The Spread of Islam in...

Keywordsconcubine

harem

slave raiding

Essential Questions• WhatfeaturescharacterizedthepoliticalstructureofIslamicstatesin

EastAfrica?

• WhatweretheeconomicfeaturesofIslamicstatesinEastAfrica?

• WhatculturalpatternsandgenderstructureswereinplaceinAfricansocietiesbytheeleventhcentury?

• Whatweretheeffectsofinterregionalexchangeinthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutes?

• WhatelementscharacterizedtheAfricantraditionofslavetradingandslaveholding?

• Whatwastheimpactofslavetradingandlatertheabolitionofslavery?

The Spread of Islam in Africa

Unit 4, Lesson 18

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Political Structure of East African Islamic StatesTheBantumigrationshadestablishedsettlementsthroughoutEastAfricabythesecondcenturyC.E.Withtheiragriculture,herding,andironsmelting,theBantusettlementsprospered,andcommunitiesdottedEastAfrica,extendingacrosstotheEastAfricancoastandislands.Asthesecommunitiesgrew,societiesestablishedsmallstatessimilartothosecommoninotherpartsofsub-SaharanAfrica.Thecoastalsettlementsalsofishedandtradedwithseafarers,activitiesthatfurtherboostedtheirprogress.

TheSwahilisocietyemergedfromthecoastalsettlements.Infact,SwahiliisArabicfor“coasters,”andreferredtotheAfricanpeopleswhowerecoastaltraders.SwahilicommunitiescoveredthecoastalregionfromKilwasouthtoSofala,aswellastheComoroIslands.TheSwahililanguagehadBanturootsandwasinterspersedwithArabicwordsandconcepts,reflectingtheblendingofculturesthattookplacealongtheEastAfricancoast.DialectsofSwahilievolved,butsincetherewascontinuedcontactbetweensettlements,thosewhospokedifferentdialectscouldstilleasilycommunicatewithoneanother.TheSwahilisettlementsemergedwithacommoncultureoflanguage,religiousbeliefs,andtechnology.

TheSwahilicoastalcommunitiesthrivedandmanycity-stateswereorganizedbetween1000and1500C.E.By1200C.E.,avibranttradenetworkwasestablishedthatmadethesecoastalcommunitieswealthy.Chiefsbolsteredtheircity-statesbytaxingthetradeintheirports.Almost40citiesemergedalonga1500milesectionofthecoast,frompresent-daySomaliadowntoMozambique.Themostadvantageouslyplacedcitiesfortradegrewintolargecity-stateswithakingwhoseauthorityextendedovertradeandpubliclife.Thesepowerfulcity-statesincludedMogadishu,Lamu,Malindi,Mombasa,Zanzibar,Kilwa,Mazambique,andSofala.

Thecity-stateswerenotpopulatedexclusivelybytheSwahili.Astradeintheregionincreased,peoplefromtheMiddleEastandSouthandSoutheastAsiasettled

Set the StageThe rise of the kingdom of Zimbabwe illustrates the ways that trade transformed many states across sub-Saharan Africa. The majority of the wealth from increased trade on trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes was concentrated in city-states and empires near the trading centers. Zimbabwe, however, was an interior kingdom some distance from ports or trading centers. The kingdom of Zimbabwe capitalized on the new trade markets by procuring coveted goods such as gold, ivory, and slaves from within the continent and transporting them to ports for trade.

The wealth from such trade gave the kingdom of Zimbabwe the power to expand its control within east and central Africa. The kingdom’s rulers organized an ambitious building project to construct a capital city of grand stone buildings and tall stone walls. Trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean trade built up wealthy and powerful states across sub-Saharan Africa.

Unit 4, Lesson 18 2


inportcities.IndonesianscolonizedtheislandofMadagascar.Withtheinfluxofdiversecultures,thesemulti-ethniccity-statesblendedcultures,languages,religions,andethnicities.Thecoastalcity-stateswereindependentpoliticalentities,andArabsheiksorMuslimrulingfamilieswithmerchanttiesruledmanyofthesecity-states.

ZimbabweThewealththatIndianOceantradebroughtwasnotlimitedtoSwahilicity-statesalongthecoast.TheprosperoustradenetworkextendedtoalesserextentintoeastandcentralAfrica.PowerfulkingdomssuchasZimbabweemergedinland.Thewordzimbabwemeans“achief’sdwelling.”WiththenumerousBantusettlementsacrossEastAfrica,woodenchiefdwellingsappearedacrosspresentdayZimbabweandMozambiqueasearlyasthefifthcenturyC.E.Bytheninthcentury,enoughwealthhadreachedtheregiontofacilitatethebuildingofstonezimbabwesforchiefsandrulers,reflectinganewleveloforganizationandpoliticalpower.

ThekingdomofZimbabwetookinterritorybetweentheZambesiandLimpoporivers,andatitsheightafterthelatefifteenthcentury,thekingdomcoveredmuchofsouth-centralAfricaandreachedjustoutsidethecoastalcityofSofala.Sometimearound1200C.E.,theenormousprojectofbuildingthecapitalcityofGreatZimbabwebegan.LocatednearthetownofNyandainmodernZimbabwe,GreatZimbabwewasamassivecomplexofstonebuildingssurroundedbywalls16feet(5meters)thickand32feet(10meters)tall.Insidethewalls,thecityofGreatZimbabwehadpalaces,towers,andotherbuildings,allmadeofstone.Thewealthylivedinstonestructuresthatenclosedtheking’scourt.GreatZimbabweemergedastheregion’scitadel,mecca,andtradingcenter.TwocenturiesbeforetheNormanconquestofEngland,thisgreatAfricansocietyemergedwithpowerandinfluencethatlasted600years.

TheeconomyofthekingdomofZimbabwewasbuiltonagricultureandherd-ing,butasthetrademarketinEastAfricagrew,thekingdomcapitalizedontradetobuilditswealth.Initially,thekingdomtradedcopper,salt,andothergoodswithneighboringinteriorcommunities.Inthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,Zim-babweprofitedhandsomelybyexportingmostlygold,alongwithivoryandslaves,toportmarkets.Evidenceofgoodssuchasgold,glassbeads,copperornaments,soapstonefigures,irontools,Persianartworks,andChineseporcelainamongtheruinsofGreatZimbabwerevealsanextensivetradenetwork.

GreatZimbabwewasamongthefirststatesinsouthernAfricatoharnesscon-siderablepolitical,economic,andmilitarystrength.Asthepoliticalandsocialorganizationmovedfromvillage-basedkinshipnetworkstoamorehierarchicalandcentralizedsystemofrule,thekingdomofGreatZimbabweemerged.ThepopulationofthecityofGreatZimbabweandthekingdomgrewsomuchoverthesecenturiesthatthedepletionoflocalforestsandherdovergrazingapparentlytriggeredanecologicaldevastationthatcontributedtothekingdom’sdecline.

KingsofZimbabwecontrolledthetradebetweenthecoastalcity-statesandinteriorregionsofeastandcentralAfrica.Zimbabweorganizedandtaxedthelucrativegold,ivory,andslavetradesinEastAfrica.Zimbabweankingsbuiltalli-anceswithotherleaderstofacilitatethecontinuedflowofimmenseprofitsfromthetrademarket.TradewithmerchantsarrivingfromtheIndianOceanbuiltupwealthycoastalcity-statesandpowerfulinteriorkingdomssuchasZimbabwe.

Unit 4, Lesson 18 3


East African EconomiesSailorsontheIndianOceanhadcontactwithsettlementsalongAfrica’seasterncoastbeginningaround500B.C.E.ThesesailorswerefromIndia,Persia,Indonesia,andtheGreekandRomanempires.UntiltheBantumigrationsspreadknowledgeofagriculture,herding,andironsmeltingtotheregion,though,theAfricancom-munitieswerenotprosperousenoughtobuildatrademarketwithforeignsailors.MalayimmigrantstoMadagascarintroducedbananasandcoconutstocoastalpeoples,andcultivationofthesecropsquicklyspreadtomainlandAfrica.Bytheninthcentury,peoplefromotherpartsoftheworldsuchasthePersianGulfhadsettledintheBantucoastalvillagesalongsideAfricanpopulations.

Atradenetworkgrew,andfromaroundthetenthcenturyon,Swahilitradersincoastalsettlementsprocuredgold,ivory,iron,tortoiseshells,leopardskins,slaves,andexoticanimalstotradewithIslamicmerchants.Inexchange,seamerchantsbroughtgoodssuchasglass,Persiansilks,andChineseporcelaintoEastAfricanports.Aswealthgrewinthecoastalcity-states,stonebuildingsreplacedmudandthatchhuts,andelaboratestoneandcoralmosquesandpalacesroseupbythefifteenthcentury.Rulersandwealthytradersworesilkclothingandotherfineries,andatefromporcelaindishes.

ThecoastalportsprofitedimmenselyfromtheIndianOceansearoutes,butcommunitiesfurtherinlandprofitedaswell.TheeconomyofthekingdomofZim-babwewasbuiltonagricultureandherding,butasthetrademarketinEastAfricagrew,thekingdomcapitalizedontradetobuilditswealth.Initially,thekingdomtradedcopper,salt,andothergoodswithneighboringinteriorcommunities.Inthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,Zimbabweprofitedhandsomelybyexportingmostlygold,alongwithivoryandslaves,toportmarkets.ThepopulationofthecityofGreatZimbabwegrewsomuchoverthesecenturiesthatthedepletionoflocalforestsandherdovergrazingapparentlytriggeredanecologicaldevastationthatcontributedtothekingdom’sfifteenthcenturydecline.

KilwaThedramatictransformationofthecity-stateoftheislandofKilwaillustrateshowextensivelyIndianOceantradechangedcoastalcity-stateeconomies.KilwawasaBantufishingsettlementthatestablishedamodesttrademarketfrom800to1000C.E.Astheislandsettlementgrew,Kilwasettlersincreasedtheiragri-culturaldevelopmentandbroughtinpotteryfromotherpartsofEastAfricatoaugmenttheirburgeoningtrademarket.SwahilioraltraditiondetailedahistoryoftheregioninwhichpeoplesalongthecoasttraveledtotheislandofKilwaforagriculturaltrade.IntheninthcenturyC.E.,KilwawassoldtoAlibinAl-Hasan,whofoundedtheShirazdynasty.Kilwawasestablishedasacity-state.Initially,Arabswereforbiddenfromsettlingontheisland,andArabsandAfricansdidnotgetalongwell.Aftersometime,however,tensionseasedandintermarriageincreasedbetweenthecultures.

Kilwa’seconomywasthrivingbythethirteenthcentury,andlargestonebuild-ingsreplacedmoremodestdwellings.Thecity-stateusedcoppercoinsfortransac-tions.Bytheendofthefifteenthcentury,Kilwa’smerchantsexportedatonofgold

Unit 4, Lesson 18 4


ayear.PartofKilwa’seconomicsuccesswasbecauseofitsadvantageouspositionalongthecoast.TheportwasthesouthernmostportthatsailorscouldreachfromIndiabeforethemonsoonseasonstymiedtheirreturntrip.Thecity-stateofKilwaalsocontrolledtheportcityofSofala,whichbroughtingoldfromtheinteriorkingdomofZimbabwe.

WhentheArabIbnBattutavisitedKilwain1331,hefoundittobeacityofbeautyandsolidconstruction.IbnBattutaalsoobservedtheresidents’Muslimpiety,thewealthoftherulers,andtheregularcontactbetweenrulersandforeignMuslimscholarslivingthere.Kilwasupportedapopulationof12,000,manyofwhomwerewealthyenoughtowearimportedfabric,jewelry,andperfume.Fortwohundredyearsafter1300,Kilwa’strademarketbroughtimpressivewealth,untilPortugueseforcessackedthecityin1505.ThePortuguesegainedcontrolofKilwauntilanArabmercenaryfreedtheislandin1512.

Kilwawasonlyoneofmanysettlementstoprofitandgrowwiththedevelop-mentofIndianOceantrade.Mostofthesewerecoastalcommunities,butsomeinteriorkingdomssuchasZimbabweprofitedfromlongdistancetradeaswell.WhenthePortuguesearrivedontheeasterncoastofAfrica,theysoughttogaincontrolofthelucrativetrademarket.WithSofalainPortuguesecontrol,theydidacquiremuchofthegoldtrade,buttheycouldnotwrestfullcontroloftradefrom

1SELf-chEcK

What goods did

Swahili traders acquire

from Indian Ocean

merchants?

This illustration of Kilwa depicts a wealthy city of stone buildings and active trade with ships arriving to and departing from the island.

Unit 4, Lesson 18 5


thecoastalcity-states.However,Kilwa’spowerwasdiminishedanditspresenceforgottenuntilEuropeanforcesbecameinterestedintheislandasastrategicmili-tarybaseintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.

cultural Patterns and Societal StructuresWhilekingdoms,states,andempireswereorganizedwithrulersandstratifiedclassesthroughoutsub-SaharanAfricaafter1000C.E.,statelesssocietieswerethenorminthesmallcommunitiesthatdottedtheregion.Thesestatelesssocietiesencompassedmostofthesub-Saharanpopulation.Thecommunitieswereorga-nizedandgovernedbasedonkinshipties,andageandgenderrolesreflectedthecommunities’tightknitnature.Eachcommunitystakedaclaimonthelanditusedforagricultureandherding.Therewasnosenseofprivateproperty.Instead,communitymembersworkedthelandcooperatively.

Themaleheadsoffamilieswhoformedthecommunity’scouncildeterminedtheworkoftheirgivenfamily.Theseheadsalsoassignedwhichsectionsofthelandtheirfamilywouldworkandoversawthedistributionoffoodamongthecommunity.Theorganizationinthesecommunitieswaswhollycenteredonfam-ilynetworks.

Inthesesmallcommunities,therolesandworkofmenandwomenwerewell-delineated.Asmembersofthecouncilandaschiefofthecommunity,mendirectedthepublicaffairsofthelocalcommunity.Mostspecializedlaborsuchasleathertanningandblacksmithingwastheexclusivedomainofmenwhopasseddownknowledgeoftheirskillstotheirheirsfromonegenerationtothenext.Asoneexception,womeniniron-workingfamilieswereoftenthepottersforthecommunity.Menclearedandpreparedlandforplanting.

Cropplantingandharvestingweretasksthatbothmenandwomenperformed.Womenwereesteemedforprovidinglife,andtheywereinchargeofchildrear-inganddomesticwork.Womenalsotoldstoriesandwereentrustedtoeducatechildreninculturalbeliefs.Occasionally,womenrosetopositionsofpower,andinlargercommunities,somewomenfromprominentandinfluentialfamiliesswayedpublicaffairs.

Acrosssub-SaharanAfrica,womenoftenhadmorepublicinvolvementthanwomeninotherpartsoftheworld.Femalemerchantsengagedintrade,bothwithlocalandforeignmerchants.Femalemerchantswerealsopermittedtotradeatmarkets.Somewomenevenservedinall-femalemilitaryunits.

WhiletheintroductionofIslamdrasticallychangedwomen’sstandingacrossArabiaandsouthwestAsia,insub-SaharanAfricathespreadofIslamdidlittletochangewomen’sstanding.ThefirstconvertsintheregionwererulersandmerchantswhodealtdirectlywithArabmerchantscomingthroughonthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutes.Islamgrewslowlyinsub-SaharanAfrica,andasthereligiontookroot,AfricanconvertskepttheirtraditionalbeliefsandcustomsalongsideIslam.Asaresult,Islamtookonadifferentcastinsub-SaharanAfricathaninArabia,southwestAsia,andNorthAfrica.

MostMuslimwomensouthoftheSaharadidnotwearveilsorlimittheirsocialcontactwithmeninthecommunity.Sub-SaharanMuslimwomenalsocontinued

Unit 4, Lesson 18 6


theirpublicworkinthecommunity.TheconversiontoIslaminsub-SaharanAfricadidnotalterwomen’sstatusorinvolvementinthecommunityasitdidinotherpartsoftheMuslimworld.

Besideshavingwell-definedrolesformenandwomen,thesmallsub-Saharancommunitiesalsoplacedexpectationsuponmembersofthecommunityaccordingtoagegroup.Communitymembersweregroupedwithotherstheirsameage,andeachagegradewasassignedage-appropriateworktokeepthecommunityfunction-ing.Thetasksweretailoredaccordingtotheagegrade’smaturity,strength,andexperience.Oneagegrademightcareforeldersinthecommunity,andanothergrademighthelpsetupthehouseholdofanewlymarriedcouple.Anindividualstayedwiththesamegroupofsimilarly-agedcommunitymembersasheorshegrewolder.Theseagegradesfosteredintensefriendshipsandloyaltiesamongfel-lowmembersofagradeandboundmembersofthecommunitytogetherbeyondtheirkinshipties.

Interregional Exchange on Trade RoutesWiththeincreasinglypopulartrans-SaharantraderoutesandIndianOceansearoutes,goodswerenotallthatpassedbetweensub-SaharanAfricaandtheoutsideworld.Informationcamealongthetraderoutesaswellasgoods.TheproliferationofIslamthroughoutsub-SaharanAfricawashastenedbytheheavyuseoftraderoutesbyMuslimmerchants.Islamreachedsub-SaharanAfricaintwoways:toWestAfricaviathetrans-Saharanroute,andtoEastAfricaviaIndianOceansearoutes.BytheeighthcenturyC.E.,Islamhadtakenrootinsub-SaharanAfricaandshapedalmostallaspectsofsociety.

WhileverylimitedearlytradedidoccurbetweenNorthAfricaandsub-SaharanAfricaviatheSaharadesert,theintroductionofthecameltoAfricaenabledatrans-SaharancaravanroutethattransformedthetrademarketbetweenthetworegionsinAfrica.Between600C.E.and800C.E.,ArabsenteredNorthAfricaandcapitalizedonthetrans-Saharantraderoutetobolstertrade.By800C.E.,ArabmerchantshadbuiltuptraderelationswithWestAfricancommunitiessouthoftheSaharaviatrans-Saharanroutes.ThesetraderoutestransformedWestAfricaintoaregionflushwithpowerandwealth.

AfricabecamethefirstregionintroducedtoIslambymerchantsratherthanarmiesandconquest.EvidenceoftheextentofIslam’searlyspreadintosub-SaharanAfricaincludesaneighthcenturywoodenmosqueasfarsouthaspresentdayKenya.Thatmosquewassosmallitcouldonlyaccommodate10worshippersatatime.Bytheeleventhcentury,Islamwassufficientlyestablishedinsub-SaharanAfricaandcity-statesalongtheeastcoasthadbuiltsubstantialstonemosques.

ArabsfirstestablishedIslaminNorthAfrica,butwiththetrans-Saharantraderoute,IslamalsospreadthroughoutWestAfricaaskingsandtradersconvertedtothereligionastheyconductedbusinesswithMuslimsfromNorthAfricaandArabia.Byaround900C.E.,rulersofthekingdomofGhanainWestAfricahadconvertedtoIslam,whichimprovedthekingdom’straderelationswithMuslimmerchantsandMuslimnomadswhotransportedgoodsacrosstheSahara.TherulersofmostWestAfricankingdomsconvertedtoIslam.

2SELf-chEcK

How did age grade

tasks help keep a

community functioning?

Unit 4, Lesson 18 7


TheintroductionofIslamtoEastAfricafollowedapathsimilartothatofWestAfrica.MuslimmerchantstraveledtheIndianOceantotradeinportcitiesalongtheEastAfricancoast.TherulingclassesandmerchantsintheseSwahilicommu-nitieswerethefirsttoconverttoIslam.ThesenewconvertskeptpracticingtheirtraditionalAfricanreligiousbeliefsandrituals,justashappenedinWestAfrica.Inbothoftheseregions,Islamlinkedpeoplesfromdiverseculturalbackgroundsandestablishedacommonfoundationonwhichtoconducttrade.

WhilethespreadofIslaminsub-SaharanAfricainitiallyoccurredprimarilyamongtherulingclassandmerchants,thereligioneventuallytookrootonthecontinent.Inaddition,Muslimrulersinsub-SaharanAfricagarneredrecognitionfromforeignIslamicstates,andallowedthepossibilityofpoliticalallianceswiththerulersofthesestates.WhileconversiontoIslamdidfacilitatetraderelationswithArabmerchants,Africanconvertswerefaithfultotheirnewreligion.TheybuiltmosquesandreligiousschoolsandwelcomedIslamicexpertsintotheirstates.EvenwiththeseoverturestowardadoptingIslam,thereligiontookonauniquecastinsub-SaharanAfricabyblendingofIslamicbeliefswithtraditionalAfricanreligiousbeliefsandrituals.

Africantraderoutesalsofacilitatedexchangebetweensub-Saharancommunitiesbothnearbyanddistant.Communitieslocatedattheendofforeigntraderoutesorinportsestablishedallianceswithorconqueredcommunitiesfurtherinland

3SELf-chEcK

How did Islam reach

sub-Saharan Africa?

Ruins of elaborate Swahili mosques reveal the extent of Islam’s spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa.

Unit 4, Lesson 18 8


thatsuppliedpreciousgoodssuchasgoldandivory.TheseinteriornetworkswerepathsforIslamtoreachmuchfartherinlandthanthetradingcenterswheretheinitialsub-Saharanconvertslived.

The African Slave TradeSlaveswereusedthroughoutsub-SaharanAfrica.Giventhecommunalnatureoflandownership,anindividualcouldnotbuilduppropertytoaccumulatewealth.Theaccumulationofslaves,however,didenabletheaccumulationofwealth.Slavesaddedtothenumberofpeopleworkingtheland,andtherebyimprovedafamily’sagriculturalproduction.Acollectionofslaveswasashowofwealthandstrengthenedstandinginsociety.WhentherulerMansaMusa(r.1312–1337)oftheMaliEmpireembarkedonapilgrimagetoMecca,hegaveawaymanyofthe500slaveshebroughtwithhimtohishostsalongthejourney.

Slavesweremostlyacquiredduringwarwhentheyweretakenascaptives.Someslaveswerecriminals,debtors,orhadbeenaccusedofwitchcraft.Withthegrowinguseofthetrans-SaharancaravanroutesandtradelinesontheIndianOcean,themarketforAfricanslavesincreased.Muslimmerchantsaddedslavestotheirlistsofgoodstoacquireinsub-SaharanAfricainordertosupplythedemandforslavesalongtheMediterraneanandinIndia,Persia,andbeyond.

Africanslavescamefromallacrosssub-SaharanAfrica.Thoughsomeslaveswerekepttominecopper,theWestAfricanempiresofMaliandBornusuppliedmanyoftheslavesthattraveledintradecaravansbacktoNorthAfrica.TheEthiopianempiresoldcaptivesasslavesintheportcityofZeila.Around1225C.E.,arefer-encewasmadeinChinaofgatekeepersas“blackaslacquer”—evidencethatAfricanslavesweretradedacrossmuchoftheworld.

Duringthefifteenthcentury,slavestradedinEastAfricanportsservedinIndianmilitaries.Someregionsusedhereditaryslavecastestoserveinthemilitaryorinparticulartrades.InWestAfrica,AskiaMuhammad,whowasaslavegeneral,tookcontroloftheSonghaiEmpirein1493.

Whilemanyslaveswerelaborers,someslavesworkedashouseholdservants.Mostofthesehouseholdslaveswerewomenwhowerealsoconcubines.Themostbeautifulyoungvirginslavessoldforapremium.EnslavedeunuchsprotectedtheharemsofMuslims.

Withsuchhighdemandforslaves,slave raidingbecameacommonpracticeinsub-SaharanAfrica.Rulersofpowerfulstatesandempiresengagedinwarwithweakerstatesandkin-basedcommunities.Thesesmallerandweakercommunitieswereunpreparedtodefendthemselves,andmanywerecapturedfortheslavetrade.

Asmanyas20,000Africansayearwerecapturedandforcedintoslaveryoverthefirstfewcenturiesafterthetrans-SaharancaravanandIndianOceantraderoutesopened.Anestimated2.5millionAfricanslavesweresoldbetween1200and1500.Slavesfloodedthemarkettosuchanextentthattheleastvaluablegradeofhorsecostfivetimesmorethanacommonfemaleslave.

AfterEuropeancolonizationoftheWesternHemisphere,theAtlanticslavetradepeakedduringtheeighteenthcenturywithanaverageof55,000Africanslavesperyeararrivinginthewesternhemispheretoprovideagriculturallabor.

concubine a subservient woman who cohabits with a man but is not married to him

harem the part of a Muslim household where wives, concubines, and female servants reside

slave raiding the practice of capturing people with the intent of making them slaves

Unit 4, Lesson 18 9


Attimes,morethan100,000slavesarrivedintheAmericasinasingleyear.Theslavetradetookaround12millionslavesfromAfricatotheAmericas,whileanotherfourmillionAfricansperishedeitherfromresistingcaptureorenroutetotheWesternHemisphereonslaveships.

The Impact of Slave Trade and the Abolition of SlaveryTheAfricanslavetradeaffectedregionsofAfricatovaryingdegrees.Somecom-munitiesonthecontinenteitherwithstoodeffortsfromoutsiderstotakecaptives,orwerefarenoughawayfromtradingcenterstoescapemuchoftheslaveraid-ingthattookplace.InEastAfrica,communitiesthattooklittlepartintheslavetradeincludedthepeoplesofTurkana,Masai,Rwanda,andBugundakingdoms.However,plentyofAfricancommunitiesprofitedfromslaveraidingandtrading,particularlyintradingcitiesandportsattheendofthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutes.

OverthecenturiesofAfricanslavetrading,morethan18millionAfricanslefttheirhomelandasslaves.Particularlyhard-hitwereWestAfricancommunitiesinpresentdayAngolaandSenegal.Thesecommunitiesprovedpopularforslaveraid-ing,astheywereclosetoWestAfricanportsthatsuppliedslavestotheboomingmarketintheAmericas.Themostlucrativemarketwasformenintheirteenageyearsupto35yearsold,andtwooutofthreeslavesthatleftAfricaweremale.Asaresult,womencametomakeupalargemajorityoftheadultpopulationinmanycommunitiesthatsufferedfrequentslaveraids.Theimbalancebetweenmenandwomencontributedtothepracticeofpolygamy.

Slave raids tore away African men from their families.

Unit 4, Lesson 18 10


TheprofitableslavetradeledmanyAfricancommunitiestofightagainsteachother,primarilytoacquirecaptivestotrade.WhenEuropeanfirearmsbegantobetradedinsub-SaharanAfricatowardtheendoftheseventeenthcentury,theconflictsintensified.TheWestAfricankingdomofDahomeyprocuredfirearmsandthenproceededtoattacknearbycommunities,tak-ingcaptivesasslavestotradeforevenmorefirearms.Duringtheeighteenthcentury,thekingdomofDahomeygrewbothinsizeandpowerasitsarmiescapturedslavesfortrade.

Africanpeoplesdidnotquietlyacquiescetobecomingslaves.Duringtheeigh-teenthandnineteenthcenturies,slaverevoltsregularlycomplicatedthetransportofslavesfromAfrica.FrominsideandoutsideAfrica,somepeoplepushedfortheabolitionofslavery.Someofthemostinfluentialabolitionistvoiceswerethoseoffreedslaveswhorecountedtheirhorrificexperiencesasslaves.

OnesuchfreedslavewasOlaudahEquiano(1745–1797),whosevividautobi-ographyof1789becameabestsellerinEngland.Asaboy,EquianowascapturedfromhisWestAfricanBenincommunityandtradedasaslavetoworkintheWestIndies,Virginia,andthenPennsylvania.Heboughthisfreedomfromhismasterin1766.Hissubsequentautobiography,whichtoldofhislifebefore,during,andafterhisslavery,bolsteredtheabolitionistmovementinEngland.

Asoppositiontoslaveryonmoralgroundsgainedtraction,theeconomicbenefitsofslaverybegantofalter.AsdemandfromtheAtlanticslavetradegrew,Africanslavesbecamemoreexpensivetoacquire.Thethreatofslaverevoltrequiredmilitaryforcestoensureorder,whichincurredadditionalcosts.Inaddition,slaveownershadtofeed,clothe,andsheltertheirslaves,regardlessofhowdiligentlytheslavesworked.

Duringtheeighteenthcentury,thesugarmarketintheCaribbeanboostedthedemandforslaves.Towardtheendofthatcentury,theoverproductionofsugarcausedprofitstofall.Withlowerprofitsfromsugarandrisingcostsofacquiringadditionalslavelabor,manyEuropeaninvestorsmovedfromsugartomanufacturingandindustrialproductionventures.Thewagesthatfactoryworkerswerepaidwerelessthanthecostofmaintainingslavesonplantations.Asthemarketformanufacturedgoodsincreased,theeconomicconsiderationforfewerAfricansleavingtheircontinentasslavesbecamemorecompelling.KeepingAfricansathometoproviderawmaterialsforEuropeanindustrialpro-ductionandtheninturnsellingthosemanufacturedgoodstoAfricabecameaprofitableeconomicmodel.

AtriangulartradenetworkwascreatedinwhichAfricanslaveswereusedtogrowplantationcashcropssuchassugar,whichwereexportedtoEurope.Euro-peanmanufacturedgoodswerethenpurchasedwiththeproceedsfromsellingthecashcrops.TheseEuropeangoodsweretakentoAfrica,wheretheywereusedtopurchaseadditionalAfricanslavesforplantationsintheCaribbeanandAmericas,thuscontinuingthecycleoftradebetweenthesethreeregions.

Thebeginningofthenineteenthcenturysawtheendoftheslavetradeinmanynations.Denmarkledthemovementin1803,andmanynationssoonfol-lowed.By1817,GreatBritain,theUnitedStates,France,andtheNetherlandshad

4SELf-chEcK

How many of the

slaves that left Africa

were male?



A Piece ofhISToRy

Olaudah Equiano

My father, besides many slaves, had a numerous family, of which seven lived to grow up, including myself and a sister, who was the only daughter. As I was the youngest of the sons, I became, of course, the greatest favourite of my mother, and was always with her; and she used to take par-ticular pains to form my mind. I was trained up from my earliest years in the arts of agriculture and war: my daily exercise was shooting and throwing javelins; and my mother adorned me with emblems, after the manner of our greatest warriors. In this way I grew up till I was turned the age of eleven, when an end was put to my happiness in the following manner:—generally, when the grown people in the neighbourhood were gone far in the fields to labor, the children assembled together in some of the neighborhood’s premises to play; and commonly some of us used to get up a tree to look out for any assailant, or kidnapper, that might come upon us—for they sometimes took those opportunities of our par-ents’ absence, to attack and carry off as many as they could seize. One day, as I was watching at the top of a tree in our yard, I saw one of those people come into the yard of our next neigh-bour but one, to kidnap, there being many stout young people in it. Immediately on this I gave the alarm of the rogue, and he was surrounded by the stoutest of them, who entangled him with cords, so that he could not escape till some of the grown people came and secured him. But alas! ere long, it was my fate to be thus attacked, and to be carried off, when none of the grown people were nigh. One day, when all our people were gone out to their works as usual, and only I and my dear sister were left to mind the house, two

men and a woman got over our walls, and in a moment seized us both, and, without giving us time to cry out, or make resistance, they stopped our mouths, and ran off with us into the nearest wood. Here they tied our hands, and continued to carry us as far as they could, till night came on, when we reached a small house, where the robbers halted for refreshment, and spent the night. We were then unbound, but were unable to take any food; and, being quite overpowered by fatigue and grief, our only relief was some sleep, which allayed our misfortune for a short time.

Olaudah Equiano’s autobiography provides a vivid account of slavery. The narrative of his experiences as a slave personalizes the institution of slavery, and brings a name and a face to the anonymous millions of African slaves. The depiction of the relationships with members of his family as a child is similar to the familial ties many European readers would have had themselves. Equiano was close to his parents, particularly with his mother, who clearly loved him. He seems to have come from a prosperous family, as he had many siblings and the family had slaves. The retelling of the dramatic abduction of Equiano and his sister as helpless children is heart-wrenching.

Equiano’s parents taught and trained their chil-dren, but could not protect them from kidnappers who took Equiano and his sister as slaves. At eleven years old, he became a slave and never saw his home or his family again. The personal account conveys the injustice of slave raiding, and draws sympathy from readers with specific details of how the practice of slavery ripped Equiano as a child from his home.



allabolishedtheslavetrade.Theendoftheslavetradedidnotmeantheendofslaves,though,oreventheendofillegalslavetrade.TheplantationsintheAmericasstillreliedonslavelabor,andclandestineshipmentsofslavescontinuedtomaketheirwayacrosstheAtlantic.ThepatrolsofBritishnavalforcesintheAtlanticoffthecoastofWestAfricadidmuchtoendtheillegaltrade.

Theabolitionoftheactualinstitutionofslaveryfollowedtheendoftheslavetradeinmanynations,thoughnotimmediately.AllslaveswereemancipatedinBritishcoloniesin1833,withFrancefollowingwithitscoloniesin1848,theUnitedStatesin1865,andCubaandBrazilinthe1880s.AngolaandSaudiArabiaendedslaveryinthe1960s.

SummaryAsBantucommunitiesinEastAfricagrew,thesettlementsalongtheeasterncoastmaintainedcontactwithoneanother,andtheSwahilisocietythatemergedsharedacommoncultureoflanguage,religiousbeliefs,andtechnology.Manycity-stateswereorganizedamongSwahilicoastalcommunitiesbetween1000and1500C.E,andwerepopulatedbySwahiliaswellaspeoplesfromtheMiddleEastandAsia.AprosperoustradenetworkgrewalongthecoastandextendedintoEastandcentralAfrica.Aswealthgrew,stonebuildingsreplacedmudandthatchhuts.Whilekingdoms,states,andempireswereorganizedwithrulersandstratifiedclassesthroughoutsub-SaharanAfricaafter1000C.E.,statelesssocietieswerethenorminthesmallcommunitiesthatdottedtheregion.Thesecommunitieswereorganizedandgovernedbymaleheadsoffamiliesbasedonkinshiptiesandageandgenderroles.

Muslimmerchantsonthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutesintroducedIslamtosub-SaharanAfrica.AsthemarketforAfricanslavesabroadincreased,slaveraidingbecameacommonpracticeinsub-SaharanAfrica.Theslavetradetookmorethan18millionAfricans,mostofthemmen,fromtheirhomeland.Asoppositiontoslaveryonmoralgroundsgainedtraction,theeconomicbenefitsofslaverybegantofalter.BeginningwithDenmarkin1803,manynationsabolishedslavetrade.Theabolitionoftheactualinstitutionofslaveryfollowedtheendoftheslavetrade,thoughnotimmediately.

Looking AheadTheeffectsoftheslavetradeintheAmericascontinuetoday,wherethedescen-dantsofthemillionsofAfricanswhoarrivedasslaveshaveestablishedaculturalpresence.InregionssuchasthesouthernUnitedStates,Brazil,andislandsintheCaribbean,theAfricanslavesintheAmericasadaptedtraditionalculturestotheirnewland.CreolelanguagesemergedthatblendedAfricanandEuropeanlanguages.ManyAfricanslavesintheAmericasconvertedtoChristianity,butjustaswithIslaminsub-SaharanAfrica,traditionalAfricanbeliefswerenotleftbehind.In-stead,Christianbeliefsandpracticesblendedwithtraditionalbeliefsandrituals.ThelegacyoftheinfluenceofAfricancultureontheAmericasisalsoevidentinthemusicculturethatemergedamongAfricanslaves,firstwithrhythmicpatternsandvocalstyles,andlaterwithmusicgenressuchasjazzandblues.

5SELf-chEcK

What was the first

nation to abolish the

trade of slaves, and

when did it happen?



1. Swahili traders acquired goods such as glass, Persian silks, and Chinese porcelain from Indian Ocean merchants.

2. Age grade tasks were tailored to the grade’s maturity, strength, and experience. One age grade might care for elders in the community, and another grade might help set up the household of a newly married couple.

3. Muslim merchants brought Islam to sub-Saharan Africa in two ways, to West Africa via the trans-Saharan route, and to East Africa via Indian Ocean sea routes.

4. Two out of three slaves that left Africa were male.

5. In 1803, Denmark became the first nation to abolish the trade of slaves.

SELf-chEcK AnSwERS



Unit 4, Lesson 18All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1, 5 Island of Kilwa, present-day Tanzania, 1572. ullstein bild - histopics/The Granger Collection, New York 8 The Great Mosque of Kilwa. © Ulrich Doering/age fotostock 10 Slave trade along the West African coast, 1836. The Granger Collection, New York 12 Olaudah Equiano, The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African (Boston: Isaac Knapp, 1837), 30–32.


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