The Role Of Ontology In Modern Expert Systems Dallas 2008
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The Role of Ontology in Modern
Expert Systems Development
Jason MorrisMorris Technical Solutions LLC
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Long-Distance Dedication
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Outline
• Prologue: Setting the Stage• Part I: Knowledge Engineering• Part II: Ontology Fundamentals• Part III: Creating Ontologies• Part IV: SINFERS Example• Epilogue: References and Q & A
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Prologue: Setting the Stage
Concepts and Context
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Key Questions
1. What exactly is a modern expert system? What does that entail?
2. Briefly, what is an ontology?3. What is the relationship between
ontologies and expert systems?
To answer these questions, we require some background. Let’s
tackle question #1 now.
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Old vs. New Expert Systems
• Monolithic• Pre-shell• As “oracles”• Computer-centric• Non object-
oriented architecture
• “Waterfall” dev
• Componentized• Shell-derived• As services• Network-centric• Object-oriented
architecture• RAD, spiral, and
XP dev
Old New
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Modern Expert Systems
• Built from OTS/OSS components.• Constructed using shells.• Act as an expert agent and provide
expertise as a service. • Utilize the internet as a source of
“common-sense”.• Designed with the latest OOP concepts
, RAD/XP practices, and HCI factors.
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The AI Value PropositionWhy care about AI/ expert systems at all?
By reasoning about information using applied knowledge, expert systems help stakeholders make timely and reliable decisions.
=>
Modern businesses need to make complex decisions.
1
Complex decisions require lots of information and applied knowledge.
2
Such decisions must be made quickly and reliably.
3
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Market Drivers & EnablersWhat is driving the apparent renaissance in AI?
An incubator for new technologies and a source for new markets – a “killer-app”!
3 INTERNET
Dramatic increases in CPU speed, RAM capacity, storage, etc.
1 Hardware Power
Mass-production has lowered technology costs.
2 Hardware Cost
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What is an ontology?
• A collection of classes, their attributes, and their relationships.
• A description or model of a domain of discourse or knowledge (area of expertise).
• A vocabulary for conveying thought and conducting reasoning in a domain.
In the AI context, an ontology is:
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What is an ontology?
• Ontologies are used to encapsulate domain knowledge.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications perform symbolic reasoning over those domains.
• Ontologies define the limits of symbolic reasoning in AI applications.
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Linking ES and Ontologies
OntologyOntology
Ontologies disambiguate
meaning.
Ontologies disambiguate
meaning.
=
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Part I: Knowledge Engineering
Moving from Noise to Knowledge
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Our Knowledge Engineer
• May or may not be a domain expert in own right – but possible.
• Expert programmer.• Software architect.• Liaison skills.• Great communicator.• Makes raw knowledge
programmable.
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Our Domain Expert
• Ostensibly, a specialist in some field.
• May or may not have programming expertise.
• May or may not be a good communicator.
• May or may not be open to sharing knowledge (expertise).
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From the Engineer’s POV
Our knowledge engineer would prefer that her project get recognition here…
Rather than here.
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Knowledge Representation
• An approximate model or view of the world with respect to a domain.
• The bounds of an intelligent system's knowledge base.
• A foundation for sense-making and reasoning.
Typically in ES development, the first design decision is how knowledge will be represented in the system.
Ontologies provide:
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Parlez-Vous AI?
“Instances are the actual data in your knowledge base … If you have to make changes to your class or slot structure after instances have been entered, you may lose some information.”
Anything odd about this?
From a popular ontology editor help file…
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Noise
Defined as the universe of all possible invariants…
…an endless sea of qualitative and quantitative values without a cognitive pattern.
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Data
Noise is filtered and sampled to separate useful measurements (facts) and to form data.
Thus, in a sense, data is created via our cognitive attention.
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Information
Data is analyzed and interpreted, to uncover meaning and relationships, producing actionable information.
Information aids decisions.x
y
0i i i iy x
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Knowledge
• Knowledge is derived from information.• One application of information is to
make decisions. • When we observe the outcomes of
those decisions, we can uncover new data or information, and generate new knowledge.
• Knowledge comes in two main types…
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Declarative Knowledge Rules
We can represent them by asserting a fact or facts when certain other facts are present.
IF fact(s)
THEN
assert fact(s)
These represent the invariants that can be inferred when one or more invariants hold.
Context
Invariant(s)
Invariants(s)
=>
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Procedural Knowledge Rules
We can represent them by calling functions when certain facts are present.
IF fact(s)
THEN
call function foo
These represent the actions to take when certain invariants hold.
Context
Invariant(s)
Actions(s)
=>
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Declarative vs. Procedural
An example of declarative knowledge.
IF
(instance-of ?x THING)
(composed-of ?x CLAY)
(composed-of ?x SAND)
(composed-of ?x SILT)
THEN
(instance-of ?x SOIL)
THEN we can compute the soil property
1 2( , ,..., )
m ny f x x x
IF we have the soil property values
1 2...
nx x x An example of
procedural knowledge.
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Ontological Commitment“An agreement to use a vocabulary (i.e., ask queries and make assertions) in a way that is consistent (but not complete) with respect to the theory specified by an ontology …
An agent commits to an ontology if its observable actions are consistent with the definitions in the ontology.” – Tom Gruber
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Tacit (Implicit) Knowledge
• Most expertise is tacit or implied.
• Tacit knowledge is hard or impossible to quantify or qualify.
• Often the result of extensive experience. Hard to verify.
• Inseparable from original problem context.
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The “Bottleneck” IssueConverting Expert Knowledge To Rules
Elicitation
How can they make each
other understand what each
knows?
How can they make each
other understand what each
knows?
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Part I: Ontology Fundamentals
The How, What, Where, When, and Why of Ontologies
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CLASS
Represents a “thing” or concept.
CLASS
FACET 1FACET 1
FACET mFACET m
FACET
An allowed value for a slot [optional].
Ontological Classes
SLOT 1SLOT 1
SLOT (n – 1)SLOT (n – 1)
SLOT nSLOT n
SLOT
A data field within a class. Type is optional.
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Classes vs. Instances
organic_carbon
symbol “_6A1”symbol “_6A1”
value 0.06value 0.06
units “kg/kg”units “kg/kg”
stdev 0.01stdev 0.01
id 42id 42
Soil Property
symbol STRINGsymbol STRING
value FLOATvalue FLOAT
units STRINGunits STRING
stdev STRINGstdev STRING
id INTEGERid INTEGER
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Specializing vs. Inheriting
CLASS A
CLASS B CLASS C
Subclassing or extending a parent class, superclass, or base-class
CLASS X CLASS Y
CLASS Z
Inheritance from one or more parent classes
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Subclass / Inherit Examples
Soil
Acrisol Vertisol
Acrisol and Vertisol are specializations of Soil.
Horizon A Horizon B
Horizon AB
A soil horizon can inherit properties from distinct types.
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Ontological Relationships
Relationships connect pairs of classes.
CLASS X CLASS Yis-a
CLASS Zhas-a
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Ontological Relationships
Relationships are modeled as slots.
FUZZY_TRAINING_CLASSFUZZY_TRAINING_CLASS
PEDOTRANSFER_FUNCTIONPEDOTRANSFER_FUNCTION uses-a
TRAINING_CLASSTRAINING_CLASSis-a
CENTROIDCENTROID has-a
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Taxonomy vs. Ontology
• Subsume taxonomies. • Include attributes with
cardinality and restricted values.
• Unlimited relationships between entities.
• Superior inferencing support due to relational expressiveness.
• Usually are a single, hierarchical classification within a subject
• Primarily focused on “is-a” relationships between classes
• Limited in inferencing potential due to lack of relational expressiveness.
Taxonomies: Ontologies:
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Upper Ontologies
• Benefit: Provide common sense.
• Example: Cyc Project.
• Issues: – Web 2.0 (Semantic Web)– Is this the key to real AI?– Harder to generalize
knowledge.– Where to stop? Granularity?– Overlap and integration?
Common
Sense
Domain
Ontology
Gen
era
lity
Middle and Fuzzy
Ontologies
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Implied Ontologies(deftemplate soil-property
"A fact describing a soil property“
(slot symbol)
(slot value)
(slot error)
(slot units))
Using these templates, what could an expert system reason about implicitly?
(deftemplate ptf
"A fact describing a pedotransfer function"
(slot symbol)
(multislot args)
(slot value)
(slot units))
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How do ontologies help?
Ontologies
Semantic Search
(Web 2.0)
Business Rules
GeneralInferencing
RulesKnowledge Layer
Entity Relationship
Diagrams
SQL Queries
Data Exchange
Data Layer
Design LayerOOP Object
ModelsUML
Diagrams
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Why create ontologies?
• To share common understanding of the structure of information among people or software agents.
• To enable reuse of domain knowledge.• To make domain assumptions explicit.• To separate domain knowledge from the
operational knowledge.• To analyze domain knowledge.
Source: Noy, N.; McGuinness, D. 2001
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Why create ontologies?
• To accommodate future domain growth.
• To provide for inter-operability with legacy and future intelligent systems.
• To accommodate complex domains with many classes and relationships.
• To support systems where implicit ontologies are insufficient.
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Problem Solving Methods
• Heuristic Classification
• Generate & Test
• Propose & Revise
• Cover & Differentiate
• Acquire & Present
You design your application ontology to support your problem solving method.
William Clancey
B. Chandrasekaran
John McDermott
Allen Newell
Robert Wielinga
Key PSM Authors
Defined as reasoning strategies for solving certain problem types. See Also Generic Tasks.
Classical PSM
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Problem Solving MethodsIn “Preliminary Steps Towards a Taxonomy of Problem Solving Methods”, McDermott says…
“…In traditional expert systems terminology, a problem-solving method is called an inference engine.”
In our case, we are using a rule-engine as our inference engine. So, forward-chaining through rules is our problem-solving method.
In our case, we are using a rule-engine as our inference engine. So, forward-chaining through rules is our problem-solving method.
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PSMs, Tasks, and Goals
PSM
goal_1: task_1_1
task_1_2
goal_2 task_2_1
task_2_2
task_2_m
goal_ntask_n_1
Rule Engine
module_1: rule_1_1
rule_1_2
module_2 rule_2_1
rule_2_2
rule_2_m
module_nrule _n_1
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Ontology Bifurcation
Doing this allows developers to make explicit tradeoffs between reusability and granularity of the required domain knowledge. Separates out control and procedural knowledge.
Doing this allows developers to make explicit tradeoffs between reusability and granularity of the required domain knowledge. Separates out control and procedural knowledge.
Domain OntologyDefines a domain’s set of terms and relations independent of any problem-solving method.
Application OntologyContains terms and relations unique to a particular problem-solving method.
Ontology
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Closed World Assumption
• All references to it are logically FALSE.• You cannot reason about it.
If a thing or concept is not explicitly defined in an ontology where CWA holds, then:
If a thing or concept is not explicitly defined in an ontology where CWA holds, then:
CWA is used when a “best” answer is required despite an incomplete knowledge base.
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Linking Rules & Ontology
• Ontological instances are the input and output of expert systems backed by ontologies.
• Rules operate on ontological instances.• The granularity of your ontologies
determines the expressiveness of your facts and rules.
• The expressiveness of your facts and rules determines the degree to which you can make inferences within your problem scope.
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Part II: Ontology Creation
How to design and build a domain ontology.
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Ontology Truisms
• An ontology is a designed artifact.• There is no right or wrong way to begin.• A bottom-up or top-down approach is fine.• Expressiveness comes from relations not the
classes and their slots.• Separate domain ontologies from control
ontologies so that control implementation is free to vary.
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Ontology Creation Basics
1. Identify as many “things” and concepts in your domain as you can.
2. For each thing or concept, enumerate its attributes and properties. Specify any restricted values.
3. For each pair of things or concepts, decide if there is some relationship between them. Look for hierarchy, composition, cooperation, and dependence.
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Markup Technologies
• RFD - Resource Description Framework
• RDF Schema -
• DAML - DARPA Agent Markup Language • SHOE - Simple HTML Ontology Extensions
• OIL - Ontology Inference Layer • DAML+OIL• OWL - Web Ontology Language
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Using an Ontology IDE
• Saves you time and effort designing.• Easy to export and import your
ontology via different formats (i.e., RDF, OWL, etc.).
• Often coupled with an instance editor to create a “knowledge-base”.
• Protégé is the defacto OSS standard.http://protege.stanford.edu/
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Ontology Languages / Tools
• Ontolinguahttp://www.ksl.stanford.edu/software/ontolingua/
• Loom / Power Loom / Ontosaurushttp://www.isi.edu/isd/LOOM/LOOM-HOME.html
• SWOOPhttp://code.google.com/p/swoop/
• OntoEdithttp://www.ontoknowledge.org/tools/ontoedit.shtml
• TopBraid Composerhttp://www.topquadrant.com/topbraid/composer/index.html
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Part IV: SINFERS Example
Lessons Learned from the Soil Inferencing System (SINFERS)
Project
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SINFERS Project
• University of Sydney, AU• Estimation of soil
properties via pedotransfer functions (PTF).
• Use rules to select PTFs.• Used by soil scientists,
farmers, civil engineers, and conservationalists.
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SINFERS Design Task
PTF Rulebase
Working Memory
p1
p2
p(n-1)
pn
PTF Database
* ({ })p f q
Jess Rule Engine
Given an initial set, {P} of n soil properties
p*
rule compute-ptf-p*
IF {q}: {q} {P}
PTF({q})
THEN compute p*and
add to working memory
rule compute-ptf-p*
IF {q}: {q} {P}
PTF({q})
THEN compute p*and
add to working memory
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Script Tab
Lets you drive the Protégé API via your favorite script engine
Jess Tab
Lets you write and test Jess rules based on your ontological instances
Queries Tab
Used to define queries for looking up all instances matching some pattern
Instances Tab
Used to browse and edit current instances
Forms Tab
Automatically generates forms for populating the knowledgebase with instances
Slots Tab
Used to define and edit all slots through out the ontology
Class Tab
Used to define abstract and concrete ontological classes
SINFERS in Protégé
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How Ontology Pays Off
• We avoided hard-coding PTFs as functor-like Java classes.
• We avoided ugly GUI issues via early detection.
• We were able to more rapidly agree on design intent once we had a common vocabulary.
• We can write XSLTs to map our input spec to other Australian government database schema.
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Epilogue
References and Q & A
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Web Ontology History
RDF
DAMLOIL
SHOE
DAML+OIL
OWL
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2008
2007
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Famous Ontology Folks
Tom Gruber Deb McGuinness Dieter Fensel
Many of their colleagues and students are also great sources of ontology literature.
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Take-Away Points
• Facilitate communication and understanding between knowledge engineers and domain experts.
• Establish relationships and semantics.• Fulfill Closed-World assumptions.• Facilitate creation of other design artifacts:
– UML object models– Inference rules
Developing a domain ontology can help:
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References I
• Boicu M. et. al., "Ontologies And The Knowledge Acquisition Bottleneck", Proceedings of IJCAI-2001 Workshop on Ontologies and Information Sharing, pp. 9-18., Aug 2001.
• Fensel, D. et al., "On-To-Knowledge: Ontology-Based Tools For Knowledge Management", Proceedings of the eBusiness and eWork 2000 (EMMSEC 2000) Conference, Madrid, Spain, 2000.
• McCarthy, J., "Some Expert System Need Common Sense", Computer Science Department, Stanford University, found at http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/, 1984.
• Noy, N.; McGuinness, D., "Ontology Development 101: A Guide To Creating Your First Ontology", Stanford Knowledge Systems Laboratory Technical Report KSL-01-05 and Stanford Medical Informatics Technical Report SMI-2001-0880, March 2001.
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References II
• Parry, D., "Fuzzification Of A Standard Ontology To Encourage Reuse", Proceedings of 2004 IEEE International Conference on Information Reuse and Integration, pp. 582-587, 2004.
• Staab, S. et. al., "Knowledge Processes and Ontologies", IEEE Intelligent Systems, pp. 26-34, Jan/Feb 2001.
• Uschold, M.; Gruninger, M., "Ontologies: Principles, Methods, And Applications", Knowledge Engineering Review, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 1-63, Jun 1996.
• Weber, R; Kaplan, R., " Knowledge-Based Knowledge Management", Innovations in Knowledge Engineering, vol. 4, pp. 151-172, Jul 2003.
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The entire archive of ontology papers used in
this presentation is available as a ZIP
Please ask me or James Owen if you’d like a copy.
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Thank you all for your kind attention!!
15 Minutes for Questions