The Scientific Method in Sociological Research

A systematic, rganized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and

consistency in researching a problem: A Students Guide

By Greg Kleponis, Guest Lecturer, PhD CandidateUniversity of Bolton

What are the 5 Basic Steps?

1.) Define the problem2.) Reviewing the literature3.) Formulating the Hypothesis4.) Selecting the research design and collecting & analyzing data5.) Developing the Conclusion

The Scientific Method

• The Scientific Method is a systematic way to look at a “problem” and evolve a solution.

• The Method utilizes distinct steps in it’s methodology. These steps follow a natural pattern of intuition, observation, collation of information and analysis

• This system is cyclical and can be repetitive informing the issue on repetitive terms

• The system is designed to “evolve” or in other words develop hypothesis, conclusions and further hypotheses to advance a theory or thought mode.

Define the Problem

Review the Literature

Formulate a Testable Hypothesis

Select a research design /Collect and analyze data

Survey Observation Experiment Existing Sources

Develop the ConclusionIdeas for further for Research

Defining the Problem

• The first step in any research project• State as clearly as possible what it is you hope to investigate• Clearly Outline the problem to be investigated

Develop an Operational Definition

• A researcher must develop an operations definition of each concept being studied

• An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept

• “Functionalist Perspective” measuring real world outcomes based on variables of abstract concepts

Reviewing the Literature

• Reviewing relevant scholarly studies and information- by doing this, researchers refine the problem under study, clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting data and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes.

• Examine macro-level data such as meta-analytical data• Examine micro-level data such as individual experiences and

case studies

Formulating a Hypothesis

• After reviewing research and drawing on the contributions of sociological theorists, researchers will formulate a hypothesis

• Hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables

• Variable: A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under varying conditions– Independent Variable: The variable hypothesized to cause or influence

another variable.– Dependent Variable: this variables action depends on the influence of the

independent variable – Control Variable: a factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of

and independent variable.

• In this case the researcher believes that the independent variable predicts or causes change in the dependent variable.

Causal Logic Illustration

Independent Variable Dependent Variable x yLevel of Educational Degree Level of income

Degree of lack of integration Into Society Likelihood of Suicide

Parents Church Attendance Children’s Church Attendance

Time spent preparing for Quiz Performance on quiz

Parents income Likelihood of children’s enrolling in college

The independent variable “X” influences a dependent variable “Y”

Formulating a Hypothesis

• Identifying independent and dependent variables is a critical step in clarifying cause and effect relationships– Casual Logic: Involves the relationship between a condition or

variable and a particular consequence with one event leading to the other

– Correlation: exists when a change in one of variable coincides with a change in the other. Correlations are an indication that causality may be present; they do not necessarily indicate causation,

• Sociologists seek to identify the causal link between variables; the suspected causal link is generally described in the hypothesis.

Collecting and Analyzing Data

• Research Design- guides the researcher in collecting and analyzing data

• Selecting the Sample: The sample is a selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population. – Random Sample: is where every member of an entire population

being studied has the same chance of being selected.

Validity & Reliability

• Validity: refers to the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study. – Valid measures must first be based on accurate data.– How accurate is the source? What do we base accuracy in reporting

on?

• Reliability: refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results.

Developing a Conclusion

• The conclusion of a research study represents both and end and a beginning. It terminates a specific phase of the investigation but should also generate ideas for future study.

Major Research Designs

• Research Design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically.

• Selection of a research design is often based on the theories and hypotheses the researcher starts with.

• The choosing of a design requires creativity and ingenuity because it directly influences both the cost of the project and the amount of time needed to collect data

• These designs that sociologists use to generate data including surveys, observations, experiments, and existing sources.

Surveys

• A study, generally in the forma of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act. – Gallup Poll– Harris Poll– “Person on the street interview”

• Problems with Surveys– Not an accurate indication of public opinion– Mainly just a sample of those interviewed. – Must represent a broad sample of the population

Surveys – Main Forms

• Interview- Researcher obtains information through face –to-face or telephone questioning

• Questionnaire: Researcher uses a printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent. – Each form has it’s own advantage – Interviews often have a higher response rate as people find it more difficult

to turn down a person rather than a questionnaire– Interviewer can also go beyond written questions to probe the feelings or

real underlying reasons for answers.– Questionnaires are cheaper to send out and more numerous– Questionnaires will often reveal more truthful answers as they

“human questioner” is not there and therefore the interviewee is more apt to give a truthful answer rather than a “politically correct” one or one they think the interviewer will want to hear.

Types of Research

• Quantitative Research: collects and reports data in primarily numerical form. – Advantages

• Good at making use of large samples.

• Quantitative Research: relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings, and focuses on small groups and communities rather than on large groups or whole nations. – The key to qualitative research is observation– Observation: Method allows sociologists to examine certain

behaviors and communities that could not be investigated through other research techniques. They may seem a relatively informal method compared to surveys or experiments, researchers are careful to take detailed notes while observing their subjects.

Types of Research

• Ethnography: refers to the study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation. – Emphasis on how the subjects themselves view their social life in

some setting. In some cases the sociologist actually joins a group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates. • Participant Observation

– What are the challenges to Participant Observation?• Objectivity- walking the tightropes• Army Human Terrain Systems Debate

– Helping US Army to understand cultures, customs, kinship structure and internal social conflict

• Should sociologists and Anthropologists get that involved• Should they “influence” the social system they are observing – what is the

difference between “observing” and “Advising”

Experiments

• An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables.

– Experimental Group- is exposed to an independent variable

– Control Group- The control group is not exposes • Obviously the aim of the experiment using two groups would be to test the hypothesis of the

effect of the independent variable in terms of what & how much

• “The Hawthorne Effect” The importance of the Hawthorne effect on group behavior and what Anthropologists call “Reflexivity”

– Content Analysis: Many social scientists find it useful to study cultural, economic, and political documents, including newspapers, periodicals, radio and television tapes, the Internet, scripts, diaries, songs, folklore and legal papers

Ethics of Research

• Code of Ethics– Maintain objectivity and integrity in research– Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity– Protect subjects from personal harm– Preserve confidentiality– Seek informed consent when data are collected from research

participants or when behavior occurs in a private context.– Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance.– Disclose all sources of financial support (American Sociological

Association 1997)• Because most sociological research uses people as sources of

information – as respondents to survey questions, subjects of observation or participants in experiments.

Ethics of Research

• Value Neutrality: – How do social scientists interpret their results?– Recognized that personal values would influence the questions that

sociologists select for research. – Under no circumstances should a researcher allow his or her personal

feelings to influence the Interpretation of data (Max Weber)– Ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run

counter to their own personal views, to theoretically based explanations or to widely accepted beliefs.

Terms for Quantitative Research

• Percentage: Shows a portion of 100.– Use of percentages allows us to compare groups of different sizes. By

using percentages we can obtain a more meaningful comparison, showing the proportion of persons in each group

• Mean or Average: is a number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values.

• Mode: is the single most common value in a series of scores • Median: is the mid-point or number that dives a series of

values into two groups or equal numbers of values

Graphs & Charts

• Enormously helpful in depicting findings and presenting visual representations of the results of experiments

• Can be used to show Quantitative as well as Qualitative data relative to other like data.

• Bar Charts• Pie Charts• Line Graphs

“Building Blocks” of Generic Social Research/Research Process

• Core Components:– Ontology– Epistemology– Methodology– Methods and Sources

• It is important to understand the importance of the interrelationship between the core components.

The Tools of the Trade

• Ontological and Epistemological Assumptions that underpin research is necessary in order to:1. To understand the interrelationship of the key components of

research2. To avoid confusion when discussing theoretical debates and

approaches to social phenomena3. To be able to recognize others and defend our own positions

• Clarity and Constancy of Terms– Important so all understand the foundations of ontological and

epistemological positions of colleagues to avoid confusion and mis-appraising another's position

– Central to all research

Ontology

• Starting point of all research, after which epistemological and methodological positions logically follow– “The image of social reality upon which a theory is based.– Claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social

reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other.

– Ontological assumptions are concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality

• Emphasis on the need to understand, acknowledge, and defend one’s own ontological position!

Ontology

• Examples of Ontological Positions– Objectivism- position that asserts that social phenomenon and their

meanings have an existence independent of social actors– Constructivism- asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are

continually being accomplished by social actors. Implies that social phenomena and categories are not only produced through social interaction but are in constant state of revision

• Obviously one position affects the manner in with one undertakes research

Epistemology

• A core branch of philosophy – concerned with the theory of knowledge– Important with regards to methods, validation and ways of gaining

knowledge of social reality.