The study of sounds

The sounds of spoken English do not match up, a lot of the time, with letters of written English. If we cannot use the letters of the alphabet in a consistent way to represent the sounds we make, how do we go about describing the

sounds of a language like English ?One solution is to produce a separate alphabet with symbols that represent sounds. Such a set of symbols is called the phonetic alphabet .

In this chapter, we will look at howthese symbols are used to represent both the consonant and vowel sounds of Englishwords and what physical aspects of the human vocal tract are involved in the productionof those sounds.

Phonetics :The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds .

Articulatory phonetics: is the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated .

Acoustic phonetics: Deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.

Auditory phonetics (or perceptual phonetics) deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.

Voiced and voiceless sounds:Voiced sounds are produced when the vocal cords vibrate, while voiceless sounds are produced when the vocal cords do not vibrate

Examples:Jut put a finger in each ear, not too far, and then produce the sounds S-S-S-S or F-F-F-F. Because these are voiceless sounds, thereshould be no vibration. Keeping your fingertip in the same position, then produce sounds such as Z-Z-Z-Z or V-V-V-V. Because these are voiced sounds, you should be able to feel some

vibration,.

Place of articulation: The location inside the mouth at which the constriction of the oral cavity takes place while the air is passing

through the mouth. Most consonant sounds are produced by using

the tongue and other parts of the mouth. t is.,

To describe the place of articulation of most consonant sounds, we can start at the frontof the mouth and work back. We can also keep the voiced–voiceless distinction inmind and begin using the symbols of the phonetic alphabet for specific sounds

BilabialsThese are sounds formed using both upper and lower

lips .Examples:

The sounds at the beginning of pat, bat and mat are all bilabials. They are represented by thesymbols [p], which is voiceless, and [b] and [m], which are voiced. We can alsodescribe the [w] sound found at the beginning of way, walk and world as a bilabial

LabiodentalsThese are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip. The sounds at the beginning of

fat and vat and the final sounds in the words safe and save are labiodentals.

They are represented by the symbols [f], which is voiceless, and [v], which is voiced.

Notice that the final sound in the word cough, and the initial sound in photo are both pronounced as [f].

DentalsThese sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. The initialsound of thin and the final sound of bath are both voiceless dentals. The symbol used for this sound is [θ]The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [ð]. This soundis found in the pronunciation of the initial sound of the, there, then and thus. It is also the middle consonant sound in feather and the final sound of bathe.

The term “interdentals” is sometimes used for these consonants when they arepronounced with the tongue tip between (= inter) the upper and lower teeth.

AlveolarsThese are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge

immediately behind and above the upper teeth .The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo and nut are all alveolars. The symbols for these sounds are [t], [d], [s], [z], [n]. Of these, [t] and [s] are voiceless whereas [d],[z] and [n] are voiced.

Other alveolars are the [l] sound found at the beginning of words such as lap and lit,and the [r] sound at the beginning of right and write.

PalatalsSounds produced with the tongue and the

palate are called palatals (or alveo-palatals) .Examples of palatals are the initial sounds in the words shout and child, which are both voiceless. The “sh” sound is represented as [ʃ]

and the “ch” sound is represented as [ʧ] .

One of the voiced palatals, represented by the symbol [ʒ], is not very common in English, but can be found as the middle consonant sound in words like treasure and pleasure, or the final sound in rouge. The other voiced palatal is [ʤ], which is the initial sound in words like joke and gem. The word judge and the name George both begin and end with the sound [ʤ] despite the obvious differences in spelling.

One other voiced palatal is the [j] sound used at the beginning of words like you and yet.

VelarsSounds produced with the back of the tongue against the velum(soft palate) are called velars. There is a voiceless velar sound, represented by the symbol [k], which occurs not only in kid and kill, but is also

the initial sound in car and cold .The voiced velar sound heard at the beginning of words like go, gun and give is represented by [ɡ]. This is also the final sound in words like bag, mug and, despite the spelling, plague.

The velum can be lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity and thereby produce another voiced velar, represented by the symbol [ŋ]. In written English, this sound is normally spelled as the two letters “ng.” So,

the [ŋ] sound is at the end of sing, sang and, despite the spelling, tongue. It occurs twice

in the form ringing .

GlottalsThere is one sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts ofthe mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the beginning of have and house and, formost speakers, as the first sound in who and whose. This sound is usually described as a

voiceless glottal .

The “glottis” is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx. When the glottis is open, as in the production of other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipulationof the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by [h].

Manner of articulation

So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. We can also describe the same sounds in terms of how they are articulated.

Such a description is necessary if we want to be able to differentiate between some soundswhich, in the preceding discussion, we have

placed in the same category .

For example, we can say that [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in their manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called fricatives

StopsOf the sounds we have already mentioned, the set [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [ɡ] are all produced by some form of “stopping” of the air stream

(very briefly) then letting it go abruptly .This type of consonant sound, resulting from a blocking or stopping effect on the air stream,

is called a stop (or a “plosive”) .

A full description of the [t] sound at thebeginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop. In some discussions, onlythe manner of articulation is mentioned, as when it is said that the word bed, forexample, begins and ends with voiced stops.

FricativesThe manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ] involves almost blocking the air stream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting

sounds are called fricatives .

If you put your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out.

The usual pronunciation of the word fish beginsand ends with the voiceless fricatives [f] and [ʃ]. The word those begins and ends withthe voiced fricatives [ð] and [z].

The sound [h], as in Hi or Hello, is voiceless and also usually included in the set of fricatives.

AffricatesIf you combine a brief stopping of the air stream with an obstructed release whichcauses some friction, you will be able to produce the sounds [ʧ] and [ʤ]. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words cheap and jeep. In the first ofthese, there is a voiceless affricate [ʧ], and in the second, a voiced affricate [ʤ].

NasalsMost sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the air stream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m], [n] and [ŋ], the sounds are described as nasals. These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning, knitting and name begin and end with nasals.

LiquidsThe initial sounds in led and red are described as liquids. They are both voiced. The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the air stream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge.

GlidesThe sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur at thebeginning of we, wet, you and yes. These sounds are typically produced with the tonguein motion (or “gliding”) to or from the position of a vowel and are sometimes calledsemi-vowels

Glottal stopsThere are two common terms used to describe ways of pronouncing consonants:

The glottal stop, represented by the symbol [ʔ], occurs when the space between the vocal cords (the glottis) is closed completely , then

released .•Try saying the expression Oh oh!. Between the first Oh and the second

oh we typically produce a glottal stop. Others put one in place of “t” when they pronounce Batman quickly .

You can also produce a glottal stop if you try to say the words butter or bottle without pronouncing the “-tt-” part in themiddle. This sound is considered to be characteristic of Cockney (London)

speech .Try saying the name Harry Potter as if it didn’t have the “H” or the “tt.)”.

flaps

If, however, you are someone who pronounces the word butter in a way that is close to “budder,” then you are making a flap. It is represented by [D] or sometimes [ɾ]. This sound is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar

ridge briefly .Many American English speakers have a tendency to “flap” the [t] and [d] consonants between vowels so that, in casual speech, the pairs latter and ladder do not have distinct middle consonants. Nor do writer and rider, metal and medal. They all have flaps. The student who was told about the importance of Plato in class and wrote it in his notes as playdough was clearly a victim of a misinterpreted flap

This rather lengthy list of the phonetic features of English consonant sounds is not presented as a challenge to your ability to memorize a lot of terminology and symbols. It is presented as an illustration of how a thorough description of the physical aspects of speech production will allow us to characterize the sounds of spoken English, independently of the vagaries

of spelling found in written English .

There are, however, some sounds that we have not yet investigated. These are the types of sounds known as vowels and diphthongs.

Vowels

While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or obstruction in thevocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air. They are alltypically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which the tongueinfluences the shape through which the airflow

must pass .

To talk about a place of articulation, we think of the space inside the mouth as having a front versus a back and a high versus a low area. Thus, in the pronunciation of heat and hit, we talk about “high, front” vowels because the sound is made with the front part of the tongue in a raised position.

In contrast, the vowel sound in hat is produced with the tongue in a lower position and the sound in hot can be

described as a “low, back” vowel .The next time you’re facing the bathroom mirror, try saying the words heat, hit, hat, hot. For the first two, your mouth will stay fairly closed, but for the last two, your tongue will move lower

and cause your mouth to open wider .(The sounds of relaxation and pleasure typically

contain lower vowels).

Diphthongs

Diphthongs: a combination of two vowel sounds. When we produce, diphthongs our vocal organs move from one vocalic position [a] to another [ɪ] as we produce the sound [aɪ], as in Hi or Bye. The movement in this diphthong is from low towards high front

Alternatively, we can use movement from low towards high back, combining [a] and [ʊ] to produce the sound [aʊ], which is the diphthong repeated in the traditional speech In some descriptions, the movement is interpreted as involving a glide such as [j] or [w], so that the diphthongs we are representing as [aɪ] and [aʊ] may sometimes be seen as [aj] or [aw].training exercise [haʊ naʊ braʊn kaʊ].

Subtle individual variation

Vowel sounds are notorious for varying between one variety of English and the next, often being a key element in what we recognize as different accents. Some of the sound distinctions shown here may not even be used regularly in your own speech. It may be, for example, that you make no distinction between the vowels in the words caught and cot and use [ɑ] in both. You may also be used to seeing the vowel sound of pet represented as [e] in dictionaries rather than with [ɛ] as used here.

You may not make a significant distinction between the central vowels [ə], called “schwa,” and [ʌ], called “wedge.” If you’re trying to transcribe, just

use schwa [ə] .In fact, in casual speech, we all use schwa more than any other single sound. It is the unstressed vowel (underlined) in the everyday use of words such as afford, collapse,

photograph, wanted, and in those very common words a and the.

There are many other variations in the actual physical articulation of the sounds wehave considered here. The more we focus on the subtle differences in the actualarticulation of each sound, the more likely we are to find ourselves describing thepronunciation of small groups or even individual

speakers .

Such subtle differences enable us to identify individual voices and recognize people we know as soon as they speak. But those differences don’t help us understand how we are able to work out what total strangers with

unfamiliar voices are saying .

We are clearly able to disregard all the subtle individual variation in the phonetic detail of voices and recognize each underlying sound type as part of a word with a particular meaning. To make sense of how we do that, we need to look at the more general sound patterns, or the phonology, of a language.