The Scientific Revolution

Early 16th Century science was based on Aristotle.

Motionless earth fixed in the center of the universe

Surrounded by celestial spheres that moved in a perfect circle

The Great Chain of Being

Francis Bacon

The Scientific Method – A new way to do science

Inductive-

Bacon and Descartes'(Bacon = inductive, Descartes = deductive)

Bacon – Formalizes the empirical method

Descartes' – proves correspondence between geometry and algebra.. Creates analytic geometry.– Dualism – Mind and matter or the physical and

the spiritual

William Harvey

Medicine – Circular flow of blood from the heart

Microscope

The Telescope

Copernicus

1473-1543 Clergyman The universe revolved around a fixed sun Did not publish works until the year of his

death

Change of World View

The immense size of the universe The earthly world was similar to the heavens… earth is

just another planet Where was the kingdom of heaven? Did not Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth 1616 The Catholic Church declares Copernican theory

as false

Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo

Brahe collected data Kepler’s 3laws of planetary motions

– Elliptical– Did not move at a uniform speed– The time it takes to orbit is directly related to the distance

from the sun

Galileo 1564 - 1642 Experimental method

Law of inertia

Changed a telescope from Holland and pointed it toward the heavens

Observed that the moon, is in many ways, like the surface of the earth. Western civilization turns the corner

Making sense of the universe

Nature and nature's light were hidden by night/ Then God said "Let Newton be!" and then there was light" – Alexander Pope

Newton “” 1647-1727

Law of Universal Gravitation – attraction to other bodies… precise and mathematical

The Solar System

Causes of the Scientific Revolution The Medieval Universities – Application of

scientific reasoning - and math from the crusades

The Renaissance – Humanism search of knowledge through antiquity improves math

The need for navigation tools - longitude

Science and the Church

Were Protestants more open to science?– Where there was a strong central religious

authority religious dogma ruled• Italy

• Holland

• England

Consequences of the Scientific Revolution Gave rise to international scientific

communities. New way of obtaining more knowledge

– More critical– Refused to base its conclusions on established

sources

But… little evidence that it was due to economic factors. It was first and foremost an intellectual movement

However – revolutions are coming Science and industrial arts exalted

Religion and morality are questioned

Knowledge was important because it made possible social, economic and political PROGRESS.

Causes for uncertainty

Scholars were cautious – as institutions could condemn

Previous wars of religion – Thirty Years War. A strong state demanded religious conformity

Skepticism – Bayle – nothing could ever be known beyond doubt

Skepticism- as the world shrinks

Europeans cut their beards and grew their hair long.

Turks shaved their heads and grew their beards long.

John Locke – rejects Descarte – with his tabula rasa

Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding as the equal to Newton’s Principia

The Enlightenment

Natural science should be used understand all aspects of life… rationalism

Scientific method could be used to discover laws about human society… The birth of the social sciences.

Progress… Human being could create better societies

The French Philosophes Were they philosophers? More like early sociologists Why France

– French was the language of the educated– “Scientists” were not as suppressed as other parts of the

worldWhat were their concerns

Determined to reach the all of Europe’s educated elite… The Public…not “the blind and noisy multitude”

– Careful not to directly attack powerful institutions they wrote plays, books and satires that were not distributed widely or had had double meanings

Reformers More than Revolutionaries Montesquieu – separation of powers Francois Marie Arouet – Voltaire – satire

and religious toleration but never social or economic equality.

Diderot - encyclopedia Madame du Chatelet Deists

The Later Enlightenment-1770

D’Holbach – Humans are machines – free will is a myth – B.F. Skinner “Beyond Freedom and Dignity … positive and negative reinforcement (Late 60’s USA)

David Hume(1711-1776) The human mind is simply a bundle of impressions

Rousseau – The noble savage… Institutions that were created for progress actually corrupt

More Rousseau…

“The Social Contract”– The General Will – reflects the common

interest of the people– Popular Sovereignty– More on the general will… dictators and

democrats have used this to usurp power

Urban Culture and Public Opinion Books sales explode Less religious and more books on the arts and

sciences (1780) Smuggled books evaded censorship EUROPE WAS BECOMING MORE SECULAR

– Scandals

– Pornography

– Women using sex to conquer weak men

– Germany permitted freedom of the press

The Salons – Free From Censorship Women brought important men to discuss

the latest literature, science and philosophy Elite women exercised influence in the arts

– Rococo– Greater education for women– Madam Geoffrin

The Enlightenment and Absolutism Benevolent absolutism was the best

opportunity to improve society.

The people are children that need parental guidance

Prussia, Russia, and Austria

Prussia– Frederick II (The Great) (r.1740-1786)

• Daddy was the “solider king”

• Sonny tries to run away with his best friend and Daddy cuts his friend’s head off

• But… in 1740 he inherits the throne and invades Silesia

• The War of Austrian Succession

The War of Austrian Succession

1740-1748 Prussia adds 6 mil to its population

Austria would not let Silesia go peacefully– Maria Theresa allied herself with France and

Russia in the Seven Years War (In America it was called the French Indian War (1756-1763)

Frederick The Great Holds on But Gives in Peter III 1762 calls off the attack

The Seven Years War tempers his policies– Religious and academic toleration– Improved schools– Improved agriculture and industry– “Only the first servant of the state”– Did not free his own serfs

– Kept the right to expel the Jews whenever he wanted

Catherine the Great of Russia (r.1762-1796) German Peter the Great abolished hereditary

succession Catherine has Peter III killed for

withdrawing from the Seven Years War

Catherine had drunk deeply at the enlightenment well Three main goals

– Bring sophisticated western culture to Russia• Bring in western architecture

• Corresponds with Voltaire

– Domestic reform• Pugachev’s revolt 1773

• Peasants are dangerous

• 1775- nobles have absolute control of their serfs

Goals… continued

Territorial Expansion– Successful

• Crimea

• Caucasus

• Poland , divided among Austria, Russia, and Prussia– Kept Russian noble happy

Austrian Habsburgs

Maria Theresa– Limited power of the papacy– Strengthened central bureaucracy– Improve the life of agricultural workers

Habsburgs…Continued

Joseph II…Coregent to 1780 and ruled to 1790– Controlled the Catholic Church more closely– Religious toleration for Protestants and Jews– Abolishes serfdom from 1781-1789 (led to

turmoil from the nobles… cancelled in 1791)

Absolutism is France

King was still the best source of reform Louis XIV dies 1715. Nobles under the

Duke of Orleans make a comeback Restored the high courts of France – the

Parlements… They maintained the right to evaluate decrees before they became law

What once were middle-class judges were now well entrenched in the aristocracy

The Parlement of Paris 5% tax on everyone (because of the War of

Austrian Succession) was dropped.

Seven Years War 1756-1763 King tries to impose emergency taxes

Parlement of Paris rejects the tax “ to limit the king’s power and protect liberty.”

No taxes without the consent of The Parlement of Paris

Mapeou

Louis XV Reacts

Mapeou establishes a new more docile Parlement The king of his royal aura

– Pornography

– Scandal mongering

– The commoners of Paris were beginning to stir

– Royal power was strong enough to ride over the opposition but the king dies in 1774

– Louis XVI “What I should like most is to be loved.”

Overall influence of the Enlightenment France unlike the its eastern neighbors saw

a decline in absolutism The Enlightened Monarchs

– They did spread cultural values of the Enlightenment… especially Frederick and Catherine

• Secular • Education and interest in the arts• Reforms that would strengthen the state and

compete militarily…

Absolutists continued

Put state building reforms in a broader perspective

How humane laws could make the population more productive – Tolerating religious minorities– Simplifying legal codes and promoting

practical education