THE ROMANSFROM KINGDOM TO

REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE

WHERE IS ROME? ITALY?

ORIGINS■ The Italics

■ Indo-Europeans related to Greeks■ Settled the peninsula around 1500 BCE■ Organized as tribes and clans■ Strong family ties

■ Italy was very fertile – Italics farmed and herded■ Interacted with Greeks, Etruscans, Carthaginians■ Latins: language family of independent city-states■ Rome was one of the city-states

■ The Etruscans ■ Probably migrated from Anatolia c. 1200 BCE ■ Dominated Italy from the 8th to 5th centuries B.C.E.

■ City-states were constantly at war■ Dominated by kings who struggled with aristocrats■ Similar in own way to Greek society

■ Gave Rome Arch, religion, alphabet, early traditions ■ Declined, attacked by Gaul and defeated by Greek fleets

■ The Greeks■ Migrated from Greece, settled Southern Italy■ Region called Magna Graecia ■ City-States tied to the Greek world■ Interacted heavily with Italics, Latins

■ The Celts■ Another Indo-European people■ Spread from Gaul to Iberia, Britain, Italy and Central Europe■ Agrarian with strong artisan, musical tradition■ Fond of war and often fighting Etruscans and Romans

EARLY ROME■ “Myth” of the Roman Empire

■ Not one continuous empire■ Periods of Rome

■ The Etruscan Kingdom of Rome: 753 BCE to 509 BCE■ The Roman Republic: 509 BCE to 27 BCE■ Unified Roman Empire: 27 BCE to 280 CE■ Western Roman Empire: 280 CE to 476 CE■ Eastern Roman Empire: 280 CE to 1453 CE■ Many continuities and many changes

■ Be careful of their history■ Intentional lies told■ Aeneid Epic composed to reflect ideal history

■ Romulus and Remus ■ The Culture of the Wolf■ Legend: twins rescued by a she-wolf■ Founded Rome in 753 B.C.E.

■ The kingdom of Rome or Ruma ■ The Tarquini Kings

■ A small kingdom on the Tiber River■ An Etruscan king ruling over an Italic (Roman) people

■ Easy access to the Mediterranean, trade routes led to Rome■ Agriculture, warfare were typical■ Society dominated by aristocracy called patricians

THE WORLD OF EARLY ROME EARLY ROMAN REPUBLIC

■ Establishment of the Republic ■ Rome nobility deposed last king in 509 B.C.E.

■ Patricians: hereditary rights by birth, could be elected senators■ Based on amount of land and property owned (100,000 denarii)■ Equites were citizens who had money to own horse, armor■ All patricians and senators had to be equites

■ Res + publica: a public thing■ Republican constitution

■ Executive■ Two consuls elected for one year terms ■ Elected by an assembly dominated by the patricians■ Approved, vetoed Senate bills, ran courts, army

■ Legislative ■ The Senate advised the consuls and ratified major decisions■ Passed bills, agreed to finance

■ Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians ■ Conflicts between patricians and plebeians

■ Plebeians' threat to secede from Rome ■ Patricians granted plebeians an assembly with tribunes ■ Tribunes' power to intervene and veto decisions ■ Tribunes dominated Roman politics, early 3rd century B.C.E.

■ The constitutional dictator■ Six month term vote by Senate, Consuls to replace themselves■ Given unlimited power

TRIBES, CLANS, FAMILY■ The Roman Tribe

■ Four Urban Tribes in City of Rome■ Thirty-one Rural Tribes

■ Landowners and aristocracy belonged to rural tribes■ Many derived from prominent families

■ Newly enrolled citizens added to tribes■ Foreign-born citizens added to tribes in Italy■ All voting occurs within tribes

■ “Gens”■ A clan with its own traditions, customs, policies■ Family descended from a common ancestor

■ Members share a common clan name■ Could be a single family or hundreds of members and families■ Some were patrician, some plebeian and some both■ Local and foreign branches to family■ People could be adopted into a gens■ Freedmen (ex-slaves), foreigners could also be admitted

■ Pater Familias had enormous legal power■ Naming Conventions tells your family history

■ Given name + Clan name + Family Name = Gaius Julius Caesar■ Clan Name and Family Name were hereditary

■ Tradition ended by time of the Empire■ Voting in Ancient Rome

■ Citizens are organized into tribes for voting■ Each tribe had an equal vote in the Tribal Assembly

CITIZENSHIP, PATRONS, CLIENTS■ Citizenship

■ Privileged political and legal status afforded to freeborn individuals■ Governed rights to laws, property, voting, and governance■ Must wear togas at all public and formal occassions

■ Classes of Citizenship■ Full Roman Rights

■ Male Roman citizens could vote, hold elected office, serve in Roman army■ Female Roman citizens could not vote, hold office but had all other rights■ Had right to avoid trial by any state or legal authority which was not Roman■ To attack a Roman citizen was tantamount to declaring war on Rome

■ Limited Latin Rights■ Could move around freely, own property, marry Romans but not vote in Roman elections■ Fully protected by Roman law and officials wherever they resided■ Could obtain Roman citizenship if they served in Roman army■ Citizens of Roman client states had Latin Rights■ Citizens of Roman Allied states had Latin Rights

■ Freedman and Slaves■ Freedman (former slaves) acquired protections as Latin Rights■ Children of Freedman and women were born as full Roman citizens■ Slaves lacked legal personhood but if manumitted could acquire rights

■ Roman state extended citizenship to foreigners ■ As reward for service in the Roman army■ As reward for assistance to the Roman state■ To select foreign-born elites such as the wealthy, great scholars, architects, etc.

■ Edict of Caracalla 212 CE■ Granted full citizenship to all free men in the Roman Empire■ Granted free women the same rights as free Roman women■ Patron-Client Relationship: Hierarchical relationship with mutual obligations■ Patron was the protector, sponsor and benefactor of the client■ Client expected to support activities, protect honor of patron■ Both worked to advance the other’s position in Roman society■ Relationships: Master, former slave; general, soldiers; founder, colonists; conqueror, subject peoples

CHECKS AND BALANCES■ The Free People of Rome

■ Patricians ■ Numbering about 5,000: elect 300 Senators■ Vote in their tribes

■ Plebeians or Free People who are not nobles■ Vote for the Assembly of the People■ Vote in their tribes elect

■ The Tribes■ Elect the Assembly which elect the Senators■ Elect the Assembly of Tribunes

■ Those who Advise and Consent■ Senate elects the magistrates■ Senate nominates a dictator■ Assembly of Centuries elects the consuls■ Assembly of Centuries elects praetors, censors■ Consuls agrees, disagrees on Senate dictator nominee■ Assembly of the Tribes elects Aediles, Questors■ Assembly of the People elects the Tribunes, People’s Aediles

■ The Assembly of Centuries■ Representatives of Three Officer Classes: officers, soldiers, adjuncts■ Elect Consuls, Praetors, Censors■ Only it could declare war

■ The 12 Tablets■ The laws and rights binding all citizens■ Displayed on bronze tablets in the Forum

ROMAN REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENTDICTATOR

Monarchical Aristocratic Democratic2 Consuls and

MagistratesSenate

(Senators) Assembly of Tribes

(10 Tribunes)

Directed government Control army

Acted as judgesCould issue edicts

Acted as chief priest

Controlled state budgetCould pass laws

Approved/rejected laws; Decided on War

Tribune could veto actions of magistrate

Acted as final court

Basis of power:possess imperium,

the right to ruleneed for leadership

Basis of power:members were richest men in

Rome.

Basis of power:provided most of the soldiers

Limits on power:one year term

each could veto

Limits on power:could not control army;

needed majority as soldiers.

Limits on power:Could not suggest laws;

often paid as clients by the elite

ROMAN LEGION & EQUITES▪ Military service required of all citizens▪ The Legion organized around 400 BCE

▪ Gave Rome incredible power▪ Extremely organized, well-trained, flexible▪ Shields, two-edged swords were revolutionary▪ Versatile: operated as police, engineers

▪ Legionary Organization▪ Total Strength: 5400

■ 8 Legionaries formed 1 Tent Party■ 10 Tent Parties formed 1 Century■ 6 Centuries formed a cohort■ 10 Cohorts formed a legion

▪ Sub-units could operate independently▪ Trained to use specialized formations

▪ Types of Cohorts▪ Regular Legionary cohorts ▪ Auxiliary cohorts (marines, slingers, bowmen)▪ Auxiliary cavalry cohorts (mounted, scouts)▪ Allied cohorts (infantry, cavalry)▪ Praetorian cohort (guards of the consuls, emperors)▪ Urban cohorts (police, firemen)

▪ Equites : Roman Cavalry▪ Had to provide horse, armor, shields, weapons▪ In Early Republic almost always patricians▪ Later open to men of some wealth, property

Opening Scene from Gladiator: “On My Signal, Unleash Hell.”

MARS, MARTIAL, MARCH…..■ Fighting Etruscans and Latins: 5th and 4th c. BCE

■ Many early wars were defensive after attack by neighbors■ Gradually won upper hand against neighbors■ Celtic invasion of Italy led to sack of Rome

■ Roman Pattern of Advance■ Annexed best land, strategic areas to Ager Romanus ■ Roman colonies founded to control territory, full citizenship■ Alliances formed with Italian, Greek states; partial citizenship■ Local aristocrats became Roman citizens with rights, lands

■ Italian Wars 343 – 282 BCE■ Recovered quickly from Celts, expanded against Italics■ Conquered Samnites of Central Italy

■ Pyhrric War 280 – 275 BCE■ Roman and Greek colony came into conflict■ Greeks appealed to Pyhrrus, brilliant king of Epirus■ Brutal: great loses on both side, Pyhrrus withdrew■ Greeks recognized reality and made peace, alliances with Rome

■ Three Punic Wars: 264-146 BCE■ Carthage and Rome first went to war over Sicily■ Carthage has largest navy, large mercenaries: Rome had to develop navy■ Drive from Sicily, Carthaginians tried to control Spain, attacked Roman allies■ Carthage invades Italy from North, Romans crossed seas and invaded Africa ■ Defeated Carthaginians eliminated, Rome conquered Northern Africa

■ Conflicts with Greek Hellenistic Empires■ Five major wars■ Created alliances as with Italy, colonies of Roman settlers■ Defeated, annexed Greece, Macedonia, Seleucid, Ptolemaic Pontic Empires

■ Rome became a preeminent power in the Mediterranean

RISE OF ROMAN REPUBLIC

THE PUNIC WARS Hannibal & His Elephants

Scipio Africanus

THE END OFTHE REPUBLIC

■ Social Tension■ Long wars ruined most small farmers

■ During war could not plant or harvest, debts increased■ Forced to sell land to patricians, move to city as day laborers■ Poor often sold into slavery

■ Rise of Slavery■ Roman prisoners of war become slaves■ Rome flooded with slaves■ Slaves used as agricultural laborers, urban porters■ Increased slavery more profitable than hiring Roman poor

■ Migration of poor to cities produced lawlessness■ Gracchi brothers challenge patrician, senatorial dominance

■ Tiberius Gracchus ■ Represented interests of Rome's lower classes ■ Served as a tribune, passed a law that set limits for landholding ■ Assassinated in 132 B.C.E.

■ Gaius Gracchus■ Younger brother continued the reform ■ Was branded as a outlaw, killed by mercenaries ■ Republican government could no longer maintain power balance

■ Marius and Sulla ■ Gaius Marius recruited a private army from landless residents ■ Conservative aristocratic class supported Lucius Cornelius Sulla■ Both raised troops illegally under Roman law

■ Civil War ■ Marius seized Rome in 87 B.C.E. ■ Sulla seized Rome in 83 B.C.E. after Marius died: 5 years of terror

EXPANSION OF THE REPUBLIC

IMPERIUM, IMPERATOR■ Imperium, Imperator

■ Imperium: The quality of being imperial, successful as conqueror, majesty■ Imperator: Conqueror■ English words: Empire, Empire, Imperial

■ Julius Caesar ■ Marius's nephew■ Favored liberal policies and social reform ■ Gained fame by sponsoring public spectacles ■ Conquered Gaul and became more popular

■ Caesar and the First Civil War■ Senators feared Caesar and intended to arrest him■ Caesar invades Italy, seized Rome in 49 B.C.E. ■ Claimed the title "dictator for life" 46 B.C.E. ■ Fought civil war against opponents across Mediterranean ■ Social reforms and centralized control ■ Sought monarchial power, assassinated in 44 B.C.E.

■ The Triumvirate to Restore Order■ Second Civil War followed avenges Caesar’s murder■ Octavian, Marc Antony, Lepidus ruled without Senate, any oversight■ Rivalry between Octavian and Marc Antony led to Third Civil War

■ Augustus ■ Octavian, nephew of Caesar, brought civil conflict to an end ■ The Senate bestowed upon him the title Augustus, 27 B.C.E.

■ Augustus's Principate ■ A monarchy disguised as a republic

■ Called Princeps or First Citizen but really an emperor■ Preserved traditional republican forms of government ■ Took all the power into his own hands

■ Created a new standing army under his control ■ Reformed coinage, took census, reformed taxation■ Reformed law, rebuilt Rome

PAX ROMANA■ Roman expansion

■ Biggest impact in Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain ■ Romans sought access to resources■ Built legionary camps to defend■ Roman officials established infrastructure in provinces ■ Provincial elite began to build estates and control resources

■ Came from two sources: Roman colonists, local ethnic elites■ Elites became largely Romanized

■ Cities emerged, roads built, common currency, laws■ Allowed locals to retain customs, traditions if paid their taxes

■ The pax romana ■ Meant "Roman peace" lasted for two and half centuries ■ Roman legions and navies policed empire, eliminated pirates■ Uniform coinage■ Facilitated trade and communication ■ World linked from Mesopotamia to Atlantic Ocean

■ Roman roads ■ “All roads lead to Rome” – they bound empire together■ Roman engineers were outstanding road builders ■ Roads and postal system linked all parts of the empire

■ Roman law ■ Tradition: Twelve Tables enacted in 450 B.C.E. ■ Principle: innocent until proven guilty, rights to trial, etc. ■ Judges enjoyed great discretion■ Granted to citizens which is all free people after 212 CE

EMPIRE UNDER AUGUSTUS

EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT, c. 117 CE TRADE & URBANIZATION■ State Involvement in Trade

■ Regulated, taxed, protected trade and commerce■ Struck coins and regulated weights, measures ■ Maintained roads, bridges

■ Commercial agriculture ■ Latifundia (large landed estates) dominate empire■ Owners of latifundia focused on production for export ■ Commercial agriculture led to economic specialization, integration■ Slavery preferred over labor saving devices and paid labor

■ Mediterranean trade ■ Sea-lanes linked ports of the Mediterranean ■ Roman navy kept the seas largely free of pirates ■ The Mediterranean became a Roman lake■ Western provinces exported raw materials, food stuffs■ Eastern provinces exported finished goods, luxuries■ Largest trade was in foodstuffs to large cities■ Richest trade was probably slave trade■ Egypt was the richest province

■ The city of Rome ■ Wealth of the city fueled its urban development ■ Statues, pools, fountains, arches, temples, stadiums ■ First use of concrete as construction material ■ Rome attracted numerous immigrants ■ City attractions

■ Public baths, swimming pools, gymnasia ■ Enormous circuses, stadiums, and amphitheaters

■ Other Cities■ Most large cities were in Eastern part of empire■ Eastern cities largely dominated by Greeks■ Cities include Alexandria, Antioch, Athens, Pergammum, Thessalonika

CLASSICAL ROME CITIES, TOWNS, COLONIES

ROADS, PORTS & BRIDGES TRADE & TRADE ROUTES

ROMAN FAMILY, SOCIETY■ The Roman Households

■ Family very important with society■ Elite families were extended■ Poorer families were nuclear ■ Pater familias : rule was legally absolute■ Only elite children had a childhood

■ Roman women■ Could not vote, hold office but could sue, give testimony■ Many women supervised family business, estates■ Women wielded influence within their families ■ Elite women were extremely active for husbands

■ Social Status■ Some social attitudes

■ “Patrician” and “plebeian” attitude■ Urban and rural attitude■ Provincials always looked down upon■ Merchants tolerated but not given much social recognition

■ Wealth and ownership of land determined social status■ Forms of dress, lifestyles, language, place of residence determined by status■ Elite lost patrician and senatorial status if wealth fell below a certain level■ Rich classes built palatial houses, lavish banquets ■ Cultivators, urban masses lived at subsistence level

■ Urban proletariat■ Poor classes became a serious problem in Rome and other cities ■ No urban policy developed except “bread and circuses”■ Government gave free grain, wine, public games to prevent riots

■ Foreign born elite blended into Roman elite by governmental decree

ROMAN SLAVERY■ Conditions of Slavery

■ Legal Status■ Prisoners of war, debt slavery, criminals■ Considered property with no legal protections■ Stoics changed attitudes and slaves acquired some rights

■ Types■ Unskilled

■ Manual labor in agriculture, mines, mills■ Labor often backbreaking, harsh

■ Urban slaves: often skilled, trained in trades with better conditions■ Skilled

■ Often Greeks captured in battle included educated, doctors■ Professional educators, governmental slaves often paid a small wage■ Frequently bought their freedom

■ Slaves formed 1/3 of Roman population after Punic Wars■ Half of all gladiators were slaves trained to fight in the arena

■ Manumission ■ Roman owners often manumitted their slaves

■ Urban, skilled slaves often could buy their freedom■ Freed slaves were referred to as freedmen■ Freedmen had a patron-client relationship to former owners■ Children of freedmen became Roman citizens

■ Famous Freedmen■ Epictetus, an Anatolian slave, became a prominent Stoic philosopher ■ Gladiators who survived the arena often were freed■ Three of the earliest popes were former slaves

■ Three Servile Wars During Republic■ Frequent revolts, rebellions after Punic Wars prior to Empire■ Spartacus’ Slave Rebellion c. 73 BCE was worst

VIA ROMANA: WORLD VIEW■ Roman Cultural Values

■ Veritas: Truthfulness■ Gravitas: Seriousness, Weightiness■ Dignitas: Dignity■ Servitas: Service to others■ Firmitas: Standing firm in one’s position■ Frugalitas: Frugality, not lavish■ Honetas: Respectability ■ Humanitas: Dedication to culture, learning, civilization, refinement■ Industria: Hard work■ Pietas: Dutifulness

■ Roman Polytheism ■ Religion was a civic duty, state duty to venerate the gods■ Borrowed, co-opted foreign deities into pantheon■ Very little emotional attachment to gods

■ Philosophy■ Greek influence adopted by Romans in lieu of religion■ Stoicism

■ Cicero, Epictetus ,and Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote extensively■ Avoid emotion, have a virtuous will in accordance with nature, universal logos

■ Epicureanism■ Believed all was material, denounced superstition and divine intervention■ Pleasure is highest goal but live modestly, limit one’s desires, understand world

■ Religions of Salvation and Cults■ Flourished in Rome and the Mediterranean basin ■ Roman roads served as highways for religious spread ■ Mithraism

■ Mithras, a god of sun and light in Zoroastrian mythology ■ Roman soldiers adapted it, associated it with military value■ Appealed to men

■ Goddess Cybele and goddess Isis were also popular

Washington Embodies Roman Values

JUDAISM & THE ROMANS■ The Diaspora

■ Jews spread throughout the Mediterranean ■ Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Cyrenaica, Mediterranean ports ■ Alexandria was the center of Jewish learning, Hellenistic Judaism

■ The Jews, King Herod, and the Empire ■ Jews had sided with Romans against Seleucids■ Romans ruled through Jewish elites■ Romans were very tolerant, admiring of Judaism■ All Jews considered state cults to be blasphemy

■ Herod’s Kingdom and Its Division■ Romans established a Roman client kingdom■ Herod was a vicious collector of taxes from Jews, very pro-Roman■ First problems with Jews began over finances, over taxation■ After death of Herod, Rome annexed much of the region

■ Sadducees and Pharisees■ Elite Jewish groups arguing over amount of cooperation with Romans■ Sadducees: Temple priests, aristocrats, strict traditionalists■ Jews had to visit Temple 3 times a year giving Sadducees great wealth■ Pharisees: Hellenizers, populists, democratic, rabbis taught in synagogues■ Herod supported the Sadducees; Pharisees opposed the temple, the king

■ The Zealots■ A Jewish sect which wanted Jewish independence, separate kingdom■ Openly formulated rebellion against the Romans

■ The Essenes■ A new sect of Judaism, founded in Palestine during the 1st century B.C.E. ■ Strict moral code, baptism, and ritual community meals

■ 66 – 70 CE: First Jewish War■ Greek-Jewish tensions, anti-tax riots, attacks on Romans led to a Roman attack on Temple■ Jews rebel but Roman forces under Vespasian defeated the Jewish rebels■ Romans eventually assault last Jewish rebels at Masada■ Jews expelled Christians from the Temple

EARLY CHRISTIANITY & THE ROMANS■ Jesus of Nazareth

■ Charismatic Jewish teacher, taught devotion to God, love for human beings ■ The teaching "the kingdom of God is at hand" alarmed the Romans, Jewish elite ■ Many claimed he was the Messiah or Christ “the anointed one”■ Apostles and followers continued work after Christ’s crucifixion

■ Paul of Tarsus ■ A Jew from Anatolia, zealously preached his faith beyond Jewish communities ■ Was a Pharisee and Roman citizen by birth in a Greek city ■ Paul spread the faith in Mediterranean through missions ■ Was finally executed by Roman officials

■ Roman repression■ Peter and Paul both executed in Rome by Nero in 67 CE■ Romans followed very tolerant policy: pay taxes, do not revolt■ Christians refused to worship emperor, pay taxes■ Romans worried that Christians were anti-social■ Some emperors persecuted Christians to increase patriotism

■ Christianity grew rapidly in the empire ■ Strong appeal to lower classes, urban population, and women

■ Accorded honor and dignity to lower standing individuals ■ Provided a sense of spiritual freedom ■ Taught the spiritual equality of the sexes ■ Promised future glory for true believers

■ All converts were equal■ Most influential faith in Mediterranean by the 3rd century C.E

■ Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece heavily Christian including many aristocrats■ Influence in west limited to cities, especially Africa■ Armenia, Ethiopia, Egypt were first truly Christian countries

Chi Rho: Christos

SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY▪ Christianity in the Mediterranean basin

▪ Built upon existing Jewish, Phoenician, Greek trading areas▪ First converts poor, women, merchants attracted by Christian message▪ First converts often at lowest end of social pyramid▪ Leading Christian cities (Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople, Rome)

▪ Christian communities flourished especially in areas connected to trade▪ Paul of Tarsus visited mostly trading areas; was followed by many others▪ Ephesians, Corinthians, Thessalonians were all trading areas▪ Apostles, missionaries used protected trade routes to move about

▪ Mark converted Egypt by tradition ▪ Christianity reaches India

▪ St. Thomas carried Christianity to trading cities of Southern India▪ Based on Syriac traditions and still exists today

▪ Christianity in the Persian, Parthian and Central Asian lands▪ Sizable communities in Mesopotamia and Iran by 2nd century C.E. ▪ Sizable number of converts in southwest Asia until the 7th century C.E. ▪ Spread throughout Central Asia along trade routes▪ Their ascetic practices influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire

▪ Other Interpretations of Christianity▪ All condemned by church councils within the Roman Empire as a heresy▪ Outside empire often trusted because had no official states to support them▪ Nestorians

▪ Human nature of Jesus, 5th c. C.E.▪ Syria, Mesopotamia, central Asia, India, and China, 7th century C.E ▪ Center in Baghdad protected by Parthian, Sassanid Empires▪ Strong influence in Arabia, possibly influencing Muhammad

▪ Monophysites▪ Jesus had one nature in which humanity is subsumed in divinity ▪ Copts of Egypt and Ethiopia, Armenians, Georgians▪ First nations to convert

▪ Arian Christianity▪ Christ more than human but not God▪ Convert Germanic peoples

CULTURAL CHANGES IN MEDITERRANEAN▪ Persecutions of Christians

▪ 1st Century - 2nd Century CE▪ Romans, Jewish leaders of the Sanhedrin ▪ For failure to pay taxes, support public policy, worship divine Julius▪ Emperor Nero blamed for the Great Fire of Rome▪ Early persecutions were ethnic related tensions but not official▪ Decius persecuted Christians for refusal to publicly sacrifice to emperor

▪ 3rd Century CE▪ Diocletian persecuted Christians in the Eastern provinces of the empire▪ Christians in the Western provinces were not touched▪ Partly to create pride in empire, Christians refused to sacrifice to emperor

▪ Prominence of Christianity ▪ Constantine legalized Christianity

▪ Civil war between rival claimants for the emperorship▪ Constantine needed Christian support and received a sign from God▪ Edict of Milan made Christianity a legitimate religion▪ Council of Nicaea to solve conflicts within Church (Nicene Creed)▪ Constantine ordered a book to be complied of Christian works

▪ Emperor Theodosius made Christianity state religion, 380 C.E. ▪ St. Jerome translated Bible into Latin▪ St. Augustine harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought

▪ The institutional church ▪ Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians

▪ No one dominant belief about Christianity▪ Current belief was an outgrowth of compromise, discussion▪ Many early schisms and controversies

▪ Roman emperors now became involved in orthodoxy for stability▪ Established standardized hierarchy of church officials ▪ Bishop of Rome became spiritual leader ▪ Supremacy of Rome called Petrine Doctrine▪ After Rome, Christianity served as a cultural foundation▪ Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople patriarchal cities

THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

FROM HEIGHT TO DECLINE▪ The Problem with Succession

▪ Rome never developed a principle for succession▪ Sometimes dynastic or adoption, more often military coup▪ Julio-Claudian and Flavian Dynasties proved short-lived

▪ The Adopted Emperors▪ Senate appoints new emperor who adopts his heir▪ Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius▪ Proved to be the Golden Age of Rome▪ Rome at its height in territory, wealth, influence

▪ End of Pax Romana▪ Commodus proves a harsh, corrupt emperor 180 – 193 CE▪ Servan emperors were from Africa and unstable, wives had incredible influence

▪ Crisis of the 3rd Century: Military Anarchy ▪ Between 235 – 284 C.E. generals frequently seized the throne ▪ 25 different army emperors died violently in coups, assassination ▪ Period of invasions, hyperinflation, civil war▪ Citizens disinclined to participate in state, power increasingly in centralized hands

▪ Emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.) saved the empire▪ Divided the empire into two administrative parts

▪ Reorganized provinces and government ▪ Western Roman Empire ruled from Rome▪ Eastern Roman Empire ruled from Nicomedia

▪ Tetrarchy: Rule by Four▪ Two Emperors called Augustus; basically political emperor▪ Two Associated rulers called Caesars: basically war emperor

▪ Reforms saved empire for 200 years▪ Froze social classes; created feudalism▪ Persecuted Christians to unite empire▪ Reformed Roman army and defenses to fight invaders

▪ The Emperor Constantine ▪ Constantine seized power, claimed to be sole emperor ▪ Established a new capital city

▪ Constantinople on Bosporus▪ Area was richer, easy to defend, more Christian▪ Better base of power

DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

ENEMIES, INVASIONS, COLLAPSE■ Internal Enemies

■ Legionary commanders often had imperial ambitions■ Weak emperors invited the rise of rivals■ Invasions, defeat by Germans and Persians invited rivals

■ 3rd Century Crisis: Gallic and Palmyreen Empires■ Breakaway empire in Gaul, Britannia, Hispania ■ Breakaway empire in Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Asia Minor■ Both reconquered by the Emperor Aurelian

■ Political and Military Problems■ Constant succession crises and weak emperors■ Decreasing loyalty to state as loyalty to Christianity increased■ Increased reliance in West on mercenaries only loyal to he who pays

■ Economic Problems■ Ruined internal economy, over-taxation, extreme debt, debasing of currency■ Decline of trade also included increasing export of gold, silver to buy foreign luxuries

■ Social Problems: increasing gap between rich, poor; decreased social mobility■ Demographic Problems: decreasing population due to plagues, decline of cities

■ External Enemies■ Germans

■ Originated in Sweden and spread into Central Europe, Eastern Europe■ Fierce agriculturalists owing loyalty only to tribe, king competing for land■ Population explosion led to migration, eventual collision with Asian pastoralists■ Civilization included written language, eventual Arian Christianity, kingship■ Increasingly hired as mercenaries, allies by Romans; resettled within empire

■ Persians■ Rome’s oldest continual enemy: Parthians gave way to Sassanids■ Parthians were a constant scourge up until end of their dynasty■ Sassanids were a true imperial state, every bit the rival of Rome■ Extremely wealthy, prosperous dominating luxury trade in region■ Militarily reliant on armored cavalry, siege forces■ Zoroastrianism rivaled Christianity in SW Asia, Arabia■ Fought Rome to a standstill – neither could defeat the other

■ Nomadic Pastoralists■ Huns migrated from China into Eastern, Central Europe■ Pushed Germans into empire and followed

GERMANIC, HUNNIC INVASIONS

WHAT SURVIVED?■ The Eastern Roman Empire

■ Often called Byzantine Empire■ Militarily Strong State

■ Easier to defend against invasion■ Maintained well-trained, large army, able commanders■ Effective emperors supported by well-trained bureaucracy■ Vibrant economy with strong trade, agriculture

■ Greco-Roman Christian traditions■ Classical schools, universities continued to teach■ Greco-Roman intellectual tradition strong■ Roman legal traditions, courts remained open■ Christianity a source of strength and unity

■ The Catholic Church in the West■ Much of Roman legal system appropriated by Catholic Church■ Churches, monasteries continued, thrived■ Church maintained few schools, libraries, learning■ Bishops often became spokesman between Romans, Germans■ Bishops often assumed governmental duties when state fell■ Missionaries still active in Ireland, Britain, amongst Germans

■ The Memory of Rome■ The former grandeur of Rome was everywhere visible■ Greco-Roman language, literature, law, engineering did survive■ Newer architecture of Germans noticeably cruder■ German kings often used Romans as advisors■ German kings were in awe of Rome even if they defeated it■ Roman roads, bridges, buildings remained in use

■ Trade reduced but never eliminate

ROMAN ACCOMPLISHMENTS■ Legal System

■ Romans had an evolved legal system ■ Written law codes to cover most situations■ Courts, judges, lawyers expected to contend at trial■ Judicial review

■ Citizenship and non-citizenship were developed■ The use of the census, census taking for taxes

■ Engineering■ Hydraulics including indoor plumbing, drainage■ Roman engineers used in military, civil service■ Masters of military siege equipment, technologies■ Masters of urban planning and urban construction

■ Built aqueducts, roads, towns, sewers, bridges■ Civic buildings, coliseums, bathes, theaters, markets

■ Literature■ Latin alphabet is the basis of Western civilization■ Epics (Virgil’s Aeneid); histories (Livy, Tacitus)■ Invented satire as a literary form

■ Stoic Philosophy is heavily Romanized■ Christianity becomes heavily Romanized■ Art and Architecture

■ The arch, the dome, cement, vaulted roofs■ Introduced artistic realism as opposed to idealism■ Romans included character in works■ Landscape painting

MEDITERRANEAN 476 CE