The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
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Transcript of The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu
Valley
Padma Sunder JoshiJuly 2004
Historical backdrops
Planning interventions of the past:
Urban growth and land usePopulation
Economic activities and Land Use
Transportation and other infrastructures
The Urban Planning IssuesThe containment issue: urban-rural boundary
Increasing residential densities in the city
Urban decay, the issue of out-migration
De-concentration of economic functions
Transport corridors
Transportation Planning Issues and InterventionsIssues, barriers and opportunities
Options to embark on the transportation issues
Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Annexes
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
P S Joshi 2
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu
Valley
Padma Sunder Joshi
Historical backdrop
The formal human settlement of Kathmandu Valley goes back to long before Christian era.
Historians agree on the trade function of Kathmandu Valley even from 7 th Century BC to 2nd
Century AD during the Kirat period. Nepal, the original name of Kathmandu Valley was
mentioned in the Kautilya Arthashastra for the export of woolen products. Lanjagvala (present
Lagan), Yambi (present Indrachowk), and Jama (present Jamal) are the first urban settlements of
Kirata in Kathmandu and many others like Khopring (present Bhaktapur) and Patan in the valley
floor, which are further expanded by their successor Lichachhavis (Annex 1). Gunakamdev, in the
11th century reorganized and settled the Kathmandu settlement in the shape of sword of Goddess
Mahalaxmi with 33 Toles encompassing 18000 houses (CDR, 2001). Mallas, their successor
moved their capital to Bhaktapur. Kathmandu still played important role of trade and commerce.
Mallas added grid iron pattern to the radial pattern of Lichachhavi settlements and made it more
compact.
Besides Indo-Tibet trade route, Kathmandu
Valley was blessed with very fertile soil. From
the land use view point, Mallas (and their
predecessors) followed unique concentric
circles in their land management. Keeping
their tantric belief and ecological balance,
their settlements are roughly a three concentric
circles. The humane domain at the centre is
encircled by agricultural domain and
surrounded by divine domain of natural
resources. They left all flood plains for
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Devine domain
Agricultural domainHumane
domain
Fig. 1 Concentric Pattern of Human Settlements in Ancient
Kathmandu
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
agriculture limiting the human settlements to Tar lands. Within human settlements the palace was
kept at the centre surrounded by the elites and followed to lower castes outward. These land use
gave birth to a unique cultural setting of community harmony. Except sleeping and eating almost
all activities and rituals of that time were shared in common places like courtyards, Bahals, Bahi
and other open spaces. There were basically four hierarchies of open spaces and similar four
street levels developed with various scale of functionalities.
Numerous satellite towns like Chapagaon, Pharping, Kirtipur, Thimi, Lubhu, Harisiddhi, Tokha,
Dharmasthali, Sankhu, etc. emerged either to serve the trade route or to deliver auxiliary services
to the three major towns of the valley. The intensive agriculture practices in the fertile valley soil,
trade and commerce based on basically Indo-Tibet trade route, non-agriculture productions,
cumulatively gave the urban character to the valley from the beginning. Thus the major towns of
the valley viz. Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur; and to some extent the satellite towns grew as
the early urban centers of Nepal.
After the unification of Nepal in 1968, the Shah Kings continued Kathmandu as the capital of
new unified Nepal. Migration of Parbate people slowly and gradually occupied foot hill fertile
lands while civil servants, soldiers and other migrants start occupying periphery of the old
settlements like Chettrapati, Thamel and Sundhara areas. During the Rana regime, huge palatial
buildings has encroached the fertile plains destroying the concentric concept of settlements. Their
aids started residing to the vicinity of these palaces. Areas like Thapathali, Lazimpat, Naxal,
Dillibazaar, Ravi Bhawan, and Sanepa are some of the first urban sprawl thus emerged. The Indo-
Tibet trade collapsed after the construction of Kalingpong road in India.
After 1950 the country was open to the world. Being the capital city, Kathmandu attracted people
from all walks of life, mainly after 1960 when it was linked with roadways and air links with rest
of the country. Government employment, education and health facilities, trade and commerce,
tourism and industries were the attractions to Kathmandu which is ever increasing even today.
Addition of several new roadways like Arniko Highway, Prithvi Highway, Trishuli Road, and
several other collector roads have further attracted people to Kathmandu in search of
employments and opportunities. Thus, due to urban sprawl and the vicinity of Kathmandu and
Lalitpur, Greater Kathmandu emerged by the end of the 60s.
Planning interventions of the past:
There were several studies conducted to address the planning need of Kathmandu Valley in the
past. Unfortunately, most of these studies were limited to book selves, suggested plans became
mere academic exercise and some fortunate attempts invalidated in the lack of
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The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
comprehensiveness otherwise limited to very local benefits. Including the comprehensive plan of
1969 called Kathmandu Valley Physical Development Plan, at least a dozen major studies and
plans were prepared for the betterment of the valley.
With the support of UN, Kathmandu Valley Physical Development Plan, PDPKV (1969) was
prepared. The main thrust of this plan was to control possible urban sprawls, develop compact
settlements in Tar lands and protecting agricultural land. A land use zoning proposed by the study
(fig. 2 and Annex 7) targeting limiting
population density in city core up to 330
ppha while that for urban fringes (Zone B)
is 150 ppha and 120 to 145 ppha for
proposed new expansions (Zone C). Very
few of the recommendations of the plan
are implemented.
Following the recommendations of 1969
study, land use plan 1976 was introduced
along with a regional implementation
body called Kathmandu Valley Town
Development Committee, KVTDC after
seven years. It introduced several land use
regulations and bye-laws which are still
valid though bit outdated in many
contexts. Political and bureaucratic
interventions in the planning, conflicting
role of the committee and the local bodies
are major causes of its limited success in
the implementation of the plan. Three new
studies followed in 1984, 1986, and 1988.
The Kathmandu Valley Town Planning
Team prepared Kathmandu Valley
Physical Development Concept for the
valley. The team revised the building bye-
laws and producing land use zoning within
the ring road. Unfortunately, the concept
was never formalized (KVTDC, 2002).
The next study was Kathmandu Valley Urban Policy Study, 1986. The policies recommended
by this study made by PADCO/USAID were not followed except few. To address rapid
encroachment of the flood plains of Bagmati, Dhobikhola and Bishnumanti, the third study was
carried out in the name of Urban Development and Conservation Scheme for Greater
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Fig. 2 Source: PDPKV 1969
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Kathmandu in 1988. In the absence of strong implementation mechanism, huge pressure from
political and local fronts, the intended green corridor approach of river fronts were compromised
to almost nothing. However, this initiation started two new land improvement tools, viz. guided
land development (GLD) and land pooling. The former was instrumental in opening some of the
inner accesses which otherwise would have been never possible; though was an aspirin to the
slum-like urban sprawls. Lack of political commitment and weak governance, GLD ended with
compromises.
A comprehensive study was carried out in 1991 with ADB assistance. The Kathmandu Valley
Urban Development Plans and Programs, KVUDPP, the strategic plan prepared by Halcrow
Fox and Associates, once again advocated densifying the then existing urban sprawls while
allocating some room for future development. Recognizing the weak implementation capabilities
in the past, the study suggested to continue prevailing trends of development with minimum
(necessary) intervention only (KVUDPP, 1991). The fate of this strategic plan also followed its
predecessor as most of its strategies were not translated into doable plans except Kathmandu
Urban Development Project (1994-99). The impact of the project was lost in the downpour of
uncontrolled urbanization. Most of the later studies and policies seem to be guided by this
comprehensive plan.
JICA in 1993 initiate an extensive study of the road and transportation system for the valley
following KVUDPP. This transport study called The Study on Kathmandu Valley Urban Road
Development (1993) is the most intensive study so far prepared looking after the transportation
need of the valley until 2015. Following the guidelines of KVUDPP, it suggested several
scenarios supporting urban planning in the valley. Addition of Bagmati Bridge at Thapathali,
rehabilitating several bridges in the inner roads of Kathmandu, and several road junction
improvements; are some of the projects identified in this study that are implemented. The projects
identified by this study and their present conditions are presented in Annex 4 and 5.
Looking from ecological side, the argument of containment was further carried by the
IUCN/HMGN study called Regulating Growth: Kathmandu Valley (1995). The same report
was produced in the name of Environmental Planning and Management of the Kathmandu
Valley in 1999. Like its predecessors, this report had a usefulness limited to a good reference
book for the planning of Kathmandu Valley.
There are two more important studies carried out until today. Standing on the Local Self-
Governance Act (1999) (LSGA), Kathmandu Metropolitan City prepared City Development
Strategy (CDS) in 2001. This strategic document was prepared in reference with the earlier plans
and participation of its stakeholders. With the report of CDS, Kathmandu Metropolitan City, one
of the major local authorities of the valley posed itself in the scene of planning for the first time.
On the other hand, frustrated with the uncontrolled urbanization, yet challenged by decentralized
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The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
governance put forth by the LSGA, the Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee tried
to search their reasons of presence in the scene. There is a strong demand of regional body to
supervise and monitor urban development in the valley, which can not be addressed by one or all
of the local bodies, even they intended to. Here came the Development Plan 2020 of the
Kathmandu Valley. With the obvious disagreements of the local bodies, the plan was approved
by the government on 29 July, 2002. In the absence of the parliament and given political crisis in
the country, further institutional apparatus has not yet been formed for the implementation of the
plan even after two years of its adaptation.
Reiterating the containment of urban sprawl as suggested in 1969 physical plan and further in
succeeding reports and plans (including KVUDPP, 1991) and the serious concern for the
preservation of agricultural land as suggested in Regulating Growth study of IUCN in 1995, this
development plan primarily suggest urban containment policy. The basic flaw in the plan is not
the content but again the contradictions to the institutional and governance setup which is
expected to be more pronounced once the local bodies and parliament are in place.
From the above discussions it may be concluded that the strategic planning has been very much
exercised for the valley. However, there are two prongs of limitations to materialize the strategic
plans. First, there is an absence of doable plans that are detailed-out based on the proposed
strategies. Strategies and policies by nature are vague. Misinterpretation, misleading and
compromises are equally possible if these are not chiseled out into development plans and
programs. In 1998 Kathmandu Valley Mapping Program (1998-2003) was introduced by
Kathmandu Metropolitan City with the support of European Union as an urban development
project for the metropolitan area. Several sectoral projects were detailed out under the program
like Central Sector Development Plan, Eastern Sector Development Plan, North Sector
Development Plan1, etc. Implementation on all or any of these plans would contribute to the
improvement of the valley, which unfortunately, is not owned by respective departments of the
government, neither the frequently changing leaderships of the metropolitan city. Land use map
and development control maps, building regulations and bye laws have been prepared for KMC.
The exercise can be further extended to rest of the valley.
The second limitation, and perhaps more important than the previous one, is to make the local
and national level politicians to understand why containment policy is so important, and what are
the repercussions that the city has to bear if it is not followed. Regrettably, this is perhaps not
possible in the present context of ‘decentralized governance’ in Nepal where political leaders
(local and national, both) are still in the process of maturity in understanding their responsibilities
in the broader context.
1 For better urban management Kathmandu Metropolitan City has divided the metropolitan area into five sectors. KVMP has completed three development plans of the five. There are other plans like traffic management plan, drainage improvement plan, tourism promotion plan, Dhobikhola Corridor development plan, etc.
P S Joshi 7
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
If these two constrains are recognized in the true sense, appropriate implementation mechanism
can be brought in. Acknowledging Kathmandu Valley as an ecological unit, their problems (and
thus the solutions) are inter-related and inter dependent. A valley wide political and institutional
apparatus is needed to treat the ailment and to progress. The leadership, however, should be given
to the valley, autonomous from the central government.
Urban growth and land use
Population:
Kathmandu was always an attraction to the migrant population, however, the growth rate
drastically changed only after 1981. The growth rate of the valley was 2.14 in 1961~71 jumped to
2.29 in 1971~81, followed by 3.95 in 1981~91. More interesting is the urban growth. The growth
rate of 3.76% of 1971~81 of the urban population leap to 5.91% in 1981~91. It however reduced
to 4.09% in 1991~2001 when only municipal populations are considered as urban. The urban
sprawl crossed the Ring Road in this decade and expanded to more than two dozens of adjoining
and major road linked VDCs. Considering 20 VDCs with annual population growth rate greater
than 4%, the urban population growth marks 6.03%. In these 20 VDCs, the population was 93927
in 1991 which jumped by more than double to 21461 with growth rate of 8.24% in average. The
heavy weights among them are Dhapashi (10.33%), Kapan (12.12%), Jorpati (13.41%), and
Gongabu (13.46%) (all northern Kathmandu VDCs) according to the Census 2001. Due to the
engulfment of rural area into urban sprawls, the rural population even showed negative by -3.12%
suggesting the robust urban expansion in lateral direction (refer Annex 2).
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Table 1. Growth of Population in Kathmandu Valley
Census year Total Urban Rural1920 306909 -
1952/54 410995 196777 2142181961 459990 218092 2418981971 618911 249563 3693481981 766345 363507 4028381991 1105379 598528 5068512001 1581234 995966 585268
2001* 1581234 1210127 371107* Urban population including urbanizing VDCs with annual popln. growth rate >4%
Source: IUCN, 1999 and CBS, 2001
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
The rate of population increase in municipalities, especially in large municipalities like
Kathmandu and Lalitpur are showing declining rate (ref. Table 2) partly due to the filling
of the area. The city of Kathmandu is even showing negative population growth in some
of its core wards, suggesting an early sign of urban decay. Out of its 35 wards 12 wards
are having population growth rate -3 ~ 0%, 13 wards having 0 ~4%, 9 wards having
4~7% and 5 wards having growth rate greater than 7%.
Table 2. Population Growth Rate of the Municipalities of Kathmandu Valley
Year
Kathmandu M.
Lalitpur M. Bhaktapur M. Madhyapur M.
Kirtipur M.
Popln.
GRate%
Popln.
GRate%
Popln.
GRate%
Popln.
GRate%
Popln.
GRate%
1971
150402
59049
40112
20640
20814
1981
235160
4.47 79875
3.02 48472
1.89 26076
2.34 24406
1.59
1991
421258
5.83 115865
3.72 61405
2.37 31970
2.04 31338
2.50
2001
671846
4.67 162991
3.41 72543
1.67 47751
4.01 40835
2.65
Data source: CBS
The gross population density, an important indicator, showed that Kathmandu Metropolitan City,
with its highest score in 2001 from 84 to 135 ppha followed by Bhaktapur from 97 to 114 ppha,
and Lalitpur from 76 to 107 ppha It is worthwhile to note that in the same period Jorpati VDC
increased the density from 15 to 58 ppha with 387% increase in a decade. Gongabu saw 380%
and Kapan 330%. While guided by the urban containment policy, it is important to note the
optimal and desirable population densities in Kathmandu. At present, with in the municipal
boundaries of Kathmandu Metropolitan City, the city core scored the highest density of 578
reduced from 613 from 1991. In rest of the sectors, the densities are still far from expected.
Development Plan 2020 suggests to have optimal population density of 500 ppha and at least 300
ppha would be the target (KVTDC, 2000)
Table 3. Population and Densities in the Sectors of Kathmandu Metropolitan City
1991 2000Sectors of KMC KMC
WardsArea Sq KM
Popln.
1991
Popln. Density of the sector ppha
Popln.
2001
Popln. Density of the sector ppha
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The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Kathmandu City Core
12,17 - 28,30
2.75 115614
613 116885
578
Kathmandu City Centre
1,5,11,31 - 33
6.86 72425
114 99502
156
Kathmandu East Sector
6-10, 34,35
18.61
106896
69 224840
133
Kathmandu North Sector
2 - 4, 16, 29
13.77
79312
69 133969
109
Kathmandu West Sector
13,14,15 9.03 52798
60 96650
110
Own calculation, Source data: CBS, 1991, 2001
The population projections made by various studies are presented in Table 4. It shows that the
reality has crossed the projections made by KVUDPP in 1991. Although, the population growth
projected by IUCN in its study report of Regulating Growth is conservative, the urban/rural
distributions of all the studies are left far behind by the actual growth pattern. The projected
urban/rural ratio by Development Plan 2020 for 2021 is already crossed in 2001. It is important
that the decision makers hear these wakeup calls, which however is already delayed for
response.
Table 4. Projected Population of Kathmandu Valley from Various Studies
Report Year 2000 2001 2006 2011 2015 2016 2021 2031Actual (CBS, 2001)
Urban 1210127
% 77 Rural 37110
7
% 23 Total 15812
34
KVUDPP
Urban 683145
1126912
% 56 61 Rural 54442
2 73272
0
% 44 39 Total 12275
67 18596
32
Regulating
Growth
Urban 1071872
1434407
1919560
2568805
% 63 67 71 74 Rural 63750
871497
180184
6 89927
7
% 37 33 29 26
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The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Total 1709380
2149378
2721406
3468082
Development Plan 2020
Urban 1046186
1442762
1968904
2661700
% 67 71 76 80Rural 52549
8 57764
2 62833
467706
0% 33 29 24 20Total 15716
84 20204
04 25972
3833387
60Data Sources: CBS, 2001; KVUDPP, 1991; IUCN,1999; KVTDC 2002
Economic activities and Land Use:
The pace of recent urban growth in the valley geared up only after the 1980s. Even until 1981 the
three fourth of the population of Kathmandu Valley were primarily dependent on agriculture
(CBS, 1981). In 1991 this dominant share of agriculture reduced to even just slightly above one
third of the then population. It was further declined to less than 30% in 2001 (refer Fig. 3). The
jump of population from agriculture to non-agriculture is mainly due to the migrant population
based on non-agriculture economy, loss of agriculture land to urban expansions, and attraction of
local population to non-agricultural activities leaving agriculture as supplementary in real
household income. Within urban areas, the population overwhelmingly relying on non-
agricultural income went as low as 3% (Subba, 2003 cf CBS 1997). The boom of carpet and
garment industries in the 90s was one of the major rural population pull towards the valley. In
2001, the employment share of secondary manufacturing sector grew to 19.9% while that of the
tertiary service sector (including retail, hotel, transportation, finance, real estate, personal and
community services, etc.) went even as high as 51.4% (Subba, 2003).
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The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
The shift may be attributed to the economic liberalization policy of the government where
remarkable increase was observed in the number of financial institutions, trade and commerce,
and hotel and tourism industries. Mushrooming of educational institutions- private schools and
colleges, private hospitals and nursing homes; are the other driving forces that attracted more
migrants to the valley. Majority of the colleges of Pokhara University and Purwanchal University
are established in Kathmandu against the intent of their establishment to decentralize the higher
education opportunities to western and eastern part of the country, respectively.
Recent insurgency in the country has further pushed the rural population to the valley in the quest
of safety, security and opportunities. In the land market it was observed that the boom period of
1991~95 slacked after 1996 till 1999. The insurgency may be the driving force which once again
triggered the market after 2000. One of the important sources of such investment was remittance
which could float the economy even after the downturn due to the political instability (Subba,
2003). These economic dynamics have a sure impact on the land use. The prime agricultural land
P S Joshi 12
Fig. 3 Economically Active Population (EAP) of the KV by Industrial Category in different
Census Years
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
AGR M&Q MAF EGW CON COM T&C FBS PCS ONS
Industrial Category
Per
cen
tag
e
1981 (EAP 330,713) 1991 (EAP 403635) 2001 (EAP 663105)
AGR: Agriculture, forestry and fishing, M&Q: Mining and Quarrying, MAF: Manufacturing, EGW: Electricity, Gas and Water, CON: Construction, Com: Commerce (wholesale, retail, hotel, restaurants), T&C: Transportation and Communication; FBS: Finance, Real estate, Rental and Business Service, PCS: Personal and Community service, ONS: Others, Not stated.
Source: Subba, 2003
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
is deep penetrated into even more than three kilometers from ring road for non-agricultural
purposes, primarily residential. Shifting of large schools and colleges to the hinterland has
certainly attracted more people to these urban sprawls. With the rise of financial institutions,
housing loan is one more
significant factor that has
helped to increase the
land market in the later
years of the period. One
of the recent study
showed that the number
of construction permit
taken in Jorpati, Kapan
and Gongabu VDCs in
the second half of 2003
was 289, 192, and 107
respectively. Jorpati
VDC alone housed 702
houses in 18 months
from 2002 July to 2003
December2.
The conspicuous change
in the landscape of
Kathmandu Valley
shows the pace of
urbanization at the cost
of prime agricultural
land. The resource value
based land management
concept of the valley
was given up long time back by the rulers. PDPKV in 1969 already saw the possible
consequences of urban sprawl. Thus the main thrust of all the studies suggested for the urban
containment directly or indirectly. However, very few and weak initiatives were taken until now.
64% of the total land in 1984 was under agriculture (Annex 7). It declined to 52% in 1994 and
further dropped to less than 42% in 2000. Conversely, non-agriculture land expanded to 27.6% in
2000 from just 5.6% in 1984, following 15.2% in 1994. Kathmandu valley observed per annum
750+ ha of land conversion to urban use between 1984 and 1994 which jumped to 950+ ha
between 1994 and 2000 (KVTDC, 2002). Thus the starfish shaped urban sprawl already crossed
the border of the ring road (Fig 4). Table 5 shows the land use trend of the Kathmandu Valley.
2 Field survey
P S Joshi 13
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Table 5. Land Use Trend of the Kathmandu Valley3
SN Land Use Area in ha for years1984 % 1994 % 2000 %
1 Agriculture 40,950.3
64.0
33,308.3
52.1
27,570.0
41.40
2 Forest 19,438.7
30.4
20,945.2
32.7
20,677.0
31.00
3 Non-agriculture 3,574.7
5.6 9,710.2
15.2
18,408.0
27.60
3.1 Urban use (3,095.5)
4.8 (8,377.6)
(6,915.0)
10.40
3.1.1
Residential 3,510.1
4,829.0
7.30
3.1.2
Mixed residential/commerci
al
4,670.5
423.0
0.60
3.1.3
Commercial na 19.0
0.03
3.1.4
Industrial 197.0 210.0
0.32
3.1.5
Institutional na 518.0
0.77
3.1.6
Military na 150.0
0.23
3.1.7
Public utilities na 28.0
0.04
3.1.8
Transportation na 310.0
0.47
3.1.9
Special area na 272.0
0.41
3.1.10
Recreational/open space
na 156.0
0.23
3.2 Rural area (10997.0)
16.50
3.2.1
Residential na 2,592.7
3.2.2
Rural settlement na 8,404.3
3.3 Water bodies
3 Note: there are some discrepancies in the numbers of the table which however is as presented in the source document.
P S Joshi 14
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
479.2 582.5 496.0 3.4 Others (abandoned
land, airport, pond, etc.)
750.1
Total 63,963.7
63,963.7
66,655.0
100.00
Source: KVTDC, 2002
The government after 1976 initiated to intervene with planned land development packages like
site and service development and land pooling. After the completion of first land development
project of Kuleshwor, all other projects were either initiated or converted to land pooling project
for perhaps in the ground of social justice. In the earlier years land development projects had to
face sever opposition from the affected (or beneficiary) people due to elongated project period,
low confidence towards the government projects, and lack of successful examples of such
projects. Until today,
251.7 ha of land has
been developed under
13 land development
projects. There are six
more projects under
implementation
covering additional
446.5 ha (Annex 6).
How encouraging may
be the result of these
projects, they have
nominal contribution to
the size of land market
of the valley.
Transportation
and other
infrastructures:
The radial pattern of
urban roads in
Kathmandu is
connected by the ring
P S Joshi 15
Table 6. Road Length in Three Districts of Kathmandu Valley* (KM)
Classification
District Blacktopped
Gravelled
Earthen
Total
National Highway
Lalitpur 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Bhaktapur
14.12 0.00 0.00 14.12
Kathmandu
18.85 0.00 0.00 18.85
Feeder Road
(Major)
Lalitpur 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Bhaktapur
23.00 0.00 0.00 23.00
Kathmandu
17.05 0.00 0.00 17.05
Feeder Road
(Minor)
Lalitpur 25.00 8.57 0.24 33.81Bhaktapur
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Kathmandu
41.19 0.00 0.00 41.19
District Road
Lalitpur 34.00 39.90 121.40
195.30
Bhaktapur
25.50 42.50 46.00 114.00
Kathmandu
82.70 104.96
105.93
293.59
Urban Road
Lalitpur 84.00 16.00 8.00 108.00
Bhaktapur
20.00 8.00 2.00 30.00
Kathmandu
339.50
70.65 32.00 442.15
724.91
290.58
315.57
1331.06
*The length of road in Kathmandu Valley will be slightly less that the total of the three districts. Source: DoR, 2001
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
road outside Greater Kathmandu. These roads are either linking the rural settlements or the
historic satellite towns. In last two decades some urban roads are added under GLD program of
KVTDC. These roads, however serve not more than a local access with few exceptions. The
various road types and its corresponding lengths are given in Table 6. The average road density of
the valley is slightly above 14m per hectare, which amounts the road surface area to tentatively
5~6% of the net developable land (KVTDC, 2002). Except Tundikhel corridor, road linking
Kathmandu and Lagankhel, Ramshah Path, Madan Bhandari Path (the airport road), Ganesh Man
Singh Path (Teku road) and the ring road; all other roads are less than two lanes or two lanes.
JICA in 1993 estimated that almost 80% of the roads in Kathmandu Valley are of one lane. In the
absence of urban road standard and its management regulations, the capacities of these narrow
roads are further deteriorated with improper geometry and uncontrolled connections. Traffic
behavior is yet another major cause of congestion in Kathmandu Valley. It is worthwhile to note
that the intersections in the road network, rather than the road sections itself are largely
determining the road system capacity constraint.
Mode of transportation in the valley is very much assorted. Of the total fleet in the streets of
Kathmandu, 66% is occupied by motorcycles, 24% by private car and jeeps while the bus,
minibus and three wheelers occupy only 5% of the total4. High number of low occupancy
vehicles like motorbikes do not resemble with the traffic space constraints faced by Kathmandu
Valley.
Table 7. Year-wise Vehicle Population in Bagmati Zone
Vehicle Type
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999/2000
2000/01
1.Bus 792 958 1045 1163 1298 1403 1487 21872.Minibus 1352 1388 1430 1468 1500 1527 1567 22643.Truck/Tanker
3343 3781 4113 4483 4759 4811 5090 5685
4.Car/Jeep/ Van
20748
22640
24248
27153
28915
30919
31587 41595
5.Three wheeler automobile
3844 3844 3844 3844 3925 4262 4003 4788
6.Two wheeler automobile
37774
43506
49299
58029
64142
71612
74128 113660
7.Tractor 1623 1635 1670 1672 1672 1672 1672 16728.Others 2561 2678 3012 3020 3278 3311 3278 554Total 72,0
3180,4
3088,6
61100,831
109,489
117,836
122,812
172,405
4 The numbers presented in the table is for Bagmati Zone. Considering the population concentration assumption is made to have the similar proportion of vehicles in Kathmandu Valley.
P S Joshi 16
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Source: DoTM
Detailed studies have not been done in this area after 1993 study of JICA. The latest study done
by Kathmandu Valley Mapping Program provides relatively good information, though more
KMC centered5. KVMP has divided the city of Kathmandu into five urban sectors and considered
Lalitpur (the remaining part of Greater Kathmandu) as the sixth for the planning and management
purposes (refer Fig. 5)
The central function of Kathmandu City Core (KCC) and Central Sector (KCS) influxes people
from other sectors and hinterland of Greater Kathmandu. They commute as workers and visitors
with a range of businesses, commercial, social and recreational interests. Location of major
governmental buildings, the Central Business District (as identified in KVUDPP, 1991) and the
central market role of the city core of Kathmandu are the major purpose of these visits. Besides,
tourism, religion and festivities are yet other causes of attraction. The daily passenger travel
demand of Kathmandu Valley population with origin and/or destination i.e. the Greater
Kathmandu oriented trips is roughly estimated as 1.65 million (passenger trips per day). Table 8
shows the external daily traffic generation roughly estimated by KVMP from the hinterlands of
Greater Kathmandu.
5 As the scope of the program limited to Kathmandu Metropolitan City.
P S Joshi 17
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Based on the previous reports and minimal series of sample traffic counts KVMP estimated the
modal split for daily passenger travel as presented in Table 9.
P S Joshi 18
Table 8. External Daily Traffic Generation Estimation between Greater Kathmandu and
the HinterlandDirection of traffic flow
South-east (direction Thimi, Bhaktapur, etc.) 150000North-east (direction Sankhu, etc.) 40000North (direction Budhanilkanta, etc.) 20000North-west (direction Ranipauwa, etc.) 20000West (direction Thankot, etc.) 30000South-west (direction Kirtipur, Chobhar, etc.) 50000South (direction Bungamati, Chapagaon, Godawori, Tikathali, etc.)
20000
Source: KVMP (MR4), 2001
Fig. 5 Sector Map Kathmandu and Lalitpur Intra and Inter Sector Traffic Flow
Source: KVMP, 2001
Lalitpur Sector, LAL
East Sector, KES
Central Sector,KCS
North Sector, KNSCity Core, KCC
West Sector, KWS
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Table 9. Modal Split in Kathmandu Valley
Mode of transport
Average peak hour modal split % of daily
passenger travel
No. of Vehicl
es
No. of passeng
ers
% Vehicles
% Passeng
ersPublic transportation
5289 93872 19.3 63.5 56.5
Motorcycles 11633 15123 42.5 10.2 5.8Pass. Car + taxi
4457 7593 16.3 5.1 5.3
Bicycle 5996 5996 21.9 4.1 4.3Pedestrian 25349 17.1 18.1Total 27375 147933 100 100 100
Source: KVMP (MR4), 2001
It is obvious from the table that the public transportation has an important role to play in the
mobility of the people. They take a share of 45% of the total PCU-kilometer performance (KVMP
(MR4), 2001). While comparing the current demand for urban road space in the peak hour the
rough estimate is 150, 000 PCU-km/peak hour with an estimated urban road network capacity
(equally rough) estimate is 160,000 PCU-km/ hour suggesting the peak hour traffic is close to
‘saturation’ with available road network capacity.
There are only two major bus parks in the valley; viz. Gongabu Bus Park catering inter-regional
buses and Old Bus Park near Tundikhel designated for inter-city and local buses. Other local bus
parks include three in Lalitpur, one each in Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Madyapur and all other
destination locations like Budhanilakantha, Thankot, Godawari, Lubhu, etc. The bus parks of
Kathmandu are over crowded and poorly managed. In the absence of parking space (especially
for the east bound buses) several unauthorized parking can be seen in the ring road and along
Araniko Highway. Parking facilities for private vehicles in the central locations of the valley are
getting more and more difficult. Few privately managed vehicle parking lots and the roadside
parkings managed by municipalities or local wards are not sufficient causing traffic congestion in
the central areas.
Kathmandu Valley is relatively better infrastructure served compared to rest of the country.
However it is facing environmental problems in three fronts. Drinking water is being one of the
biggest constraints to the ever-increasing population of Kathmandu. Present capacity of Nepal
Water Supply Corporation could satisfy only 130 MLD in the rainy season, which drops to 90
MLD in dry season. On the other hand the demand in 2001 is estimated to be 177 MLD. Using
shallow wells or compromising the sanitation fulfills part of this gap. The long waited Melamchi
Water Supply Scheme has further shifted its completion date to the year 2008. There is no
P S Joshi 19
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
reliable ground that this date will not be further pushed back. Two major environmental problems
emerged as the consequence of population growth, unplanned and poor management of the
valley. There are three wastewater treatment systems, which however are not in operation. The
new Guhyaswori Waste water Treatment Plant is also at the verge of closure due to budgetary
constraint6. Discharging of raw wastewater directly into the river system has converted all natural
rivers into open drains causing soil and water pollution in the valley and beyond. Another
notorious pollutant is the smoke in the air. Smoke from the brick kilns, industries, and the
vehicular emissions has left Kathmandu one the most polluted cities in the world (CEN/ENPHO,
2003)
The Urban Planning Issues:
In the outset of these urbanization trends, i.e. urban sprawl and development of slum-like
condition, urban containment was the policy advocated by all principal plans prepared so far.
Frustratingly, none of these plans and programs was seriously implemented from last three and
half decades. Hence the urban explosion of Kathmandu took place. This may be attributed to two
major political causes: ‘do-nothing’ development approach to the valley; and failure of
development efforts in rest of the country. Although, Nepal has tried to introduce various regional
development approaches from the first planned development initiatives, in real sense the
translation of these plans never succeeded in the reality. It is not because of the success of
Kathmandu people are migrating in; rather it is the failure of the development in the rest of the
country that made people giving up the rural in search of new hopes. If former would have been
the case, the fate of the valley would not be with rampant growth that we are facing today.
Therefore, the basic flaw in the development of Kathmandu may be the institutional and
managerial. Unless and until these weaknesses are addressed properly any initiative to improve
Kathmandu will be in vain.
In its Development Plan 2020, KVTDC proposed the Development Vision of Kathmandu Valley
as historical, cultural, tourism, and capital region of the country. It also advocated going for
environment friendly, and non-labor intensive industries to make the city economically vibrant
(KVTDC, 2002). Kathmandu Metropolitan City in its City Development Strategy, offered the
similar vision of the city as an administrative, cultural and tourism centre including the regional
venue for sports and convention (CDR, 2001). The drivers to urban growth may be positively
guided by the vision of the city as an administrative, cultural, tourism, trade and commerce based
capital region. In the context of carpet, garment, and similar industries still surviving in the valley
on the one hand, and the given political crisis of the country on the other, the negative drivers are
6 Reported by a staff in the personal communication with the author.
P S Joshi 20
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
still pushing the population into the valley. In the process of maturation of the city, the secondary
jobs are keeping the larger population.
Valley as a planning unit, functional hierarchy of different level development nodes, land use-
transportation linkage, land use efficiency are the major strategic approaches taken in the
Development Plan 2020. Proximity and accessibility based planning, access to functional open
space, livable community, limiting development within designated urban area and avoid growth
in natural risk prone and environmentally sensitive areas were further strategic guidelines
followed in the plan.
1. The containment issue: urban-rural boundary:The urban containment strategy suggested by PDPKV (1969) was more explicitly proposed by
KVUDPP (1991), which however was never adopted as a policy. Once again Development Plan
2020 reiterated the same policy proposal of containment. The later plan has strongly advocated
for the demarcation of the boundary to keep the ecological balance of the valley. The imaginary
line proposed by the 2020 report (refer figure in Annex 7) is expected to accommodate the
projected population of ~2.6 million by the year 2021 with the built/non-built area ratio of 40:60
against the 28:72 of the present (i.e. 2000). This is the upper limit of the ratio from the ecological
point of view. No such research has undertaken but it is believed that today more urbanites are
constructing new residences outside the administrative boundaries of Greater Kathmandu than
within. The main reasons are cheaper land, cheaper building permits and very limited building
control in the rural VDCs surrounding the cities. Also improved road infrastructure and public
transport make a longer travel distance to the cities still acceptable. Altogether this urban sprawl
and collateral reduction of rurality is daily criticized, no any policies have yet been adopted or
actions undertaken to discourage sub-urbanization (Ziegler, 2001).
The containment policy can be materialized by introducing an ordinance which will allow new
construction (leaving the old settlements with buffer area) only in the areas where the set standard
of infrastructure is available. Furthermore, the delineation of expansion area in the cadastral map
(if not possible in the field due to financial reasons) should be permanently highlighted. Private
sector can be attracted to build the infrastructure in the urban expansion zone using several
planning tools like land pooling. In case of land use, defining an urban land is very much
important in case of Nepal where there is land categorization based on the productivity only.
2. Increasing residential densities in the city:The unabated urban sprawl as a consequence, did not support the aspiration of the planners to
have high residential densities in the Greater Kathmandu. The urban sprawl has already reached
the 10 kilometer radial fringes while leaving the city centers with the density of not more that 150
P S Joshi 21
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
ppha (Refer Table 3) half of the expected density of 300 ppha (optimal being 500 ppha) as
suggested in Development Plan 2020. However, rather than prescribing such densities as a
wishful aim, it is more important to find ways and means to encourage more intensive
development in the city.
The urban rural boundary, if strictly enforced, will reduce land supply and eventually increase
urban land prices. This will induce the construction of more floor space and lead to more compact
development and higher, more-storied buildings. It will also affect the land market and eventually
the configuration of land uses in the city by simulating non-(revenue) productive activities to
more to other areas of lesser cost. For instance, this may be the case for many of the military
camps and sites in the city and other government complexes. Several other tools like land and
house tax mechanism, building bye laws with plot coverage ratio, etc. can encourage the
densification. The infrastructural planning needs to follow the densification policy for the
particular area.
3. Urban decay, the issue of out-migration:The internal migration within the development sectors of the municipalities or the fringes is
offering one more challenge to the planners. Most of the previous plans have not addressed this
issue as strongly as needed. Unlike the migration of people from old settlements like Lubhu,
Tokha or even Bhaktapur, who are attracted by opportunities offered in Greater Kathmandu, out
migration of people from the city core of Kathmandu and Lalitpur is taking place for some other
reasons. The space constrains, changed lifestyle, other competing uses in commercial pockets,
and the environmental degradation are the major causes of their migration. A study done by
KVMP to upgrade a historical neighborhood called Ganchanani in Kathmandu, found that 32% of
the houses are of absentee landlords, most of which are in dilapidated condition and either vacant
or rented to urban poor (KVMP (IN5), 2001). This may be the reason of the census data showing
negative population rise in the city core of Kathmandu. Out of the 14 wards of the Kathmandu
City Core, 11 wards have shown the sign of out migration (Annex 2), seriously demanding
revitalization initiatives in the core city. This might be the case of other old settlements in the
valley.
4. Deconcentration of economic functions:Kathmandu is familiar with mixed type of land use from the beginning. Most of the economic
centers emerged unplanned. The city cross section shows a profile of the city where some
economic undercurrents are pulling and pushing various economic functions. The city cores are
attracting more tourism oriented activities; institutions are lining up in good traffic service areas;
and hospitals are pulling out from congested areas to more calm but accessible areas.
Transportation related activities are lining up in the major corridors or ring road areas and
P S Joshi 22
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
negative amenities such as polluting industries are pushed back to outer fringe of the valley.
Utilizing these natural forces, urban planners should cluster the activities and close the loop of
resources. This will help to efficiently manage the traffic requirements and balance the
development of the city.
5. The direction of city growth:At present Greater Kathmandu is expanding spontaneously in almost all directions, generally
following outgoing radial roads. The starfish shaped expansion of Kathmandu Valley is adopted
by KVUDPP to follow under its ‘natural forces’ scenario which is further continued by the
Development Plan 2020. No systematic investigations are known to have yet been undertaken
that suggest which areas in Greater Kathmandu are technically more feasible and more
economical to develop in the short term than others. The completed Sinamangal Land Pooling
Project and proposed Manahara Land Pooling Project, along with recently built Thimi-Gokarna
Bypass have triggered the urban sprawl also in the fertile green belt between Kathmandu and
Thimi which are supposed to be conserved for the ecological purposes. There is plenty of flat
land still available west of the ring road and has been earmarked for predominantly residential
development. The generally sparsely occupied areas north of the Ring Road still have vast spare
capacity for further infill and urban densification. Besides the radial expansion, the east-west
transportation corridor between Thankot and Banepa are of particular importance from the
expansion of the city.
6. Transport corridors:KVUDPP proposed a first series of major new transportation corridors for Greater Kathmandu in
1991. This network was expanded with proposals for additional corridors by JICA in 1993. Three
major areas of interventions were proposed in the JICA study. Promoting east west corridor (ie
Thankot – Banepa) as national transportation corridor of the nation; improving traffic flow inside
Greater Kathmandu through constructing inner ring road, widening and adding new links, and
improving geometry and amenities in the existing roads. The third proposition may be
summarized as the road development to cater the wave of outward shift of the urban area. This
among others include widening of nine radial roads to the development nodes, integration of three
city centers; and at the later phase, eastern link of outer ring road joining Budhanilakantha,
Thimi, Lubhu and Bungmati as a collector road for the area. (Refer map in Annex 4). After 11
years, very few of the proposals are implemented in an indiscriminate manner having nominal
effect of improvement. Looking towards the future, it is advisable to ensure that no construction
should take place and land be reserved in these proposed corridors for the future construction of
the roadways. It is important that demarcation of these corridors be made on the respective land
use map and cadastral maps to protect it by buying for residential or other purposes than
agriculture.
P S Joshi 23
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
The east west corridor mentioned above have an important role to play in the land use of the
valley. In last five years or so Nepalese newspapers have covered three or more ‘for sure’
alternative routes to connect Terai from south of the valley. This road (if any case materialized)
would strengthen the east west corridor. From the land use view point, the corridor and its
influence area will be occupied by light industries and industries related to transportation sector,
including construction industries. The only inter-regional bus terminal at Gongabu may not cater
the additional traffic generated by Sindhuli Road nor could provide appropriate location.
Therefore, another inter-regional bus terminal is required preferably close to the east-west and
possible southern links (refer map in Annex 4). The immediate need of such terminal can be
realized by observing the unauthorized bus parking and terminal services delivered from
Koteshwor and surrounding areas at present.
Few years ago a study was conducted for Department of Roads to search for the most appropriate
and economical alignment of the Outer Ring Road. The transport demand analysis of this study is
very weak but makes evidently clear that traffic flows on this road, even after 15 years of its
completion will still be too low to justify the high investment cost in this about 60 km long
highway, at least for many years to come. Regrettably, the government has earmarked some
budget to start the project this fiscal year 2004/05. The consequence of this will sure bring more
urban sprawl against the policy proposition of Development Plan 2020. This is once again the
repetition of the mistake of addressing the problem from supply side management against the
demand side management. Instead, using this investment capital to advance construction of one
or more of the urban corridors would be a much more useful proposition.
Transportation Planning Issues and Interventions:
Issues, barriers and opportunitiesTransportation planning, a subset of urban planning, is geared to meet the overall planning
objectives. As depicted in the Development Plan 2020, the transportation goal should
continuously aim at enhancing its overall efficiency by reducing the congestion level, decreasing
the energy consumption and improving the air quality (KVTDC, 2002). Economy, efficiency,
reliability, quality of service and safety are the major factors in choosing the mode of
transportation. Being a nervous system of a city life, transportation planning have direct affect to
all six urban planning issues mentioned above, and vise versa.
The major issues of transportation planning in Kathmandu Valley are facilitating land use and
containment policy, traffic congestion issues, road safety and poor traffic behavior, poor
performance of public transport system, upholding non-motorized transport, air pollution, and
institutional issues and financing.
P S Joshi 24
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Transportation planning in Kathmandu Valley has three major externalities; viz. limited land
resource and topography of the valley, ever increasing population, and poor economic base. The
internalities among others are weak implementation capabilities, poor traffic behavior, and mixed
transportation mode. Almost 20% of the traffic is pedestrians, 60% of the commuters use public
transportation (KVMP (MR4), 2001), and private sector involvement in the service sector of
transportation are the strengths of the sector.
Options to embark on the transportation issues
1. Addressing the land use and containment policyIn these externalities, internalities and the strengths, one should seek the solution to the belated
comprehensive transportation planning of the valley. One of the tools proposed to implement the
containment policy and densification of existing urban spaces is the judicial offer of
infrastructure; transportation perhaps being the most important one. In the uncontrolled
development scenario of the valley, this could be one of the strong tools for the containment and
densification. If demand side management (DSM) is the strategy to adopt, except widening and
improving radial roads, adding new major roads in the outer periphery of the urban-rural
boundaries will be counterproductive at least for next decade or so. On the other hand, adding
new road lengths and improving the capacity of the existing ones should get the priority in the
transportation infrastructure side. Equally important is the management of traffic generating
activities. There are several road projects already identified which will have positive impact to the
containment policy while reducing the congestion at least for some time to come. Mention to
some are:
o Inner ring road sectors (Bishnumanti corridor, Dhobikhola Corridor, Bagmati Corridor
extended to ring road at Balkumari, the northern link joining Sohrakhutte-Uttardhoka-
Tangal-Dhobikhola)
o Widening of Pashupati Sadak, Thirbam Sadak, Museum Marg, Buddha Nagar-Subidha
Nagar Link, Pulchowk-Bagdol Road, etc.
Refer Road and Access Upgrading Plan for details of these and several other roads prepared by
KVMP in 2002. It is estimated that additional road capacity provided by 10~12 km new (main)
road length might add up to 15% to the estimated, present urban road network (peak hour)
capacity (KVMP (MR4), 2001)
Unbalanced distribution of the services within the city centre is not only detrimental to land use
efficiency; moreover, it generates unnecessary traffic further congesting the already scarce road
space. Therefore, distribution of urban services is significant from transportation demand
generation point of view. Present schooling practice can be a worst example where buses of each
and every popular school pass through almost all the nooks and corners of Greater Kathmandu
P S Joshi 25
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
(many to Bhaktapur as well) at least twice a day. Hence, through licensing policies to the services
it can be distributed as necessary.
2. Addressing traffic congestion issue:The primary source of traffic congestion is the ever increasing number of vehicle fleet in the
street. From 1991 to 2001, the number of vehicles tripled (from 54776 to 172405) while the road
stock of the valley did not show any marked changes. Sustaining such a huge number and there is
no sign of decline is obviously the main cause of present congestion. Few roads like Tundikhel
corridor, Devkota Sadak (New Baneshwor-Old Baneshwor road), Bhakti Thapa Sadak (Singha
Durbar-New Baneswor road), Teku-Sanepa road, etc. are widened by one lane each. Some
bridges are renovated, other few saw surface improvements. Recently ten major junctions were
improved with the support of JICA. The overall effect is nominal to the increasing number of
fleet. Adopting the demand side management strategy here are some of the observations and
suggestions as depicted in several other studies as well.
As more and more intersections in Kathmandu Valley are reaching its saturation, the urban road
network capacity is depending, in most of the cases, on the capacity of the intersections rather
than on the capacity of the sections in between. Consequently, there is nominal improvement on
the congestion of the road stretch by widening the road. Therefore, priority should be given to
improve the intersections where ever possible. The results of these efforts (adding traffic lights,
improving geometry of the junction in the given space limitations, etc.) however, will be modest
as much can not be expected in the given limitations. Flyovers will only the solutions left where
the space availability permits (like in Maitighar, Tripureswor or Kalimati).
Another physical improvement that can help to increase the capacity of road (from preferred
mode of transportation) is introducing traffic calming measures like physical barriers to avoid
unnecessary disturbance from right turning vehicles of narrow lane junctions, safe walkways for
pedestrians and cyclists, reclaiming space available between structures (ABS) which otherwise is
encroached by petty business of the roadside dwellers. There are several options to go for
rearranging the ABS depending on preferences, priorities and preferred mode of transportation.
Comprehensive network plan- classified urban road network and secondary road networks will
also help improving the congestion situation.
Modal shift towards more road-space-efficient vehicles
is an important approach to dealing with congestion.
Table 10 shows the advantage of utilizing large bus
against private car, taxi or motorbikes. There are
several methods of discouraging private vehicles while
attracting towards public transportation. Limited
P S Joshi 26
Table 10. The efficiency of type of
vehiclesType of vehicle Passenger
KM/ PCU-KM
Large bus 11Microbus & tempo
8
Taxi 1Passenger car 2Motorcycle 5Bicycle 5
Source KVMP (MR7), 2001
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
parking space, less priority lane for passenger cars, and taxation instruments are some of the tools
widely adopted world wide to discourage increasing number of private vehicles.
3. Road safety and poor traffic behaviorEven with such a low speed of vehicular movement in Kathmandu, there is alarming number of
road accidents, mainly due to non-adherence of traffic rules, poor road quality like pot-holed
surface, visibility and geometry. Mixed
traffic coupled with bulling traffic
behavior is the major source of traffic
accidents.
Table 11 shows the majority of the
victims of road accidents in Kathmandu
are pedestrians, followed by the bicyclist.
If planners want to encourage non-
motorized vehicles, a serious attention is
needed to address the causes of the
accidents. Segregation of different mode
of traffic, enforcement of traffic
regulations from preventive side, and
mass education campaign may be the
primary measures to improve the
situations.
In the absence of any urban road
standard, construction and maintenance
of urban road is done in haphazard
manner. One obvious example would be the big level difference of the road surface with the
manhole cover of sanitary drains. Visibility and adequate light during evening hours, smooth
geometric junctions, road signs and road space occupancy for incompatible use, etc. need to be
addressed to improve safety in the urban streets of Kathmandu. Institutional issue is important
here as there are six institutions are directly responsible for urban roads and its amenities (viz.
DoR, DoTM, municipalities, NEA, NWSC, traffic police). Bringing the functions under one
umbrella would be advisable.
The traffic behavior is not only responsible for majority of the accidents but also for the
congestions. Discouraging the ‘first me’ mentality of the traffic movement, much can be achieved
both in congestion and reduction in accidents. Carrot and stick could be a better tool for this
besides traffic education.
P S Joshi 27
Table 11. Fatalities and Serious Injuries in KV Traffic
(1994-99)Road user type
No. of deaths No. or seriously injured
Absolute no.
% Absolute no.
%
Pedestrian
156 45 506 40
Bicycle 31 9 102 8Ricksha
w0 0 5 0
Motorcycle
77 22 317 25
Tempo 11 3 76 6Car 10 3 79 6
Pickup 2 1 5 0Minibus 12 3 32 3
Bus 20 6 80 6Truck 21 6 43 3Others 4 1 19 2Total 344 100 1264 100
Source: KVMP (TN8), 2001
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
4. Addressing public transportation issueIn 2001 there were around 2700 public transportation vehicles running in 105 different routes of
Kathmandu Valley (KVMP (MR7), 2001). This has increased to 3600 vehicles running in 140
routes in 20047. This shows 35 routes and 900 PT vehicles (of different sizes) added in last three
years. Should it be taken as positive sign for pro-PT arguments? KVMP in its analysis suggest
that out of the 550 microbuses operating in the valley at that time, the frequency of the microbus
pick-up in 12 bus routes was 1~1.5 minute for 4 routes, 1.5~3 minutes for 2 routes and 3~5
minutes for 6 routes. This high frequency suggests the over supply of the vehicles, which may be
good news for the PT vehicle users but unnecessary congestion created by these vehicles would
be the worry of the concern authorities. Adding of 900 PT vehicles in last three years in the
already saturated PT service may not be taken as the service motive of the authority concerned.
Moreover, the ‘over supply’ may have coped with the transport demand, other quality aspects,
including the driving speed, ease of boarding and leaving vehicles, safety feeling, etc. still repel
many from the PT service.
Referring again to the KVMP small sample survey of six main and ten minor entry/exit points in
2001, it was found that 2400 PT vehicles with estimated number of 50,000 passengers were
crossing the points while those were crossed by 8700 other motorized vehicles passing 10,000 +
passengers. With the policy orienting to the poorer strata of the urban community, and promoting
PT mode of transportation, a detailed survey may be conducted to look at the possibilities of
providing separate lane to PT vehicles. Furthermore, addressing the congestion issue, available
road space and the number of fleets, a comprehensive planning is required where the narrow lanes
are served by smaller PTs like microbus and tempos while the main roads are by mini and large
buses.
It is interesting to note the crowding of PT vehicles in the Tundikhel corridor. 119 out of 141
routes touches Tundikhel Corridor (majority have the destination to it). Occupying space for
parking and waiting for shift should be discouraged which however can be done through
rearranging the PT routes to hinterland to hinterland destinations (for example Lagankhel to
Maharajgunj if not Chapagaon to Budhanilakantha crossing Tundikhel Corridor). In this case
should we really need to keep the bus park near Tundikhel? the option need to have further
7 Personal survey
P S Joshi 28
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
studies.
5. Encouraging non-motorized transportationThree major issues geared towards non-motorized transportation are environmental improvement,
conservation of heritage areas and resource management. All the old cities of Kathmandu Valley
are not designed for motor vehicles. With the increasing number of vehicular traffic, henceforth
activities triggered due to incompatible traffic flow in the areas, has in one hand, deteriorated the
environment of the city cores by air and noise pollution, deteriorating the old houses due to
vehicular vibration in narrow lanes, and increasing unnecessary competition for the road space
among the road users. The end result is the urban decay as mentioned above.
Being very politically contentious issue, this needs carefully planned attempt with vigorous
consultations with the locals. In case of Kathmandu City Core, Thamel Tourist Area may be a
starting point. The planning should consider emergency services, service vehicle entry provisions,
services to elderly, parking facilities, etc.
Roughly 20% of the traffic including ~5% bicycles occupies the transportation share of
Kathmandu Valley. Development Plan 2020 estimates 35000 bicycles in Kathmandu Valley
(KVTDC, 2002) and roughly 50,000 bicycles are sold in the valley each year (DoTM, 2002 cf
KVMP (SR1) 2002). To encourage these none polluting mode of transportation, separate bicycle
lanes and improvement of pedestrian walkways are encouraged. The dilapidated footpath,
encroachment of footpath by parking vehicles, street vendors and the shopkeepers is a common
scene in Kathmandu. Road owners like DoR and municipalities are not aware of the right and
importance of pedestrians. In sum, education towards non-motorized traffic is needed from the
policy makers to the individuals as a pedestrian; former, to understand their responsibilities and
the later to recognize their rights.
P S Joshi 29
Existing radial route system with Central
Bus Station
Tangential system with peripheral route
terminals
Tangential system with cross-city routes and peripheral terminals
Source: KVMP (TN 23), 2002
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
6. Institutional issues:The major institutional issue, as discussed in the urban planning section, is the absence of any
single institution looking after the issues of transportation and traffic management. The
overlapping of the responsibilities of various institutions like DoTM, DoR, municipalities,
KVTDC, traffic police, and many other indirect stakeholders lack coordination and cooperation
whose synergy would have benefited otherwise. If land use prepared by the urban planners is not
acknowledged by other authorities, none of the plans can deliver better fruits. Therefore, incase of
Kathmandu, transportation and traffic management should be under an autonomous body which
looks after the planning and management at valley level.
Conclusions
It has already been late to address the planning issues of Kathmandu. While the planning agencies
like DUDBC are limited to their say in the implementation, the sectoral implementation agencies
are either unaware of the plans or feel comfortable with the freedom to run short term projects.
Therefore, any initiation to improve the valley should start with the institutional apparatus which
could address the comprehensive planning need and its guidance against the sectoral, local or
individual interests. Therefore, an ideal solution to initiate planning guided development of the
valley is to have a valley-wide political and administrative institution preferably nominated by the
valley population. In the absence of such bold step, valley-wide umbrella institution respecting
decentralization norms would be a better compromise.
The failure of the development attempts in Nepal is the main driving force for people to migrate
to Kathmandu. Concentration of services like education, health, government offices are the
attractions. Employments in the formal and informal sectors, business and commerce, hotels and
industries are triggering the in-migration. The only international airport and the tourism
infrastructures have made Kathmandu the gateway city. After insurgency in the country from last
few years, Kathmandu became the only the rescue island.
The available strategic plans are sufficient to give directions to the development. In case of city of
Kathmandu several doable plans are chalked out, which may need some detailing. The rest of the
valley can be guided by these plans. Land use need to be accepted by all the implementation
agencies and be made it mandatory. It should not be some ‘imaginary line’ but demarcation
should be made in the cadastral maps if not in the field.
Kathmandu Valley can not be stretched much. Transportation planning should be aiming at the
containment and densification policies. It should guide the physical development of road
P S Joshi 30
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
infrastructures, soft interventions like traffic management, mass education and institutional
capacity building, etc. Acknowledgement of functional hierarchy of the different developmental
nodes is equally important. Policy intervention and its translation to actions are needed from
ecological view point. Demand side management strategy should be adopted to provide additional
physical facilities. Instead of expanding transportation infrastructure (except some minor access)
in the fringes, upgrading the infrastructures more in the Greater Kathmandu would be in line with
the land use policy.
Environmental problems like air quality and noise need to address by modal shift to environment
friendly transpiration, fuel quality regulation and de-concentration of the urban services through
land use regulations. Bringing safety, comfort and reliability in PT vehicle service on one hand
and tax mechanisms to discourage personalized transport on the other would help to meet the
goals. Providing separate lanes (where applicable) for PT vehicles and non-motorized vehicles
can contribute much in this part.
P S Joshi 31
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
Abbreviations
LSGA : Local Self Governance Act
CDS : City Development Strategy
KMC : Kathmandu Metropolitan City
KVTDC : Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee
DoR : Department of Roads, HMGN
DoTM : Department of Transportation Management, HMGN
DUDBC : Department of Urban Development and Building
Construction
HMGN : His Majesty’s Government of Nepal
PT : Public Transportation Vehicle
NMT : Non-motorized Transportation
P S Joshi 32
The State of Urbanization, Land Use and Transport Planning Issues in Kathmandu Valley
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