The Sociological PerspectiveThe Sociological Perspective

Chapter 1Chapter 1

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

Understand the sociological point of view and how it differs from Understand the sociological point of view and how it differs from that of journalists and talk-show hosts.that of journalists and talk-show hosts.

Compare and contrast sociology with the other major social Compare and contrast sociology with the other major social sciences.sciences.

Describe the early development of sociology from its origins in Describe the early development of sociology from its origins in nineteenth-century Europe.nineteenth-century Europe.

Know the contributions of sociology’s pioneers: Comte, Know the contributions of sociology’s pioneers: Comte, Martineau, Spencer, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber.Martineau, Spencer, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber.

Describe the early development of sociology in the United Describe the early development of sociology in the United States.States.

Understand the functionalist, conflict theory, and symbolic Understand the functionalist, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionist perspectives.interactionist perspectives.

Realize the relationship between theory and practice.Realize the relationship between theory and practice.

Sociology as a Point of ViewSociology as a Point of View What is Sociology?What is Sociology?

It is the scientific study of human society and social It is the scientific study of human society and social interactions. interactions.

Main focusMain focus GroupGroup

Seeks to understand:Seeks to understand: Forces that operate throughout societyForces that operate throughout society Forces that mold individuals and shape their behaviorForces that mold individuals and shape their behavior And, thus determine social events And, thus determine social events

The Sociological ImaginationThe Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills (1959) used the term C. Wright Mills (1959) used the term sociological imagination to refer to:sociological imagination to refer to: Examining the relationship between individual Examining the relationship between individual

experiencesexperiences Bringing into focus the forces in the larger Bringing into focus the forces in the larger

society that shape our actionssociety that shape our actions

The Sociological Imagination at WorkThe Sociological Imagination at Work

Social ProblemsSocial Problems

DivorceDivorce Appropriate taxationAppropriate taxation Increased tuitionIncreased tuition Suicide or death of a loved oneSuicide or death of a loved one

The Sociological Imagination at WorkThe Sociological Imagination at Work

Social RelationshipsSocial Relationships

Crowds at sports eventsCrowds at sports events Shifts in styles of dress and popular musicShifts in styles of dress and popular music Changing patterns in courtship and marriageChanging patterns in courtship and marriage The emergence and fading of different lifestylesThe emergence and fading of different lifestyles Political movementsPolitical movements Religious sectsReligious sects The distribution of income and access to resources and The distribution of income and access to resources and

opportunitiesopportunities Decisions made by the Supreme Court, congressional Decisions made by the Supreme Court, congressional

committees, and local zoning boardscommittees, and local zoning boards

To be a sociologist, you have to:To be a sociologist, you have to:

Develop a Sociological ImaginationDevelop a Sociological Imagination

Change how you see the worldChange how you see the world Broaden your perspective on the worldBroaden your perspective on the world Make objective sense out of what’s going on Make objective sense out of what’s going on

around youaround you

Objective AnalysisObjective Analysis

Understanding Crime StatisticsUnderstanding Crime Statistics

An example of moving from personal or anecdotal An example of moving from personal or anecdotal experience to objective understandingexperience to objective understanding

Sociology and ScienceSociology and Science

Sociology Sociology Commonly described as one of the social Commonly described as one of the social

sciencessciences Refers to a body of systematically arranged Refers to a body of systematically arranged

knowledge that shows operation of general knowledge that shows operation of general lawslaws

Employs the same general methods of Employs the same general methods of investigation that are used in the natural investigation that are used in the natural sciencescience

Scientific MethodScientific Method

A process by which a body of scientific A process by which a body of scientific knowledge is built through observation, knowledge is built through observation, experimentation, generalization, and experimentation, generalization, and verification.verification.

EmpiricismEmpiricismThe view that generalizations are valid only if they rely on The view that generalizations are valid only if they rely on evidence that can be observed or verified through sense.evidence that can be observed or verified through sense.

Theologians Theologians

PhilosophersPhilosophers

SociologistsSociologists

Believe faith produces Believe faith produces true happinesstrue happiness

Debate what happiness Debate what happiness encompassesencompasses

Note, analyze, and Note, analyze, and predict consequences of predict consequences of such measurable items such measurable items as job satisfaction, as job satisfaction, relationship between relationship between education and income, education and income, role of social class, and role of social class, and divorce.divorce.

Social Sciences Social Sciences

The disciplines that apply scientific The disciplines that apply scientific methods to the study of human behavior.methods to the study of human behavior.

SociologySociology AnthropologyAnthropology PsychologyPsychology EconomicsEconomics HistoryHistory Political SciencePolitical Science Social WorkSocial Work

Sociology vs. Other DisciplinesSociology vs. Other Disciplines

Sociologist study groups and institutions Sociologist study groups and institutions within large, modern, and industrial societies within large, modern, and industrial societies using research methods that enable them to using research methods that enable them to quickly gather specific information about large quickly gather specific information about large numbers of people.numbers of people.

Cultural anthropologists immerse themselves Cultural anthropologists immerse themselves in another society for a long time, trying to in another society for a long time, trying to learn as much as possible about that society learn as much as possible about that society and the relationships among it.and the relationships among it.

Sociologists look at patterns of behavior.Sociologists look at patterns of behavior. Psychologists look at motivation, perception, Psychologists look at motivation, perception, cognition, creativity, mental disorders, and cognition, creativity, mental disorders, and personality.personality.

Sociologists study social factors that influence Sociologists study social factors that influence a person’s economic decision.a person’s economic decision.

Economists study price availability factors.Economists study price availability factors.

Sociologists look at historical events within Sociologists look at historical events within their social contexts to discover why things their social contexts to discover why things happened and, more importantly, to assess happened and, more importantly, to assess what their social significance was and is. what their social significance was and is. Sociology focuses on the present.Sociology focuses on the present.

Historians look at past events to attempt to Historians look at past events to attempt to learn what happened, when it happened, and learn what happened, when it happened, and why it happened.why it happened.

Sociologists focus on how political systems Sociologists focus on how political systems affect other institutions in society.affect other institutions in society.

Political science devotes more attention to the Political science devotes more attention to the forces that shape political systems and the forces that shape political systems and the theories for understanding these forces.theories for understanding these forces.

Sociologists try to understand why problems Sociologists try to understand why problems exist.exist.

Social workers help people solve problems.Social workers help people solve problems.

Development of SociologyDevelopment of Sociology

Emerged as a separate field of study in Emerged as a separate field of study in Europe during the 19Europe during the 19thth century century

Stimulated by the Industrial Revolution and Stimulated by the Industrial Revolution and the 18the 18thth-century American and French -century American and French Revolutions. Revolutions.

Key SociologistsKey Sociologists

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Karl Marx (1818-1883)Karl Marx (1818-1883) Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) Max Weber (1864-1920)Max Weber (1864-1920) W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

Notable ContributorsNotable Contributors

Auguste ComteAuguste Comte(1798-1857)(1798-1857)

Harriet MartineauHarriet Martineau(1802-1876)(1802-1876)

Herbert SpencerHerbert Spencer(1820-1903)(1820-1903)

Auguste ComteAuguste Comte(1798-1857)(1798-1857)

Envisioned a science of manEnvisioned a science of man Sought to develop a cohesive discipline Sought to develop a cohesive discipline

that would:that would: reveal the underlying principles of societyreveal the underlying principles of society utilize scientific principles of physical scienceutilize scientific principles of physical science

Coined the term sociologyCoined the term sociology

Harriet MartineauHarriet Martineau (1802-1876) (1802-1876)

Published Published Theory and Practice of Society is Theory and Practice of Society is America America in 1837.in 1837.

Emphasized observation of day-to-day lifeEmphasized observation of day-to-day life Traveled throughout the United States observing life Traveled throughout the United States observing life

everywhere from prisons to family gatheringseverywhere from prisons to family gatherings

Encouraged social activismEncouraged social activism Outspoken about treatment of women in the United Outspoken about treatment of women in the United

StatesStates

Translated Auguste Comte’s six volume Translated Auguste Comte’s six volume Positive Positive PhilosophyPhilosophy to English to English

Herbert SpencerHerbert Spencer (1820-1903) (1820-1903)

Believed that society was similar to a living Believed that society was similar to a living organismorganism

Proponent of social DarwinismProponent of social Darwinism Charles Darwin’s notion of “survival of the Charles Darwin’s notion of “survival of the

fittest”—animals adapted to the environment fittest”—animals adapted to the environment survived and prospered while the poorly survived and prospered while the poorly adapted died out. adapted died out.

Provided support for social inequality Provided support for social inequality

Classical Sociological TheoristsClassical Sociological Theorists

Karl MarxKarl Marx (1818-1883)(1818-1883)

Émile Durkheim Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)(1858-1917)

Max Weber Max Weber (1864-1920)(1864-1920)

Karl Marx Karl Marx (1818-1883)(1818-1883)

Focused on human condition during Focused on human condition during Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution

Historical perspective of class conflictHistorical perspective of class conflict Bourgeoisie Bourgeoisie – the owners and controllers of – the owners and controllers of

the means of production (capitalists)the means of production (capitalists) Proletariat Proletariat – the mass of workers the mass of workers

Provided foundations for modern conflict Provided foundations for modern conflict theorytheory

Émile Durkheim Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)(1858-1917)

Viewed individuals as the product of the social Viewed individuals as the product of the social environmentenvironment Society shapes people in every possible waySociety shapes people in every possible way

Focused on forces that hold society togetherFocused on forces that hold society together Concept of social variablesConcept of social variables

Provided foundations for functionalist theoryProvided foundations for functionalist theory

Studied/IdentifiedStudied/IdentifiedThree Types of SuicideThree Types of Suicide

EgoisticEgoistic Suicide comes from low group solidarity, and Suicide comes from low group solidarity, and

underinvolvement with others.underinvolvement with others.

AltruisticAltruistic Suicide derives from a very high level of group Suicide derives from a very high level of group

solidarity and overinvolvement with others.solidarity and overinvolvement with others.

AnomicAnomic Suicide results from a sense of feeling disconnected Suicide results from a sense of feeling disconnected

from society’s values (norms).from society’s values (norms).

Max Weber Max Weber (1864-1920)(1864-1920)

Focused on understanding social actionsFocused on understanding social actions Primary interest: Individual meanings people attach Primary interest: Individual meanings people attach

to the world around themto the world around them• Subjective interpretativeSubjective interpretative

Concentration on understanding human behaviorConcentration on understanding human behavior

Emphasized understanding rather than activismEmphasized understanding rather than activism Pursued description and explanation of social Pursued description and explanation of social

truth or fact as means for influencing the social truth or fact as means for influencing the social systemsystem

American SociologistsAmerican Sociologists

W.E.B. Du BoisW.E.B. Du Bois(1868-1963)(1868-1963)

Talcott ParsonsTalcott Parsons(1902-1979)(1902-1979)

Robert MertonRobert Merton(1910-2003)(1910-2003)

George Herbert MeadGeorge Herbert Mead(1863-1931)(1863-1931)

W.E.B. Du BoisW.E.B. Du Bois

First African-American to receive a Ph.D. First African-American to receive a Ph.D. from Harvardfrom Harvard

Established sociology program at Atlanta Established sociology program at Atlanta UniversityUniversity

Advocated militant resistance to white Advocated militant resistance to white racismracism

Moved to GhanaMoved to Ghana

Talcott ParsonsTalcott Parsons

Most responsible for developing theories Most responsible for developing theories of structural functionalism in the U.S.of structural functionalism in the U.S.

Elaborated on the ideas of DurkheimElaborated on the ideas of Durkheim

Robert MertonRobert Merton

Influential proponent of functionalist theoryInfluential proponent of functionalist theory Manifest functions and latent functionsManifest functions and latent functions Under leadership of Merton and Parsons, Under leadership of Merton and Parsons,

U.S. sociology adopted a “value-free” U.S. sociology adopted a “value-free” perspectiveperspective

George Herbert MeadGeorge Herbert Mead

Developed the symbolic interactionist Developed the symbolic interactionist perspectiveperspective

Classical Sociological

Theories

Functionalist Conflict Symbolic Interactionist

Foundation of SociologyFoundation of Sociology

FunctionalismFunctionalism

Views society as a system of highly Views society as a system of highly interrelated structures or parts that interrelated structures or parts that function or operate together harmoniouslyfunction or operate together harmoniously Society viewed as organism in balanceSociety viewed as organism in balance

Attempts to account for all social variablesAttempts to account for all social variables Conflict between variables disrupts balanceConflict between variables disrupts balance

Conflict TheoryConflict Theory

Envisions constant struggle to obtain Envisions constant struggle to obtain maximum benefitmaximum benefit Conflict viewed as the normal orderConflict viewed as the normal order Wealth, power, and prestige are focus of Wealth, power, and prestige are focus of

conflictconflict Emphasis on who benefits from social Emphasis on who benefits from social

division and controldivision and control Struggle based on unequal power and Struggle based on unequal power and

control of means of production (resources)control of means of production (resources)

Symbolic InteractionSymbolic Interaction

Subjective InterpretationSubjective Interpretation Focuses on how individuals interpret the social worldFocuses on how individuals interpret the social world Seeks understanding of meanings of individual and Seeks understanding of meanings of individual and

social behavior—the social actsocial behavior—the social act The interpretation and meaning of:The interpretation and meaning of:

• SignsSigns

• SymbolsSymbols

• LanguageLanguage

• GesturesGestures

• ObjectsObjects

Contemporary SociologyContemporary Sociology

A synthesis of theory and researchA synthesis of theory and research

Seeks broad understanding of and attention to Seeks broad understanding of and attention to social problems via:social problems via:• Empirical studyEmpirical study• Compilation and interpretation of data gatheredCompilation and interpretation of data gathered• Activist applicationActivist application