The Roman Empire

The Roman Republic

The Imperial Age

The Roman Army

A Roman Fort

Towns

Building Technology

Trade and Ships

A Roman House

Family Life

Food and Drink

The Public Baths

Entertainment

Religion

The Late Roman Empire

The End of the Roman Empire

In 396 BC soldiers from a small Italian city called Rome captured the nearby city of Veii after a long war. Over the next 400 years, the Romans went on to build a vast empire that included many different races of people. The Romans did not discriminate against people just because they were of a different race or believed in different gods. They encouraged the people they had conquered to adopt Roman customs. They also rewarded loyalty to the empire with citizenship and these people, whether they came from Africa or Syria, Greece or Gaul, thought of themselves as Romans. This is one reason why the Roman empire lasted so long. It was even possible for a man from the provinces to become emperor.

(A) GERMANIA The Romans tried to conquer Germania but were defeated in 9 BC The warlike Germans often invaded the empire.

(B) AFRICA At one time "Africa" was only the country around Carthage - a prosperous farming area.

The Roman Empire

  

Early Rome was ruled by kings and was called a monarchy. But in 509 BC the Roman people overthrew the monarchy and founded a republic. Rome was now ruled by officials called magistrates. They were elected each year by a selected assembly of the Roman people. Experienced politicians called the Senate advised the magistrates. The Romans were often at war with their neighbors and by 270 BC they had conquered Italy. Carthage, in North Africa, and the Greek states tried to halt Rome's expansion, but they were all defeated and by 27 BC the Romans ruled the Mediterranean. As Rome grew more powerful, its politicians became corrupt. They gained power through force, not elections, and the republican system broke down.

(A) LICTORS The consul was escorted by lictors in public. Lictors carried bundles of rods and axes called fasces. These were symbols of the consul's powers.

(B) TOGA The toga was a semicircular piece of woolen cloth that was wrapped around the body. Only Roman citizens were allowed to wear the toga.

(C) CONSULS The consuls were the most senior magistrates. They controlled foreign affairs and commanded the army in wartime. Two consuls were elected each year.

(D) SENATORS Only men with experience in government were allowed to join the Senate. There were 300 senators and they served for life.

The Roman Republic

We know what many famous Romans looked like because they had sculptures made of themselves. This bust is of the lawyer Cicero. He was one of Rome's greatest writers.

Cicero

The toughest enemy of the republic was Hannibal of Carthage. This painted plate shows his invasion of Italy. In 218 BC Hannibal led an army of 35,000 men and 37 elephants from Spain; he won many battles but was finally defeated.

Hannibal

According to legend, twins called Romulus and Remus were left to die by the Tiber River. They were brought up by a she-wolf. Later they built a city. Romulus killed Remus and named the city Rome after himself.

Romulus and Remus

Citizens were protected against wrongful punishment by a right of appeal. The assembly could overturn any sentence it thought unjust. This coin shows a prisoner shouting 'provoco' - 'I appeal!'

Right of Appeal

The Imperial Age After Julius Caesar was murdered in 44 BC, civil war broke out. It was won by Augustus. He made himself commander of the army and could make laws and reject any decision of the Senate. He called himself First Citizen. His successors used the title 'imperator' (commander) from which our word emperor comes. This period of rule by the emperors is known as the imperial age. Though the emperors were sometimes cruel rulers, they brought peace and prosperity to the empire.

(A) THE EMPEROR After a successful military campaign the emperor held a parade called a Triumph. A holiday was declared and huge crowds turned out. Afterward sacrifices were made to thank the gods.

(B) ENEMY CHIEFTAIN Prisoners were dragged through the streets. The leaders were usually executed but the ordinary prisoners were sold as slaves.

(C) CAPTURED WEAPONS Heaps of captured weapons, treasure, and even prisoners were carefully arranged to look like scenes from the battlefield.

This statue shows Augustus as a soldier, the defender of the Roman empire.

Augustus

Roman emperors did not wear crowns. Instead, they wore wreaths of laurel as a symbol of their power.

Laurel Leaves

Great victories were commemorated by triumphal arches, which were decorated with battle scenes. Such arches were built all over the empire and many can still be seen. This one, at Orange in France, celebrated the defeat of a local chieftain who rebelled.

Triumphal Arch

The Romans worshiped Victory as a winged goddess who brought success in battle. There were many statues of her, such as this one, on triumphal arches.

Winged Victory

The most expensive dye of all in Roman times was the purple dye that came from the murex sea snail. Senators were allowed to have a purple stripe on the edge of their togas but only the emperor could dress all in purple.

Murex Shell

The Roman Army

The main reason that the Romans were able to conquer such a large empire was their well-disciplined and highly-trained army. The army was an attractive career for poor men. There was the chance of being killed but the wages were good and, if they survived, retired soldiers enjoyed many privileges. The main strength of the army was the legions of infantrymen recruited only from Roman citizens. There were also support troops called auxiliaries.

(A) BRIDGE OF BOATS Roman armies could cross wide rivers by anchoring boats to the river bed and laying a road across their decks.

(B) WATCHTOWER Watchtowers lined the empire's borders. Guards used beacon fires to raise the alarm.

(C) LEGIONARIES Legionaries on the march carried heavy packs, often covering over 18 miles a day.

(D) CENTURION A centurion commanded a unit of 80 men called a century. His helmet had a tall crest.

(E) STANDARD BEARER When attacking, soldiers followed a pole with an emblem on it called a standard. They rallied around it in an emergency.

(F) AUXILIARIES Auxiliaries served as border guards or as specialist soldiers, such as archers and cavalrymen.

Roman soldiers often mutinied and they sometimes killed unpopular generals and even emperors. A new emperor would try to win popularity by giving each soldier a gift of money or a valuable silver ingot.

Silver Ingot

When legionaries retired they were given land, while auxiliaries gained Roman citizenship. Both were given bronze diplomas.

Discharging Diploma

The helmet was designed to protect the head, neck, and cheeks without blocking hearing and vision.

Helmet

The legionary's main weapon was the 'gladius', a short thrusting sword. It was easy to use in close combat and inflicted terrible wounds.

Sword and Scabbard

                                                                                     

A Roman Fort Most Roman soldiers were stationed in forts close to the borders of the empire. Patrols were sent out from the forts to keep a constant lookout for invaders. Early forts were built of wood but by the 2nd century AD most had been rebuilt in stone. Each fort had a similar layout so that soldiers could easily find their way around. Legionary forts held about 5,000 men. Auxiliary forts, like this one, held only 500 to 1,000 men.

(A) STABLES The Roman army used large numbers of horses and ponies as mounts for infantry officers as well as cavalrymen. Mules were used to pull supply carts.

(B) FORT DEFENCES Fort walls were about 4.5 meters high and 3 metrers thick. There were watchtowers at regular intervals along the walls. A deep ditch in front of the walls made it difficult for an enemy to attack.

(C) GRANARY Grain was stored in buildings called granaries, with raised floors to keep out the damp.

(D) PRINCIPIA The principia was the building that was the headquarters of the fort. It contained offices, archives, a shrine, storerooms, and a strong room where the soldiers' pay was kept.

(E) BATHS Sparks from the furnaces of the fort's bathhouse could set fire to the fort, so it was always built outside the walls for safety.

(F) PRAETORIUM The fort's commander lived with his family in a large, comfortable house called the praetorium.

(G) BARRACKS Each century had its own barrack block where the soldiers ate and slept. The centurion had a private room. The soldiers slept eight to a room.

(H) CIVILIAN HOUSES Innkeepers and shopkeepers settled outside the forts, hoping to make a living selling food and other goods.

Roman towns were noisy and crowded places in which to live. Although there were magnificent public buildings, most people lived in squalid slums. Fire was a constant hazard and crime was rife. There was no street lighting so most people were afraid to go out after dark. Most towns did have a fire brigade and a police force, but neither was very effective. Road accidents and traffic jams were so common that many towns banned wheeled vehicles from the streets during the daytime. Despite all this, the Romans thought that towns were the best places to live. They had the things that the Romans thought were very important in life: theatres, amphitheatres, racecourses, hot baths, taverns, and take-out food shops.

(A) AMPHITHEATRE This was used for bloodthirsty shows like gladiator fights.

(B) THEATRE Audiences at the theatre sat in a semicircle facing the stage.

(C) FORUM The forum was the town's main meeting place and market square. The covered sides contained shops and offices.

(D) BATHS Every town had at least one public bathhouse; large towns had several. Baths were popular social centers.

(E) AQUEDUCT Aqueducts brought supplies of clean drinking water to the town.

(F) TEMPLE Roman temple architecture closely copied Greek styles. Temples were usually built on a raised platform.

(G) BASILICA The basilica was used as a law court and meeting hall for the town council. It was always built next to the forum.

Towns

Building Technology

The Romans were skilful builders. Roman buildings were very strong, and many are still standing today. Most Roman buildings were built of bricks and concrete. Stone was expensive, so it was often used just to decorate buildings. Roman builders were the first to become expert at using concrete and building arches. The Romans also perfected the dome. Because of these skills their buildings could be very spacious, with high roofs and big windows. Some of the best builders and surveyors were in the army. In peacetime the army helped to plan and build whole towns. Town councils also owned slaves who were used as laborers on building sites.

(A) WINDOWS Glass windows were very expensive. Only important buildings had them.

(B) CONCRETE Concrete was made out of lime, sand, and small stones. Concrete was very useful for building roofs. It weighed less than stone and could not catch fire like wood. It was also cheap to make.

(C) ROOF BUILDING A temporary wooden arch was built first. A layer of bricks was laid on top of the arch. A layer of concrete was then poured over the bricks.

(D) CRANE Cranes lifted heavy loads. They were operated by slaves walking inside a treadmill.

The Roman Empire had an excellent system of roads. Most roads were built by the army. This is because the roads were built mainly to allow soldiers to travel quickly in wartime. However, they also helped trade. The roads made it easier for merchants to carry their goods around the empire. Sometimes wealthy people went on sight-seeing trips, but most people did not travel unless they had to. They lived in the same town or village all their lives and rarely left it. Some Roman roads are still used today. They are easy to spot on a map because they often run for long distances in very straight lines.

(A) PAVING SLABS The road was paved with hard-wearing stone slabs. The middle of the road was made higher than the sides so rain would drain off.

(B) LAYERS OF PEBBLES AND GRAVEL A layer of pebbles and gravel was rammed down to form a hard surface.

(C) DIGGING The Romans dug a trench 1 meter deep and 7 meters wide. Drainage ditches were also dug alongside the road.

(D) FOUNDATIONS The trench was covered with sand and large stones. These were packed tightly to make strong foundations.

Roads and Travel

A Roman mile was about 1,437 meters long. Each mile along a road was marked off by a stone. They were like modern road signs. They told the traveler how far he had to go to reach the next town.

Milestones

The route was surveyed using a groma. This was difficult to use. It had to be kept perfectly level and even a breeze could cause problems. The route was marked out with stakes.

Surveying

Bridge Building The Romans built strong arched bridges with stone and concrete. This bridge in Spain is still in use, more than 1,800 years later. It is more than 45 meters high.

Trade was very important to the Roman empire. Big cities like Rome had to import large amounts of food from all over the empire. Luxury goods came from further away. Silk came on camel caravans from China. Ships brought spices, jewels and perfumes from India. Transporting goods on land was expensive, so most trade went by sea. Roman merchant ships were strong and seaworthy but very slow. Sailing was dangerous and ships stayed in port from November to March to avoid winter storms.

(A) BARGE Flat-bottomed barges were used to transport goods on rivers to seaports.

(B) SAILS Roman merchant ships were driven by a single large square sail. A smaller sail at the front was used to help steer the ship.

(C) LIGHTHOUSE These were built at the entrances of important harbors. Fires were kept burning at the top.

(D) CORBITA These were the most common type of merchant ships. They were slow and difficult to maneuver.

(E) GOOSE HEAD Ships often had a carved goose's head, the symbol of Isis - a goddess who protected sailors.

Trade and Ships

Amber is a valuable yellow-colored resin. German tribesmen collected amber from around the Baltic Sea and sold it to Roman traders. Amber can be carved easily into figurines. The Romans also believed that it had magical and medical properties.

Amber Barrels

The barrel was invented by the Celts of northern Europe. The Romans copied the idea and used barrels to transport beer and

wine.

Pottery Factories making high-quality pottery traded their goods all over the empire. This pottery was made in Gaul.

Amphorae were tall clay jars with pointed bases. They were used as containers for liquids such as wine, olive oil, and garum (fish paste). Millions of amphorae were made, and most of them were thrown away after being used just once.

Amphorae

A Roman House

Most townspeople lived in multi-storey apartment blocks. Richer people lived in the lower stories. These were built of brick and had large, comfortable rooms. Poorer people lived in the higher stories. These were built of wood and the rooms were small and draughty. None of the apartments had kitchens, water, or toilets. The ground floors were rented out as shops. Only rich people owned their own homes. This picture shows the kind of house that a rich Italian family might have lived in.

(A) SHOP Shopkeepers often rented out the front rooms and lived in small rooms above the shop.

(B) ATRIUM The atrium was the biggest room. It had a hole in the roof to let light in and a basin in the floor to collect rainwater.

(C) WORKROOMS Slaves' quarters and workrooms were at the back of the house.

(D) WINDOW Windows were very small to stop burglars.

(E) PERISTYLE The peristyle was an open courtyard with a covered walk around the edges. The peristyle was laid out with flower beds, fountains and statues.

(F) TABLINIUM The tablinium was the main living room of the house. It was usually built between the atrium and the peristyle. Guests were entertained there.

(G) BEDROOM Bedrooms were small and simply furnished.

Family Life

Roman families were small. Parents usually had three children or less. Children were expected to grow up quickly. Children in poor families had to start work as young as 5 or 6. Richer children did little but play until they were 7. Boys then started school. Most left at 11 to learn the family business. Boys were considered to be adults at 14. Girls were educated at home. They were taught how to run a household by their mothers. Most girls were engaged by 12 and married by 14. Parents were affectionate towards their children but they expected to be obeyed. Marriages often ended in divorce. If this happened, the children always stayed with the father. The Romans believed that age brought wisdom. Because of this, they respected aged relatives.

(A) SLAVES Household slaves were often well treated. Many were freed as a reward for good service.

(B) WET NURSE The wet nurse was a slave who looked after children. She washed, dressed, and fed them, played with them and helped in their education. Children often saw their parents only at the evening meal.

(C) THE MOTHER With slaves looking after her children, the mother could concentrate on managing the household.

(A) THE SON Romans preferred sons to daughters because only sons could carry on the family name. If a couple was childless or had only daughters, they would adopt a son.

(B) THE FATHER Fathers had the right to whip or jail their sons. They could even sell them as slaves. Few fathers were that cruel, but they were always strict.

Tablet and Stylus

Children learned to write using wooden tablets covered with wax. The letters were formed in the wax using a metal stylus. The pointed end was used for writing. The blunt end was used to smooth the wax.

Rings On becoming engaged, a couple exchanged rings. Late June was a popular time for weddings. It was thought to be a lucky time of year.

Slaves who were thought likely to run away were treated like dogs. They had to wear metal collars or name plates. These gave the name and address of the slave's owner. If they were caught, they were sent straight back home and punished.

Food and Drink The Romans ate three meals a day. Breakfast was bread and fruit. At midday they ate a light lunch of bread, cheese, cold fish, meat, and vegetables. The main meal of the day was a three-course dinner served in the evening. Not all Romans ate as well as this in the evening. Most people lived in apartments that did not have kitchens. They either had to eat cold meals or buy hot food from the many take-out food shops. The poorest Romans had a very bad diet. They were given hand-outs of grain from the government that they made into porridge.

(A) TRICLINIUM The dining room of the house was called the triclinium. Diners reclined on three couches that were arranged around a low dining table.

(B) EVENING MEAL The main meal had three courses: a starter of eggs, seafood, or snails; a main course of roast or boiled meat; and a last course of sweets and fruit.

Scales

Shopkeepers used scales like these to weigh food. The Romans measured weight in pounds and ounces.

Bread Bread was sold while still hot from the oven. The dough was shaped so that the finished loaf could easily be divided up.

Mortar and Pestle Every kitchen had a mortar and pestle. They were used for grinding herbs and spices to be used when making sauces.

Kitchen Food was cooked over a brick oven. It was either boiled in a pot or roasted on a griddle over the flames. Cooking was hard work and the evening meal could take all day to prepare. Cooks were valued household slaves.

The Public Baths Romans enjoyed going to the baths. The baths were cheap to enter, so both rich and poor could afford to go often. Those who could spare the time went every day. Men and women bathed in separate rooms because mixed bathing was not allowed. People did not go to the baths just to get clean. The baths were a place to meet friends and gossip, gamble or play games. You could have a massage or go for a swim. Some baths had restaurants and even libraries.

(A) HOT ROOM The heat and steam made bathers sweat, getting rid of dirt in the pores of their skin.

(B) STEAM BATH Furnaces boiled pools of water to fill the hot room with steam.

(C) WARM ROOM Before entering the hot room, bathers went to the warm room to get used to the heat.

(D) COLD ROOM Bathers went to the cold room last of all. Here they had a quick dip in a pool of cold water to give the skin a final rinse.

(E) EXERCISE AND GAMING AREA Before going home, bathers liked to sunbathe and chat with their friends. Some also did athletic exercises.

The Romans did not use soap to keep clean. Instead, they poured olive oil onto their bodies. Then the oil, along with any dirt on the skin, was scraped off with a strigil. This was a scraper made of wood or metal.

Strigil and Oil Flask

A hypocaust was a heating system in which hot air from a furnace circulated under the floor and inside flues built into the walls, warming the room.

Hypocaust

Most entertainment in the Roman Empire was free. Events were paid for by rich and ambitious men. By putting on a lavish show, they hoped to gain popularity and improve their chances of winning elections for positions in politics. Though it was free to enter, people were not allowed to sit anywhere they liked in the arena or theatre. Front seats were reserved for the rich. Poorer people sat behind, and slaves had to sit right at the back. Musical theatre and concerts were popular, but the best-attended events were violent ones like chariot races and gladiator shows. The main event at gladiator contests was a fight between men armed with different kinds of weapons.

(A) RETIARIUS The retiarius was a gladiator armed with a net and trident. He would entangle his opponent in the net before spearing him.

(B) MURMILLO The murmillo was a heavily armored gladiator. He could be a dangerous opponent. His only weakness was that his helmet obstructed his vision.

Entertainment

Chariot Racing

Chariots were usually drawn by four horses. Races lasted for seven laps, with four chariots in each race. Each team of charioteers had its own supporters. They often fought each other and it was not unusual for dozens of people to be killed. Chariot races were the most popular form of entertainment. The laps were counted from the spina, a building which ran down the centre of the racecourse.

Glass Trophy

This glass trophy was made to celebrate a victory by a charioteer called Crescens.

There were many Roman gods. Each watched over a different activity of daily life. The Romans were afraid of their gods. The gods could easily be made angry and if that happened, all sorts of disasters might follow. Regular sacrifices had to be made to keep the gods happy. No important decision, like declaring war, would be made unless the Romans were sure that the gods would approve. The Romans believed in life after death. They thought that a dead person's spirit was ferried across an underground river called the Styx, to Hades - the land of the dead. Here the spirits were judged. The good went to heaven, the bad to hell. At funerals a coin was placed under the dead person's tongue. This was to pay the ferry fare to Hades.

(A) ALTAR Altars were set up outside temples. The priest placed the offerings mixed with incense and holy oil on the altar. These were all burned so that the smoke could take the offerings to the god.

(B) MUSIC Solemn music was performed before the sacrifice. At the kill the priest called for silence.

(C) PRIEST The priest had to make sure that the sacrifice was performed correctly. Any mistake would mean that the sacrifice would not be accepted by the god.

(D) SACRED KNIFE The animals were first knocked to the ground with an axe. Then their throats were cut with a sacred knife.

(E) ANIMALS A pig, sheep, and bull were sacrificed at important ceremonies.

Religion

Jupiter Minerva Mars Mars was the god of war and country life. He was the guardian of Rome and would avenge any wrong.

Jupiter was the ruler of the Roman gods. He was known as Best and Greatest. Jupiter stood for good faith, honor, and justice. When he was angry, Jupiter hurled thunderbolts and caused

storms.

Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, watched over writers, doctors, teachers, artists, and craftsmen.

Charm People who were sick prayed to the gods for a cure. People gave models of the sick or injured part of the body to the god to show their gratitude if they were cured.

Cremation Urn

The Romans either buried their dead or cremated them. After cremation, the ashes were put in an urn for burial. Cremation urns came in all shapes and could be made of pottery, metal, or even glass. This "face urn" is from Roman Britain.

The Late Roman Empire In the 3rd century AD the empire suffered so many invasions that it almost collapsed. It was saved by a series of soldier-emperors who restored the empire's defenses. The rule of these emperors was harsh. Taxes were high to pay for the defenses, and tax collectors were ruthless. Christians had been persecuted in the early empire. But in 313 AD the emperor Constantine became a Christian. He built churches and helped spread the religion. Within 100 years most Roman subjects were Christians.

(A) BUREAUCRATS Officials were needed to collect taxes and keep records of spending.

(B) CLOTHING The toga was no longer fashionable. Romans now wore rich and colorful clothes.

(C) EMPEROR The emperor was a figure of awesome majesty. The Christian emperors claimed to rule the empire as Christ's deputies.

The End of the Roman Empire

In the 5th century AD the Roman Empire again came under attack from outside. This time there were no soldier-emperors to save it. By now the emperors had become weak and powerless figures. They were dominated by their officials and generals. The invaders were Germanic barbarian tribesmen. They did not invade because they wanted to destroy the Roman Empire. They wanted to live in it and share in its wealth. The Romans gave the barbarians lands in which to settle. In return the barbarians agreed to help defend the empire. This agreement worked for a time. But the barbarians began to take more land. By 476 AD they had taken over all of the western half of the empire. The eastern half survived for another 1,000 years. It became known as the Byzantine Empire.

(A) BARBARIANS The barbarians who invaded the empire brought their families with them. They traveled in covered wagons or on foot. In return for being given land to farm, many of the men joined the Roman army.

(B) CHIEFTAIN The power of a barbarian chieftain depended on his skill in battle. Only a leader who was successful in winning wealth and land for his people could expect them to be loyal to him.

(C) LANDOWNER In return for giving some of his land to the barbarians, a landowner could expect lower taxes from the government. He also hoped the barbarians would protect his estates.

(D) ARMY OFFICER Roman uniforms and armor had changed a lot since early imperial times.