The Scientific The Scientific RevolutionRevolution

Key ConceptsKey Concepts

I. The Aristotelian I. The Aristotelian UniverseUniverse Derived from Aristotle Derived from Aristotle

(4th c. BCE), Ptolemy (2nd (4th c. BCE), Ptolemy (2nd c.), and Galen (2nd c. c.), and Galen (2nd c. Greek physician)Greek physician)

Aristotelian-Ptolemaic Aristotelian-Ptolemaic view: the earth lay at view: the earth lay at the center of the universe the center of the universe with the moon, sun, with the moon, sun, planets and stars planets and stars revolving around it along revolving around it along crystaline spheres in crystaline spheres in perfect circles. perfect circles.

Greek thinking was Greek thinking was absorbed into Christianity absorbed into Christianity in the 13th c. with in the 13th c. with scholasticism.scholasticism.

Scientific Scientific “Revolutionaries”“Revolutionaries”

What factors account for the What factors account for the development of new scientific development of new scientific

approaches in the 16th century?approaches in the 16th century? • The Renaissance interest in nature

• The need for celestial navigation to support exploration

• The Catholic Church’s interest in an accurate calendar

A. Copernicus (1473-A. Copernicus (1473-1543)1543)

Aim to glorify God: He Aim to glorify God: He was a Polish priest was a Polish priest called by the Church to called by the Church to develop a more accurate develop a more accurate calendar.calendar.

Heliocentric Theory: Sun-Heliocentric Theory: Sun-centered universe centered universe (presented as a (presented as a mathematical supposition)mathematical supposition)

On the Revolutions of the On the Revolutions of the Heavenly SpheresHeavenly Spheres (1543) (1543)

Sparked criticism and Sparked criticism and further astronomical further astronomical inquiryinquiry

B. Tycho Brahe (1546-B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)1601)

Danish astronomerDanish astronomer Most sophisticated Most sophisticated astronomer of his dayastronomer of his day

Spent 20 years staring Spent 20 years staring at the sky on the at the sky on the isolated island of Hven, isolated island of Hven, off the coast of Denmark off the coast of Denmark (w/out a telescope)(w/out a telescope)

1577 - Discovered comet 1577 - Discovered comet shooting right through shooting right through crystalline spheres crystalline spheres (something that wasn’t (something that wasn’t supposed to happen under supposed to happen under the Ptolemaic system)the Ptolemaic system)

Still never accepted Still never accepted heliocentric theoryheliocentric theory

C. Johannes Kepler (1571-C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)1630)

Student of BraheStudent of Brahe Planetary motion Planetary motion conforms to conforms to mathematical mathematical formulaformula

Elliptical orbitsElliptical orbits Planets do not Planets do not move at uniform move at uniform speeds in their speeds in their orbitsorbits

D. Galileo Galilei D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)(1564-1642)

Early practitioner of Early practitioner of the experimental the experimental methodmethod

Mathematical formula Mathematical formula for acceleration of for acceleration of falling objectsfalling objects

Law of inertiaLaw of inertia His discoveries using His discoveries using the telescopethe telescope

Challenges categories Challenges categories of “form” and “matter”of “form” and “matter”

End of his lifeEnd of his life

E. Isaac Newton (1642-E. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)1727)

Newton far from the Newton far from the perfect rationalistperfect rationalist

A great synthesizerA great synthesizer Blends inductive and Blends inductive and deductive methodsdeductive methods

Argues for a universe Argues for a universe governed by natural governed by natural lawslaws

Principia; Principia; Mathematical Mathematical Principles of Natural Principles of Natural PhilosophyPhilosophy (1687) (1687)

F. Francis Bacon F. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)(1561-1626)

Father of the Father of the Scientific Scientific RevolutionRevolution

The Inductive The Inductive MethodMethod

Emphasis on Emphasis on practical, useful practical, useful knowledgeknowledge

New attitude New attitude toward naturetoward nature

G. Rene Descartes G. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)(1596-1650)

Significance of Significance of DoubtDoubt

The Deductive MethodThe Deductive Method Spatial Spatial relationships can be relationships can be expressed in expressed in mathematical mathematical formulasformulas

Father of Father of “analytical “analytical geometry”geometry”

III. Causes of the III. Causes of the Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution

Medieval Intellectual Medieval Intellectual Life and Medieval Life and Medieval UniversitiesUniversities

The Italian The Italian RenaissanceRenaissance

Renewed emphasis on Renewed emphasis on mathematicsmathematics

Renaissance system of Renaissance system of patronagepatronage

Navigational problems Navigational problems of long sea voyagesof long sea voyages

Better scientific Better scientific instrumentsinstruments

IV. Consequences of the IV. Consequences of the Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution

Rise of the Rise of the “Scientific Community”“Scientific Community”--Royal Society of --Royal Society of London (1662)London (1662)--Academy of Royal --Academy of Royal Sciences (1666)Sciences (1666)

The modern scientific The modern scientific methodmethod

A universe ordered A universe ordered according to natural according to natural lawslaws

IV. Consequences of the IV. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution Scientific Revolution

(cont)(cont) Laws discovered by Laws discovered by human reasonhuman reason

““De-Spiritualized” De-Spiritualized” and de-mystified and de-mystified the Universethe Universe

Mechanical View of Mechanical View of the Universethe Universe

Deistic View of GodDeistic View of God--God as the cosmic --God as the cosmic capitalistcapitalist

The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment

““Siecle de Lumiere”Siecle de Lumiere”““The Century of Light”The Century of Light”

An Experiment on a Bird in An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump – Joseph the Air Pump – Joseph

Wright (1768)Wright (1768)

I. What was it?I. What was it? 18th c. Progressive, 18th c. Progressive,

Rationalistic, Humanistic Rationalistic, Humanistic worldviewworldview

Reason--Application of the Reason--Application of the scientific method to scientific method to understanding all areas of understanding all areas of lifelife

Emerged out of the Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution and Scientific Revolution and culminated in the French culminated in the French RevolutionRevolution

Spokesmen = Rising Middle Spokesmen = Rising Middle ClassClass

Paris = Center of Paris = Center of EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Optimism about mankind’s Optimism about mankind’s abilitiesabilities

““Dare to know”--I. KantDare to know”--I. Kant

II. Key IdeasII. Key Ideas Skepticism: Mistrust of Skepticism: Mistrust of tradition and religiontradition and religion

Reason: Scientific Reason: Scientific method could be applied method could be applied to society as wellto society as well

Natural Law philosophy: Natural Law philosophy: If matter follows If matter follows natural laws, why not natural laws, why not human behavior? human behavior?

Natural Rights: EqualityNatural Rights: Equality Man is naturally goodMan is naturally good Progress: Good life is Progress: Good life is here on earth. Pursuit here on earth. Pursuit of knowledge should of knowledge should benefit mankind. benefit mankind.

III. An Attack on the III. An Attack on the Old RegimeOld Regime

A. The World of the Old A. The World of the Old RegimeRegime

Built on traditionBuilt on tradition World of World of hierarchy, hierarchy, privilege and privilege and inequalityinequality

Allied with the Allied with the ChurchChurch

Challenged by the Challenged by the reform impulse of reform impulse of supporters of the supporters of the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

B. Conflict with the B. Conflict with the Capitalistic Middle ClassCapitalistic Middle Class

Support for the Middle Class Support for the Middle Class social order against the social order against the traditional social ordertraditional social order

Size and increasing power of the Size and increasing power of the Middle ClassMiddle Class

A repudiation of mercantilism A repudiation of mercantilism (controlled economy to benefit (controlled economy to benefit the state)the state)

New notion of wealth: Man New notion of wealth: Man should be free to pursue his own should be free to pursue his own economic self-interesteconomic self-interest

Laissez-Faire: Laissez-Faire: “Let people do as “Let people do as they choose”; leave it alonethey choose”; leave it alone

Adam Smith’s Adam Smith’s Wealth of NationsWealth of Nations (1776)(1776)

C. Popularization of C. Popularization of ScienceScience

The popularity of science The popularity of science in the 17in the 17thth and 18 and 18thth centuriescenturies

Conversations on the Conversations on the Plurality of the WorldsPlurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de (1686)—Bernard de Fontenelle--A man and Fontenelle--A man and woman talking about the woman talking about the stars. stars.

The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution promised the promised the comprehensibility of the comprehensibility of the workings of the universeworkings of the universe

Contributed to the Contributed to the growing skepticism toward growing skepticism toward religionreligion

D. A New World of D. A New World of UncertaintiesUncertainties

John Locke (1632 - 1704)John Locke (1632 - 1704) Second Treatise on Second Treatise on

Government (1689): Natural Government (1689): Natural rights theory--life, rights theory--life, liberty, propertyliberty, property

Social contract theorySocial contract theory Right of rebellionRight of rebellion John Locke’s New PsychologyJohn Locke’s New Psychology

----Essay Concerning Human Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingUnderstanding (1690) (1690)-- “Tabula Rasa”: Humans -- “Tabula Rasa”: Humans learn from experience which learn from experience which writes upon their minds and writes upon their minds and character their personality character their personality and knowledge.and knowledge.

Sparked new thinking in Sparked new thinking in child-rearing, education, child-rearing, education, and philosophy. and philosophy.

IV. The PhilosophesIV. The Philosophes 1818thth century French century French intellectuals, intellectuals, writers, and social writers, and social criticscritics

Interest in addressing Interest in addressing a broad audiencea broad audience

Committed to reformCommitted to reform Celebrated the Celebrated the scientific revolutionscientific revolution

The “Mystique of The “Mystique of Newton”Newton”

Science applied to Science applied to societysociety

V. The Problem of V. The Problem of CensorshipCensorship

The attempt of the Old The attempt of the Old Regime to control new Regime to control new thinkingthinking

Publishers and writers Publishers and writers hounded by censorshounded by censors

Over 1000 booksellers Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the in the Bastille in the early 1700’searly 1700’s

Battling censorshipBattling censorship

VI. The Role of the VI. The Role of the SalonSalon

Protection and Protection and encouragement encouragement offered by French offered by French aristocratic women aristocratic women in their private in their private drawing roomsdrawing rooms

Feminine influence Feminine influence on the on the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Madame GeoffrinMadame Geoffrin

VII. Diderot’s VII. Diderot’s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia

Ultimate strength of Ultimate strength of the philosophes lay in the philosophes lay in their numbers, their numbers, dedication and dedication and organizationorganization

Written between 1751-Written between 1751-17721772

Attempted to illustrate Attempted to illustrate all human knowledgeall human knowledge

Problems with Problems with publicationpublication

Emphasis on practical Emphasis on practical sciencescience

VII. Diderot’s VII. Diderot’s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia (cont) (cont)

Desire to change the Desire to change the “general way of “general way of thinking”thinking”

Greater knowledge Greater knowledge leads to human leads to human progressprogress

Emphasized moderation Emphasized moderation and toleranceand tolerance

Human nature can be Human nature can be moldedmolded

Inalienable rights and Inalienable rights and the social contractthe social contract

Knowledge improves Knowledge improves goodnessgoodness

VIII. Famous VIII. Famous Enlightenment ThinkersEnlightenment Thinkers

A. Baron de Montesquieu A. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)(1689-1755)

The Spirit of the Laws The Spirit of the Laws (1748)(1748)

Despotism could be Despotism could be avoided if political avoided if political power were divided and power were divided and shared by a diversity shared by a diversity of classes (separation of classes (separation of powers)of powers)

Power must check powerPower must check power Admires British Admires British governmentgovernment

French parlements must French parlements must be defenders of be defenders of libertyliberty

Influence in the U.S. Influence in the U.S. ConstitutionConstitution

B. Voltaire (1694-B. Voltaire (1694-1778)1778)

Greatest Greatest Enlightenment thinkerEnlightenment thinker

Enthusiasm for Enthusiasm for English institutions English institutions (free press, (free press, politics, religious politics, religious toleration) toleration)

Deist: God created Deist: God created the universe, but has the universe, but has no direct involvement no direct involvement and allows it to run and allows it to run according to natural according to natural lawslaws

C. Baron Paul d’Holbach C. Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789)(1723-1789)

Wealthy German Wealthy German aristocrat; settled in aristocrat; settled in ParisParis

Preached atheism and Preached atheism and materialismmaterialism

System of Nature System of Nature (1770): (1770): God is unnecessary. God is unnecessary. People need only reason People need only reason to liveto live

His views dealt the unity His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a of the Enlightenment a severe blowsevere blow

Other thinkers repelled Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible by this inflexible atheismatheism

D. David Hume (1711-D. David Hume (1711-1776)1776)

Scottish philosopher - Scottish philosopher - “a pioneering social “a pioneering social scientist” scientist”

Science of Man: Science of Man: Observation and Observation and reflection grounded in reflection grounded in common sense. common sense.

Human mind is nothing Human mind is nothing but a bundle of but a bundle of impressionsimpressions

Reason cannot decipher Reason cannot decipher anything about the anything about the origins of the origins of the universe or the universe or the existence of Godexistence of God

E. E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)(1712-1778)

Born in Geneva - made his Born in Geneva - made his way to Paris. His life way to Paris. His life was complicatedwas complicated

The Social Contract The Social Contract (1762) Society is (1762) Society is governed by its “general governed by its “general will”will”

The general will is The general will is whatever is best for the whatever is best for the entire communityentire community

Man by nature was Man by nature was solitary, good and freesolitary, good and free

No need for parliamentary No need for parliamentary institutioninstitution

E. Rousseau (cont)E. Rousseau (cont)

Emile (1762) — Emile (1762) — Education should Education should foster, not restrict, foster, not restrict, childrens’ natural childrens’ natural instinctsinstincts

He sought a balance He sought a balance between the heart and between the heart and mind, between sentiment mind, between sentiment and reason--a precursor and reason--a precursor to Romanticism of the to Romanticism of the 19th century19th century

F. Immanuel Kant F. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)(1724-1804)

One of few philosophes One of few philosophes to live to see the to live to see the French RevolutionFrench Revolution

Enlightenment was a Enlightenment was a personal process—personal process—release from release from immaturityimmaturity

More optimistic than More optimistic than RousseauRousseau

““Dare to Know”—Dare to Know”—Enlightenment was an Enlightenment was an act of personal act of personal couragecourage

IX. Enlightened IX. Enlightened DespotismDespotism

The manner of The manner of political reformpolitical reform

Frederick the Great Frederick the Great of Prussiaof Prussia

Catherine the Great Catherine the Great of Russiaof Russia

Joseph II of AustriaJoseph II of Austria True reform or a True reform or a cynical, manipulative cynical, manipulative consolidation of consolidation of power?power?