administrative equipment, like computers, fax and photocopy machines

etc) and know-how through the organization of new courses and the collaboration with EU

academic and non-academic institutions. The ultimate goal was to make the third countries

learn about 'doing things' according to the western way, thus giving them the chance to

become competitive in the most demanding modern market34. Apart from this, the funding of

the activities not only helped the third countries but also boosted the EU economy because a

large proportion of the project budgets (mobility grants, grants for equipment, salaries for EU

stuff etc) returned to the EU. To be more specific, it was obligatory that all the equipment be

purchased from the EU35. Furthermore, all the expenditures for mobility towards the EU or

within the EU were money that ended up to EU hands. In addition, the academic and non-

academic EU stuff involved should be paid as well. On top of that, the projects within the

Tempus framework required EU personnel for administration and monitoring, thus working

places were created. In other words, the EU, among others, provided the third countries with

funds, a large proportion of which the third countries, in the sequel, returned to the EU. On the

33 [4]:pp.2534 [8]:pp.135 [1]:pp.41,42

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other hand, the third countries had no complaint because they were receiving support that they

could not even dream of. Therefore, from a political point of view, the Tempus program was a

very good investment since the EU was protected against a real threat, while international

relations with the third countries were placed on a strong and healthy basis.

The argument that the Tempus program served enlargement purposes of the EU is

supported by several facts. At this point it is necessary to clarify that there are many ways an

enlargement may be considered, from a peace treaty through to the result of a bloody

conquest. In the case under examination, the enlargement of an alliance towards non-member

countries is considered as the approach of the non-members in such a way that they finally

adopt the structures, the administration and the common interests of the alliance, while the

strong international relations built in the mean time leave open the possibility of joining the

alliance in the future36. From this point of view, the Tempus program definitely served such

purposes, since the EU tried to approach the third countries in many levels such as language,

administration, law, finance and mentality, aiming at developing a homogeneity among the

collaborators in these sectors, which in turn definitely helps things run easier and better. A

more detailed analysis of this is enlightening.

The Tempus program gave the chance for the spread of European languages among the

third countries. This was achieved in four ways. First, it was obligatory that all paper work

was done either in English or French or German37. It was not acceptable for the third countries

to handle in documents in their native language and then ask for a translation. Second, in all

kind of projects (see 3.3) there were new courses introducing English or French or German in

the academic curricula. Third, when students or academic stuff from the third countries visited

the EU for training38, or vice versa, during a mobility activity, the training was taking place

either in English or French or German. Four, during the projects, it was possible for

participants from the third countries to stay in the EU for a long period39, thus having a very

good chance to improve their fluency in English or French or German. In these ways, the

Tempus program actually helped not only in establishing a bridge of linguistic

communication, which is the basis for any further collaboration, but also in promoting the

36 [3]:pp.1437 [20]:part4-pp.638 [2]: pp.3739 [1]:pp.44

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European presence in the third countries40. Therefore, the Tempus program helped in creating

a short of linguistic homogeneity among the third countries.

Furthermore, the Tempus program aimed at spreading the 'western' way of

administration41. Many projects were dealing only with the reformation and modernization of

the existing administrative system in the third countries towards the corresponding European

systems. This element was equally decisive because for any system to function properly when

extended, it is fundamental to ensure that the new extensions (branches) are compatible to the

existing main system, otherwise the malfunction is guaranteed.

The Tempus program also supported the promotion of democratic rules42. This was clear

through the Institution Building JEPs (see 3.3), where the main theme was the promotion of

human rights and civil liberties. The states in the former 'Eastern block' had a police rather a

civilian-friendly form, which was in complete opposition to the EU spirit. Progressively, the

EU tried to spread its approach of the rule of the law, thus making the thirds countries come

closer to the EU way of governing.

Apart form all the above, the Tempus program established financial relations between

the EU and the third countries. Funds from the EU were flowing towards the third countries

mainly in the form of mobility grants, while modern and necessary equipment could be

obtained as well43. As a least evidence that these two activities were of fundamental

importance, it is mentioned that the monthly salary of the vice-rector of an academic

institution in Tahskent (Uzbekistan) in the year 2000 was $30 (U.S. dollars) while a ticket

Uzb-Gr-Uzb costed $1000 (U.S. dollars). It is self-evident that if it were not for the Tempus

funding, it was practically impossible for participants from the third countries to come to the

EU. The mobility activities offered a lot because they made it possible for the EU and the third

countries to come closer. At this point, it must be mentioned that at least half of the

participants from partner countries to the EU should be teachers, postgraduate and/or

administrators preferable under 40 years of age when they started their visit to the EU. In

addition, they had to declare their willingness to return to their country and to their home

university / institution, in order to contribute to the further development of higher education44.

40 [7]: pp.3741 [1]:pp.1842 [1]:pp.2243 [1]:pp.24,42,47.44 [1]:pp.43

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As a final action, the EU also introduced the so-called Networking Projects45, where a

group of academic and non-academic institutions were to collaborate for the dissemination of

the best outcomes of various projects. In this way, the EU targeted to a much broader group,

thus extending the EU presence46.

It is true that the Tempus program had multiple purposes and targets. The main idea,

clearly stated to all interested parts, was that 'the higher education institutions are of

particular importance for the social and economic transition process as well as for the

cultural development; they are also pools of expertise and of human resources and provide for

the training of new generations of leaders'.47 Therefore, it was essential for the EU to focus its

efforts on persons of the academic world, because, generally speaking, they are very well

educated, open-minded, not driven by personal gains and they have the possibility to form

generations, since they teach so many students for so many years48.

From all the above, it is clear that the EU, through the Tempus program and other

similar programs, tried to protect itself in a twofold manner. On one hand, the EU tried to stop

the uncontrollable immigration from the former 'Eastern block' countries, while, on the other

hand, the EU tried to enlarge and extend its presence in the global status. A really interesting

aspect to examine is the attitude of the third countries towards the EU, within the framework

of the aforementioned collaboration49.

As it was mentioned before, the former 'Eastern block' countries were not

underdeveloped. On the contrary, they had well-developed and organized structures, which

were based on a different state model. Their universities were famous among the 'Eastern

block', providing their students with a very strong theoretical background. Another point

worth mentioning is the fact that the 'Eastern block' countries participated in 'eastern' programs

that resulted, earlier or later than the 'west', in great technological achievements, like the

helicopter, the airplane, the space-shuttle etc50. On top of that, they were aware of their mineral

wealth. The serious drawback of these countries was the fact that they came out of a falling

system that, until then, did not permit their individual development. On the contrary, these

countries were branches of a larger system; while the system could function if some branches 45 [1]:pp.26,36.46 [5]:pp.1347 [16]:part1-pp.548 [13]: pp.749 [4]:pp.2350 [19]

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would fail, the branches could not survive if the system would fail51. Their position was, and

still is, very difficult and this is the reason why the turned to foreign assistance. This assistance

could be provided only by developed parts, which in this case, due to geographical reasons,

were the EU and Japan. It is true that many NIS, especially the most eastern ones, have

developed strong relations with Japan, while Japan, like the EU, is trying to extend its

influence in the NIS. This fact, in combination with the long history of the NIS and the

potential power of the 'sleeping Chinese giant', gives an interesting perspective to the whole

scene and makes everyone wonder what will happen in the future. While the EU and Japan

have set specific political goals concerning the NIS, the NIS are not willing to become a

province of no-one and have the potential to remain autonomous and become stronger.

5. Conclusions

The EU is an alliance among European countries which have agreed that it is for their

common interest to closely collaborate in all sectors. Not many years ago, the fall of the

former 'Eastern block' found the EU in front of a reality that was a threat and at the same time

it was an opportunity for enlargement. In order to deal with this reality in the most beneficial

way, the EU launched a series of programs, among which the Tempus program, targeting not

only at protecting its existence from the massive immigrations from the 'Eastern block'

countries (then called New Independent States - NIS) but also at gaining new vital allies. The

means for achieving that was mainly by investing money in trying to make the NIS come

closer and even adopt the 'western' (European) way of doing things, through a great many

projects dealing with administration issues, new techniques, purchase of modern equipment,

promotion of human rights and civil liberties and mobility within the EU or the partner

countries (NIS). The efforts of the EU were focused on the higher educational system of the

NIS and were presented as an effort for modernization and adaptation of the NIS towards the

challenges of the new era. The partner countries were most willing to collaborate not because

they were underdeveloped and they desperately needed assistance for their modernization, but

because, due to their previous political status, they were isolated and any aid that could help

them deal with their very difficult economical position was acceptable. The years to come will

prove whether the EU has taken advantage of the NIS for its own benefit, or the NIS have

51 [3]:pp.16

16


successfully played the role of the weak in order to get as much help as they can and, when

become strong enough, try to impose their rules.

17


Appendix A: Statistical data tables52,53,54

Table A1: Tempus key facts

Phare (1990-1997) Tacis (1993-1997) Total

Number of projects funded 14065 460 14535Equipment purchased (Million €) 117.8 9.4 127.2

Mobility flows 125060 12030 137900

Table A2: Tempus expenditure from 1990 to 1997 (in million €)

Phare Tacis

1990 23.2 -1991 70.5 -1992 98.0 -1993 129.2 3.421994 95.9 21.91995 102.3 22.81996 84.5 20.51997 55.05 16.9

T O T A L 658.65 85.52

GRAND TOTAL 744.17

Table A3: Number of Phare and Tacis countries eligible under the Tempus scheme

Phare Tacis

1990 3 -1991 6 -1992 11 -1993 11 41994 11 81995 11 131996 13 131997 13 13

52 [9]: Tempus Tacis, [9]: Tempus Phare]53 [10]: Tempus – Challenges and Achievements54 [6]: pp.2

18


Table A4: Projects funded and budget for each of the Tacis countries (1993-1999)

Pre-JEP JEP CP Budget (Million €)

Armenia 9 3 6 2.808Azerbaijan 4 2 5 2.116Belarus 24 8 4 7.615Georgia 5 5 5 2.585Kazakhstan 19 7 3 5.195Kyrgyzstan 8 2 8 3.056Moldova 9 4 7 3.355Mongolia 7 2 8 2.524Russian Federation 161 96 37 69.114Tajikistan 6 0 0 0.610Turkmenistan 4 0 3 0.640Ukraine 47 35 14 24.506Uzbekistan 13 11 6 6.071

T O T A L 316 175 106

130.195GRAND TOTAL 597

Table A5: Budget for each Phare country (1990-1999)

Budget (Million €) Projects funded

Albania 19.59 69Bulgaria 68.93 289Bosnia and Herzegovina 7.0 26Czech Republic (from 1993 onwards) 36.94 181Estonia 12.13 66Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 6.0 38Hungary 117.9 474Latvia 15.2 66Lithuania 20 79Poland 222.53 731Romania 105.75 345Slovak Republic (from 1993 onwards) 32.68 159Slovenia 16.67 98

GRAND TOTAL 681.32 2621

19


Figure A1: EU Member States involvement in Joint European Projects running in 1997/1998

Figure A2: Subject areas covered by Tempus Tacis projects (1993-1999)

20

14

24

13

13

40

45

14

11

28

0.1

27

13

20

15

61

Austria

Belgium

Denmark

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Portugal

Spain

Sweden

UK

%5.1

21.3

2.5

11

5.4

24.9

11.2

4.8

6.3

2.9

1.9

2.7

Law

Economics and Applied Economics

History

Other Social Sciences

European Studies and InternationalRelationships

University Management

Modern European Languages

Environmental Sciences

Other Applied Sciences

Teacher Training

Tourism and Leisure

Other

%


Figure A3: Su+bject areas covered by the 149 Joint European Projects in Phare countries selected in 1999

21

4.7

0.7

17.4

0.7

7.4

0.7

2

2.7

63

0.7

Social Sciences

Management and Business andAdministration

University Administration and Management

Natural Sciences and Mathematics

Applied Sciences and Technologies (excl.Medical Sciences)

Languages

Interdisciplinary Studies

Education and Teacher Training

Institution Building

Other

%


B I B L I O G R A P HY

[1] ‘Tempus - Guide for applicants - Academic years 2000/01 and 2001/02’, Education Training Youth, European Commission, 2000, ISBN 92-9157-252-7.

[2] ‘Tempus - Tempus Output Promotion - Study No3: Tempus student mobility’, Education Training Youth, European Commission, November 1996.

[3] ‘Tempus - Tempus Output Promotion - Study No4: Impact of Tempus in national reform’, Education Training Youth, European Commission, October 1996.

[4] ‘Tempus - Tempus Output Promotion - Study No5: Mutual benefits of Tempus project partnerships’, Education Training Youth, European Commission, September 1996.

[5] ‘Tempus - TOP Handbook - Sustainability through Dissemination’, Education Training Youth, European Commission, 1997, ISBN 92-9157-047-8.

[6] ‘Tempus - Programme in Albania 1992 – 2000’, European Commission, DG Education and Culture, Albanian Tempus Office.

[7] ‘Good Practice for International Relations Offices’, Interuniversity Conference for Agricultural and Related Sciences in Europe (IROICA), 1999.

[8] ‘Tempus - Programme of cooperation in higher education between EU, PHARE and TACIS countries’, Education Training Youth, European Commission, 1998, ISBN 92-828-1344-4.

[9] ‘TEMPUS III: General Information, new features and presentation of the new Guide for Applicants 2000/01 - 2000/02’, Brender R., Tempus Information Day, TEI Iraklion, Crete, October 2000.

[10] ‘Tempus - Challenges and achievements’, Athanassopoulos P, Tempus Information Day, Patras, March 2001.

[11] ‘Tempus in the Western Balkans’, http://www.etf.eu.int/tempus.nsf.[12] ‘Tempus Accession Study’, http://www.etf.eu.int/tempus.nsf.[13] ‘Tempus@10’, http://www.etf.eu.int/tempus.nsf.[14] http://europa.eu.int/abc/history/index_en.htm[15] http://europa.eu.int/comm/publications/booklets/eu_glance/12/txt_en.htm[16] ‘Tempus Guide for applicants – General Information’, http://www.etf.eu.int/tempus.nsf[17] http://www.cipe.org/about/report/1998/newips_1.htm[18] ‘The Problem of Immigration and the European Union’, Terri Smith

http://www.totse.com/en/politics/the_world_beyond_the_usa/162504.html[19] ‘Soviets planning new achievements in space, U.S. experts believe’, Wilford John, 1986,

http://www.chron.com/content/interactive/space/missions/mir/news/1986/19860407.htm[20] ‘Tempus Guide for applicants– Guide lines and forms’, http://www.etf.eu.int/tempus.nsf

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http://www.etf.eu.int/tempus.nsf

http://www.totse.com/en/politics/the_world_beyond_the_usa/162504.html


http://europa.eu.int/comm/publications/booklets/eu_glance/12/txt_en.htm

http://europa.eu.int/abc/history/index_en.htm


THE TEMPUS PROGRAM EU

Education

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