The Science of Vampires, Zombies, Werewolves, and other monsters

7/31/2019 The Science of Vampires, Zombies, Werewolves, and other monsters

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Contents

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction 1

1. Giant AnimalsNemean Lion, Calydonian Boar, Rukh, King

Kong 7

2. Beastly BlendsChimera, Grion, Cockatrice, Sphinx 333. It Came rom the EarthMinotaur, Medusa 51

4. The Mysterious FathomsCharybdis, Leviathan,

Giant Squid, Jaws 79

5. O Flame and ClawDragons 99

6. HauntingsDemons, Ghosts, Spirits 120

7. Cursed by a BiteVampires, Zombies, Werewolves 136

8. The CreatedThe Golem, Frankenstein, HAL 9000,

Terminator 1649. Terror ResurrectedDinosaurs 182

10. Extraterrestrial ThreatAliens 198

Conclusion 213

Sources 221

Index 235


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7

Cursed by a BiteVampires,

Zombies, WerewolvesYoure intoxicated by my very presence.

Edward Cullen, Twilight

Slinking through the shadows o night, they come to eed on the

innocent. Seemingly human in appearance, the threat that they pose

becomes apparent only as needle-sharp angs pierce the throat o

their intended victim and blood is sucked away. When every last

drop o this precious lie essence is consumed, prey becomes preda-tor, seeking out blood to uel its own newly acquired supernatural

hunger. Vampires are among the worlds most celebrated and popular

monsters, and they have an extremely complex history and biology

surrounding them, supported by a long line o books and movies

eaturing them as both villains and heroes. Yet working out exactly

which ears drove the rise o vampires is a tricky question to answer

because they are such multiaceted monsters with no clear point oorigin.

On the ace o it, they are predators like lions and play upon the


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terror o being killed by a nocturnal hunter. With such a basic ear,

one would expect vampires to be present during ancient times when

ears o beasts lurking in the night were at their height, yet vampiresas we know them today arrived on the scene only in the eighteenth

century. Even so, earlier reports o creatures resembling these mon-

sters do exist.

In the Odyssey, Odysseus is orced to travel to the land o the

dead and conront the ghosts o people he once knew in order to

gain inormation to aid him on his quest. The witch Circe advises

that he must allow the ghosts to eed on blood reshly spilled rom

the body o an animal to gain their trust and knowledge. At rsthe is highly protective o the pool o blood that he spills on the

ground, allowing only the ghost o the wise man, Teiresias, to eed

and answer his questions. But then the ghost o Odysseuss mother

appears and ails to recognize him as her own son. Odysseus turns

to Teiresias or answers: Tell me and tell me true, I see my poor

mothers ghost close by us; she is sitting by the blood without say-

ing a word, and though I am her own son she does not rememberme and speak to me; tell me, Sir, how I can make her know me.

Teiresias replies, Any ghost that you let taste o the blood will talk

with you like a reasonable being, but i you do not let them have

any blood they will go away again. Odysseus then allows the ghost

o his mother to eed on the blood, and her memories o him come

fooding back.

For Homer, blood is clearly a link between the dead and the liv-

ing, even i it has to be spilled rom an animals body onto the groundto have this eect. However, while the spirits in the Odyssey are a

tantalizing ancestor to the modern vampire, they are still very dier-

ent, and it is not until nearly two thousand years ater Homer, during

the late 1100s, that creatures more like the vampires o modern c-

tion appear in Europe. The person who documents these monsters is

William o Newburgh, an English historian who is widely thought to

have had a network o trustworthy inormants who helped him reporton historic events that took place between the days o William the

Conqueror in 1066 and those o Richard the Lionheart in 1198. In


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his Historia rerum Anglicarum, amid inormation about royalty and

political events, he tells the tale o an evil man who dies rom a all

shortly ater discovering his wie is having an aair:

A Christian burial, indeed, he received, though unworthy o

it; but it did not much benet him: or issuing, by the handi-

work o Satan, rom his grave at night-time, and pursued by

a pack o dogs with horrible barkings, he wandered through

the courts and around the houses while all men made ast

their doors, and did not dare to go abroad on any errand

whatever rom the beginning o the night until the sunrise,or ear o meeting and being beaten black and blue by this

vagrant monster. But those precautions were o no avail; or

the atmosphere, poisoned by the vagaries o this oul carcass,

lled every house with disease and death by its pestierous

breath.

Death comes to many people ater the evil mans burial, anddesperate to bring the monsters curse to an end, two brothers take

action:

Two young men, who had lost their ather by this plague, mutu-

ally encouraging one another, said, This monster has already

destroyed our ather, and will speedily destroy us also, unless

we take steps to prevent it. Let us, thereore, do some bold

action which will at once ensure our own saety and revengeour athers death. There is no one to hinder us; or in the

priests house a east is in progress, and the whole town is as

silent as i deserted. Let us dig up this baneul pest, and burn

it with re. Thereupon snatching up a spade o but indierent

sharpness o edge, and hastening to the cemetery, they began

to dig; and whilst they were thinking that they would have

to dig to a greater depth, they suddenly, beore much o theearth had been removed, laid bare the corpse, swollen to an

enormous corpulence, with its countenance beyond measure


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turgid and suused with blood; while the napkin in which it

had been wrapped appeared nearly torn to pieces. The young

men, however, spurred on by wrath, eared not, and inficted awound upon the senseless carcass, out o which incontinently

fowed such a stream o blood, that it might have been taken

or a leech lled with the blood o many persons. Then, drag-

ging it beyond the village, they speedily constructed a uneral

pile; and upon one o them saying that the pestilential body

would not burn unless its heart were torn out, the other laid

open its side by repeated blows o the blunted spade, and,

thrusting in his hand, dragged out the accursed heart. Thisbeing torn piecemeal, and the body now consigned to the

fames, it was announced to the guests what was going on,

who, running thither, enabled themselves to testiy hence-

orth to the circumstances. When that inernal hell-hound

had thus been destroyed, the pestilence which was rie among

the people ceased, as i the air, which had been corrupted by

the contagious motions o the dreadul corpse, were alreadypuried by the re which had consumed it.

The monster is never called vampire, but the connections to the

creatures we know as vampires today are strong. He was issuing, by

the handiwork o Satan, rom his grave at night-time and responsible

or the deaths o many people in the surrounding area. Then, when

the brothers attack him, William states that they inficted a wound

upon the senseless carcass, out o which incontinently fowed such astream o blood, that it might have been taken or a leech lled with

the blood o many persons. A leech is a bloodsucking creature, but

this passage steers clear o actually saying this was a bloodsucking

monster.

However, a return to the original Latin hints that there is more:

Nec territi juvenes, quos ira stimulabat, vulnus exanimi corpori intu-

lerunt: ex quo tantus continuo sanguis efuxit ut intelligeretur san-guisuga uisse multorum. This can be translated as, The brave young

men, excited by wrath, struck a wound on the lieless corpse, rom


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which so much blood then fowed that it was understood that he had

been the bloodsucker o many.*

Like Homers ghosts, we again nd a connection between theundead and a thirst or blood. The dierence this time is that the

undead creature in this story is denitely malevolent and bringing

harm to people in the real world, whereas the ghosts in the Odyssey

are not harming anyone.

William o Newburgh told many similar stories o the dead rising

rom the grave, and he had much company. In 1591, in the town o

Breslau (now the Polish city o Wrocaw), a shoemaker who killed

himsel by putting a knie through his neck, came back to hauntthose around him by pressing against their necks in the night. He

was ultimately ound in his grave with the wound in his neck just

as resh and red as it had been when he died. In 1746, the French

abbot Augustin Calmet reported, A new scene is oered to our

eyes. People who have been dead or several years, or at least several

months, have been seen to return, to talk, to walk, to inest the vil-

lages, to maltreat people and animals, to suck the blood o their closeones, making them become ill and eventually die.

The solution to the undead threat that locals turned to was

exactly what William o Newburgh described. They dug up the

graves o the oending monsters to destroy them and ound that

recently buried corpses oten had blood on their lips, bloated stom-

achs that looked as i they had just ed, blood still fowing inside

their bodies, resh-looking organs, clawlike ngernails, and elon-

gated canine teeth. Terried by these sights, people chopped oheads, drove stakes through hearts, and jammed bricks into decay-

ing mouths to keep the monsters rom biting anything more. It must

have been dreadul business, but there are no reports o the mon-

*The Latin wordsanguisuga literally means blood (sanguis) sucker (suga). It is under-standable that the original translation used the word leech in place o bloodsucker

since bloodsucker is not really a word typically thrown around in scholarly English . . .unless, o course, you happen to be writing a book about monsters.


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sters ever ghting back. They are always just corpses in graves tak-

ing a beating.

Finally, ater hundreds o years o terrorizing Europe, all thesewalking corpses and ghosts earn the name vampire in the second

edition o the Oxord English Dictionary in 1745. It was described as

a preternatural being o a malignant nature (in the original and usual

orm o the belie, a reanimated corpse), supposed to seek nourish-

ment, or do harm, by sucking the blood o sleeping persons. People

must have been scared out o their socks.

Mortifying misunderstanding

With so many traits and behaviors being associated with these early

vampires, it is likely there were several ears merging together to

orm these monsters. As such, it seems best to start with the most

concrete details being described: Vampires had bloody mouths,

bloated stomachs, resh blood in their bodies, and, sometimes, clawsand angs.

The Europeans who were initially digging up corpses were prob-

ably not exaggerating. Ater people die, bacteria living within the

body oten continue to be productive and generate gases that collect

inside. The gas production leads to an eect that morticians reer

to as postmortem bloat, and while it has nothing to do with diet or

recent eeding, it can make the belly look swollen and lead people to

conclude that the corpse has recently eaten.In addition, gas buildup inside the body can cause blood to get

pushed up rom the lungs, passed through the trachea, and out o

the mouth so that it stains the teeth and lips. This likely created

the illusion that the bloated stomach was not simply ull, but ull o

blood that the corpse had recently consumed, logically leading to the

idea that the monster ed on blood.

Furthering the idea o the animated corpse, under certain cir-cumstances bacteria-created gases can move past the vocal cords

and create sound. This oten occurs when bodies are handled or


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meddled with ater death, causing corpses to make noises as i they

are groaning or, in rare cases, speaking.*

As or elongated canines and clawlike ngernails, there is a medi-cal explanation or this too. Ater death, tissues die and waste away;

the skin begins to shrink, and this leads it to be pulled back along

both the nail beds and the gum line. As a result, the nails and teeth

become more prominently exposed than they were at the time o

burial. O course, this is an illusion, but to early vampire hunters

who had worked themselves into a lather over the perceived plague

o the undead, these were angs and claws indicative o a vampiric

transormation.All o these natural processes can explain the descriptions o early

vampires and can even account or why Homer, way back in ancient

Greece, suggested that the dead liked to eed on blood. But one

thing that is not immediately clear is why the belie o the dead leav-

ing their graves to attack the living gained such popularity during

the 1100s when William o Newburgh was writing but not during

the days o Homer. One possibility worth considering is that peoplebeing buried during Williams time were not actually dead.

Today there are a lot o tools available, like blood pressure cus,

stethoscopes, and heart monitors, that help doctors determine

whether someone is alive or dead. Yet even with these devices,

patients with very weak or inrequent heartbeats can easily be

declared dead by mistake. As an example, in Jan Bondesons book

Buried Alive, which goes into great detail on how accidental buri-

als happened (and still do), the tale is told o a Frenchman namedAngelo Hays who suered a brutal motorcycle accident in 1937.

At the hospital he was not breathing, had no detectable pulse, and

had a serious head injury. The doctor, using a stethoscope, could not

hear anything, and Hays was sent to the morgue. Three days later, as

he was buried, an insurance company realized Hays had been cov-

ered by a policy or up to 200,000 rancs and sent an inspector out

*Driving a stake through a corpses chest counts as meddling at the highest level.


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to investigate the accident beore paying up. The inspector ordered

the body exhumed to look at the injuries and to conrm the cause

o death. Remarkably, the doctor in charge ound the corpse to stillbe warm.* Hays returned to the land o the living and is thought to

have survived his near-death ordeal by being buried in loose soil that

allowed some fow o oxygen to the con and by needing very little

oxygen in the rst place as the result o his head injury reducing all

metabolic activities in the body. Bondeson relates a ew more simi-

lar stories and argues that i we see such cases now, they probably

were taking place somewhat more oten in the past when vital sign

monitoring tools were not available. Could such events o still-livingbut geologically challenged patients have been eeding into undead

mythology?

Rising from the grave

In 1938, the author, olklorist, and anthropologist Zora Neale Hur-ston, then a student o the noted anthropologist Franz Boas at

Columbia University, proposed there might be some material basis

or the stories told in Haiti o individuals being raised rom their

graves by voodoo masters. These raised people, or zombies, legends

said, were robbed o their identities, enslaved, and orced to work

indenitely on plantations. Hurston was not believed. For decades,

the wider research community ignored her suggestions and in some

cases actively ridiculed her, but this attitude eventually changed.In May 1962, a man spitting up blood and sick with ever and

body aches sought help at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital, a acility

operated in Haiti by an American charity. Two doctors, one o whom

was an American, did their best to save him, but to no avail. The

*Buy our lie insurance and we promise that our greed will ensure you are most cer-

tainly dead beore we pay. Not exactly an advertisement that any company is likely touse today, but lets ace it, they saved Hayss lie.


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mans condition deteriorated and he was declared dead shortly ater

his arrival. At the time o his death, he was diagnosed as suering

rom critically low blood pressure, hypothermia, respiratory ailure,and numerous digestive problems. What exactly caused such sys-

temwide problems remained a mystery. The mans sister was called

in to identiy his body and stamped her thumbprint to the death

certicate to conrm he was her brother and that he was, indeed,

dead. Eight hours later he was buried in a small cemetery near his

village, and ten days later a large stone memorial slab was laid over

his grave.

In 1981, the sister was approached by a man at her village marketwho introduced himsel to her using the boyhood name o the dead

brother. It was a name that only she and a handul o other amily

members knew, so he seemed real enough. The man explained that

he had been made into a zombie and orced to work on a sugar plan-

tation with many other zombies until their master died and the zom-

bies were reed. The media went crazy with the story, particularly in

Haiti, and Lamarck Douyon, the director o the Psychiatric Institutein Port-au-Prince, made up his mind to test whether this zombie tale

could possibly be true.

Douyon knew that digging up the grave would prove nothing; i

the man and his zombie story were raudulent, it would have been

easy or the deceivers to remove remains rom a rural village cem-

etery. Instead, Douyon collaborated with the amily to construct the

ultimate identity test. He would ask the man a series o questions

that only the brother would know all the answers to. The man passedthe test, and later, when the sisters thumbprint and the thumbprint

on the death certicate were conrmed by Scotland Yard to be iden-

tical, Douyon concluded the mans story was likely true. There had

to be something real about the zombie mythology o the island.

All o the evidence pointed to the idea that some sort o a poi-

son had been used to make the man appear dead ater making him

quite ill. Then, ater he was buried, he had been exhumed by hispoisoner so he could be enslaved. Realizing that this was a matter or

a biochemist rather than a psychologist, Douyon and other doctors


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in Haiti asked the Harvard ethnobiologist Edmund Wade Davis to

get involved.

Davis conducted several expeditions to Haiti and collected vezombie poison recipes rom our dierent locations. All the poisons

varied in the number o tarantulas, lizards, millipedes, and nonven-

omous snakes added to the brew, but there were a handul o simi-

larities that caught Daviss attention. All recipes contained a species

o ocean-dwelling worm (Hermodice carunculata), a specic tree rog

(Osteopilus dominicensis), a certain toad (Buo marinus), and one o

several puer sh (also known as blowsh in some regions).

Since these organisms appeared in all the dierent zombie poi-sons, Davis ocused his attention on them. He ound that the worm

had bristles on its body that could paralyze people, and the tree

rog was closely related to a rog species that released toxins on its

body that could cause blindness in those who touched it. Further-

more, the toad, he learned, was a chemical nightmare. Some o the

compounds in its body unctioned as anesthetics, some as muscle

relaxants, and some as hallucinogens. He noted that earlier studiesconducted with the toad compounds had discovered they induced a

rage similar to the berserker rages ound in Norse legends, and these

studies suggested that compounds o closely related toads had once

been consumed by ancient barbarians as they charged with reckless

courage into battle and shrugged o all but the most lethal attacks.*

But by ar the most interesting ingredients in the zombie poisons

were the puer sh.

Puer sh, which are well known or their deadly nerve toxins,are said to be tasty. Eating them comes with the serious risk o being

poisoned, but this doesnt put o the Japanese. Called ugu in Japan,

puer sh is something o a dining adventure that popularly leaves

*In some tales, these berserking warriors are said to have transormed into bears to

maul their enemies. Whether the drugs they were taking led the warriors to view them-selves as werebears or whether the sight o them charging in a bestial ury covered in

animal urs led their oes to believe they had become animals is dicult to determine.Either way, it seems the toad was involved.


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consumers with eelings o body warmth, euphoria, and mild numb-

ness around the mouth. O course, i the che gets ugu preparation

wrong, diners end up in the hospital. Because the sh is so popular,hospitalization occurs with relative requency and, as a result, there

is a lot o medical literature on what ugu poisoning looks like.

Common symptoms include malaise, dizziness, nausea, vomiting,

very low blood pressure, headache, and initial numbness around the

lips and mouth that spreads to the rest o the body and oten becomes

severe. Eyes become glassy, and patients who survive the experience

say it elt as i their bodies were foating while they could not move.

They remained ully aware o their surroundings and alert during thepoisoning experience. In one dramatic account, a ourteen-year-old

boy in Australia, who accidentally ate puer sh while on a camping

trip with his amily, recalled his amily talking in the car as he was

taken to the hospital, the nurses wishing him good morning and good

night, and the doctors speaking their medical mumblings all while

entirely paralyzed and eeling light.

Davis ound this intriguing because when he interviewed theman who claimed to have been made a zombie, he learned that he

had remained conscious the entire time, heard his sister weeping

when she was told that he had died, and had the sensation o foating

above the grave. These descriptions, in combination with the medi-

cal reports led when the man had been in the hospital on the night

o his death, suggested that puer sh poison had been at work.

Upon urther investigation, Davis learned that zombie makers

created their poisons and exposed victims to these toxins by releas-ing them in the air near where the person lived or by putting them in

places where the person was likely to make contact, such as on door

handles or window latches. Lacing ood with the poison was never

done, because zombie makers believed it would kill the victim too

completely.

Ater burial, zombie makers had their assistants pull victims out

o their graves and then beat them ercely to drive their old spiritaway. This was ollowed by binding the exhumed person to a cross,

baptizing them with a new zombie name, and orce-eeding them


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with a paste made rom sweet potato, cane syrup, and Datura stra-

monium, one o the most hallucinogenic plants known.

Davis suggested in theJournal o Ethnopharmacology in 1983 thatthese ghastly experiences, combined with the potent initial poison-

ing, created a state o psychosis that literally transormed people into

zombies who would do anything they were told by their masters.

This, he argued, explained why voodoo magic was widely perceived

as raising the dead and why Hurston was right. People literally

were being buried alive and then dragged back to the living world as

zombies.

Undead plague

But what o vampires? The early stories about these monsters do

not support the buried alive theory very strongly, and there are no

indications o poisons or zombie makers being involved with vampire

creation. The vampire historian Paul Barber points out in his bookVampires, Burial, and Death that none o the early vampiric accounts

actually describe vampires digging themselves out o graves, a act

that William o Newburghs stories support. The protovampires just

tend to emerge rom the grave. This hints that early proponents o

the vampire myth might have been making up this element o vam-

pire behavior to explain something they were seeing in the world

around them.

Today, i a person in a amily alls ill with a contagious and poten-tially lethal disease, doctors usually have the knowledge to identiy

it, prescribe treatment, and suggest quarantine measures i they are

needed. In the days beore modern medicine, when understanding

o inectious disease transmission was rudimentary, people exposed

to lethally contagious individuals had a good chance o ollowing

their riends to the grave. But they would not have done so imme-

diately. Viruses and bacteria take time to spread through the bodybeore having noticeable negative eects. This delay, which is known

in the medical community as the incubation period, varies with the


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disease and can range rom hours or some gut and respiratory inec-

tions to years or viruses like HIV. In most cases, though, incubation

or diseases is a matter o days.Imagine what people in those days saw ater a loved one died

rom a highly lethal and contagious disease, like tuberculosis or a

nasty strain o infuenza. First, those who had lived with the dis-

eased individual would all ill upon the completion o the incubation

period and run a high risk o dying. Then, those who had tended to

these diseased individuals would also all ill and transmit the disease

beore dying. One death would ollow another in a dominolike pro-

gression. In a morbid sense, these patients were literally killing theirriends and relatives, but rom their deathbeds rather than rom the

hereater. However, because o the incubation period, it wasnt clear

to anyone how the disease was being passed along.

Driven into a panic by plagues o contagious diseases, people des-

perately sought an explanation. This search or answers even appears

in William o Newburghs story: The monster lled every house with

disease and death by its pestierous breath. People were already some-what aware o what was going on, but rather than pointing the nger

at microscopic pathogens (which would have been impossible since

microscopes were not even in use until the mid-1600s), they came up

with the idea o the dead returning to kill o their riends and amily.

This led someone at some point to open up a grave and have a look.

Shocked by the discovery o a bloody-mouthed corpse with a bloated

belly, claws, and angs, a connection was likely made between this hor-

ric sight and the plague o death spreading throughout the community.This seems logical, but it raises a question about timing. Why

does the ear o vampires begin during the 1100s, when William o

Newburgh was writing? Highly lethal and contagious diseases were

hardly new things. In act, Ian Barnes at Royal Holloway, University

o London, published a study in the journal Evolution in 2011 reveal-

ing that inectious disease has played a key role in human evolution

or centuries. Remarkably, this study ound that humans who havebeen dwelling in places where population densities have been high

or a long time carry genes that are particularly good at granting resis-


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tance to certain contagious diseases. This makes sense since places

with higher population densities would have more humans available

(and living in closer proximity) or diseases to inect and thus tend tobe reservoirs where the inections could linger or long periods.* Peo-

ple who carried genes that coded or immune systems strong enough

or them to survive this pathogenic onslaught prolierated while

those who did not, died out. The study specically notes that people

rom Anatolia in Turkey, where dense settlements have been around

or nearly eight thousand years, carry a gene granting an innate resis-

tance to tuberculosis, a disease that wreaked havoc in ancient cities.

In contrast, people with almost no history o dense urban living, likethe Saami rom northern Scandinavia and the Malawians in Arica,

do not show similar genetic resistance.

So it seems unreasonable to argue that people started digging up

graves and inventing vampires as monsters only to explain the spread

o contagious disease. I this were the whole story, vampires would

be expected to have emerged as monsters much earlier. There had

to have been other actors associated with the rise o the modernvampire, and clues to what these might have been can be ound in

one o the stranger vampire traits.

The sweet smell of garlic

According to some olktales, vampires are repelled by garlic, and or

the most part this idea has remained tethered to the monsters or

*From a survival perspective, a bacterium or virus is in serious trouble i it nds itselin a small and isolated population. The disease will either kill o everyone and then

die too when no hosts are let to inect or, under sunnier circumstances, everyone inthe population will catch the disease, survive, and develop resistance to the disease

so they never catch it again, a situation that also oten destroys the disease. Pathogensdepend upon having large numbers o people available to move through. This is why

international travel is as much a boon to the diseases o the world as it is to economicdevelopment.


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