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Chapter 20

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-7278-9.ch020

The Role of Affective Computing for Improving

Situation Awareness in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Operations:

A US Perspective

ABSTRACT

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as drones, are a robotic form of military aircraft that are remotely operated by humans. Due to lack of situation awareness, such technology has led to the deaths of civilians through the inaccurate targeting of missile or gun attacks. This chapter presents the case for how a patented invention can be used to reduce civilian casualties through attaching an affect recognition sensor to a UAV that uses a database of strategies, tactics and commands to better instruct fighter pilots on how to respond while in combat so as to avoid misinterpreting civilians as combatants. The chapter discusses how this system, called VoisJet, can reduce many of the difficulties that come about for UAV pilots, including reducing cognitive load and opportunity for missing data. The chapter concludes that using UAVs fitted with VoisJet could allow for the reduction of the size of standing armies so that defence budgets are not overstretched outside of peacetime.

INTRODUCTION

The use of remote systems like drones, technically known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), is starting to move out of the first wave of public

and media attention, and now needs to shift toward a more cohesive debate with productive and practical ends. Indeed, it has been argued that a problem with the design of existing UAVs driven by policy makers, who are not militarily

Jonathan BishopCentre for Research into Online Communities and E-Learning Systems, Belgium

The Role of Affective Computing

qualified, has been illustrative of the claim that new technological practices that aim to bridge physical distance provide a more efficient moral distance and make it difficult for people to exer-cise moral responsibility (Coeckelbergh, 2013). This has been associated with Internet abuse such as trolling, where people will abuse others for their own enjoyment without considering the consequences (Bishop, 2013; Bishop, 2014; Hardaker, 2013; McCosker, 2013), but should be considered a flaw that needs adjusting in current drone systems where the actions of pilots would be dehumanised. The use of UAVs by the US Government provides greater freedom in those military personnel carrying out operations on their behalf, as use of foreign military personnel and the agreement of their government will be less necessary (Byman, 2013). A greater use of UAVs also means that there will be fewer casualties aris-ing out of improvised explosive devices (IEDs) as air-based operations provider greater safety for military personnel in this regard (Reynolds, 2013). The problem however is evident that the way UAVs are currently designed does not allow for the efficiency of operations and the safety of civilians and other non-military targets.

Uses and Limitations of UAVs in Combat Operations

The NATO forces are becoming more dependent on UAVs, and their use has been driven by the US and such policy choices have consequences, regardless of whether their military leaders be-lieve these are right or wrong (Kean et al., 2004, p.376). Any government in the world will want toincrease its national security whilst limiting loss of life to those in its military and the civilians in the localities where its military operations are engaged. However, before trying to understand the technology of UAVs and how they can be im-proved, it is important to understand why there is

a growing need for the US military to be allowed to use UAVs in military engagements in order to safeguard the democratic rights of Americans whom they must protect whoever is in power in the White House.

BACKGROUND

There is one thing more certain than death or taxes and that is that humans will always be in conflict with one another, regardless of which difference or transgression created that conflict. One of the longest lasting wars in history is that which is taking place in the Holy Land between those Jews that identify as Israelis and those Arabs that identify as Palestinians. During the first millennium BCE this part of the world, one might wish to call the Holy Land, was known as Israel in the Hebrew language and as Palestine in Roman Latin (i.e. they were the same place). It was only in the mid-21st century CE that there was a separation of the territories caused by med-dling politicians who formed part of the United Nations. The people in the Holy Land around 900 BCE were known as the Israelites, and there were 12 Semitic tribes in total, forming part of a united kingdom. These tribes split around 820 BCE with the enthronement of the son of King Solomon, Rehoboam, who threatened Gods wrath on the 10 tribes in the North, who have now become the Jewish Semitics (i.e. Jews) and the two tribes in the South whom supported him have now become Arabic Semitics (i.e. Arabs). These two Semitic races have been warring ever since the fall of Rehoboam and international inter-ference has led to some of the greatest atrocities. This includes the massacre of the Jews by King Richard I in York in 1190 CE (Jones, 2000) and the same by the Hitler Government in Germany between 1933 and 1945 CE (Rees, 2005), right up to the bombing of the World Trade Center in

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New York. This act of war is according to those in the FBI a direct result of political support for the Netanyahu Government by the politicians in Washington (Drezner, 2011; Kean, Hamilton, & Fitzgerald, 2004; Kean et al., 2004, p.147). The bombing of three of its sister cities (i.e. London, Madrid, Paris), in all cases by Jihads (i.e. radi-cal Arabs), is also believed to be because of the political leadership in the US Government. The Netanyahu Government have a policy of driving out Arabs from the Holy Land with the support of Zionists (i.e. radical Jews), which is something the Jihads take exception to. The Netanyahu Govern-ment is not the first to want to drive Arabs from the Holy land to create a single country liked existed around 900 BCE, as significant attempts were made in the early Middle Ages, starting with the Peoples Crusade of 1096 CE right up until the Ninth Crusade ending in 1172. The Netanyahu Governments plan of mass eradication of Arabs, is to end the historical existence of the Israelites (i.e. Jews, Arabs) to create a single state made up only of so-called Israelis (i.e. Jews), with the eradication of Palestinians (i.e. Arabs). This has meant that the Western world has become less safe in relation to those countries who backed and still support the post-World War II settlement to break up the Holy Land, leaving the military to find affordable solutions to what some see a costly mistake. Indeed, it has been suggested that the US Government reassess its policy in relation to the support of the Netanyahu Government by some of its own security officials (Kean et al., 2004; Kean & Hamilton, 2006). Since the election of Nobel Peace Prize winner Barrack Obama as President in 2008, there has been a shift in the way the US Government is approaching the three millennia long war in the Holy Land (Drezner, 2011). Barrack Obama and his successors, and the US military whom they exercise control over, have a huge mess to clean up from the previous politicians in the US Government. This may come in the form of

negotiating a settlement between the Zionist and Jihadist forces that threaten world peace, whether the state-led attacks of the Netanyahu Government in the case of the former, or the gruella-led attacks of Hamas and Al-Qaeda in the case of the latter. Whilst Al-Qaeda could be considered a grave threat to the peace and safety of Western nations, comparable to Japan in the Second World War, in this context one might prefer to compare Hamas to the First and Second Continental Congresses that secured US independence even though they were viewed as terrorists at one point.

The rhetoric of successive US politicians in branding anti-Zionist forces as terrorists such as for the attacks by Jihads on the World Trade Center has given the military political clout to enter countries where Jihadist training camps exist to counter the actions of US politicians (Mobley, 2012). These anti-Zionists seek to make further attacks against America and the allies of the US Government, such as NATO countries, because of US politicians, making life difficult for the US military, whom are tasked with protecting America, whomever is in power, and whatever their policies happen to be. The sudden rise of media-savvy Jihads supported by Western citizens, like ISIS (or ISIL, Islamic State, Al-Qaeda in Iraq), may in part be down to the empathy of these Arabs and others to the Palestinians being terrorised in their homeland (i.e. the Holy Land). Since media attention in 2014 turned towards Israeli attacks on Gaza the membership of Jihadist organisations has significantly grown. This has resulted in the State of Israel, which occupies much of the Holy Land, using UAVs in their operations as well as sporadic missile attacks designed to cause maxi-mum destruction. It is unclear whether it is pos-sible to have a time where all Israelites Arabs, Jews and Gentiles will be able to share the Holy Land in the same way Europeans move freely in the European Union.

The Role of Affective Computing

There have been significant demands on Western military forces to take forward ground operations to deal with ISIS in Iraq, but public opinion on the issue is fragile followed the failed 2003 liberation of Iraq. The ground-led operations carried out for successive US presidents by the US military, has led to a huge number of deaths of US and other NATO military personnel, such as through IEDs, as well as civilians in the countries targeted. The innovative use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) by the military for dog-fighting as well as currently targeted drops appears to be the only effective means to hold back those anti-Zionist forces seeking to attack NATO member states, while the politicians continue to make poor policy decisions that the military, and indeed non-governmental organisations, have been left to pick up the pieces of. The current design of UAVs has led to a number of innocent civilian deaths in countries harbouring Jihadists that are military targets for NATO forces. It is therefore necessary to re-design future UAVs to take ac-count of the need to protect civilian lives. One way to achieve this might be to add affective and augmentive sensors and software to increase the

amount of information available to UAV pilots, so as to increase their situation awareness.

AN EVALUATION OF AN INVENTION FOR REDUCING HUMAN CASUALTIES IN UAV-BASED MILITARY ENGAGEMENTS: INTRODUCING VOISJET

It is clear that unmanned aerial vehicles will play an important part in defence and other military operations for the foreseeable future, but their use will have to move away from being given direction by military commanders and for more judgement on the pilots part to be utilised. The known civilian deaths such as weddings and other social engagements, as well as unknown ones, such as where a missile may have hit the wrong person, means that the technology for assisting pilots in identifying threats and avoiding causali-ties needs to be improved. This section sets out how a system, known as VoisJet, could be used to assist UAV pilots in correctly targeting enemy personnel, without the need for direction from military commanders.

Figure 1. Overview of processes for VoisJet

The Role of Affective Computing

VoisJet operates by using sensors to capture information, followed by decoding that informa-tion into a readable format by its bridge between external inputs and internal processes. The type of sensors used can be extended and work together to achieve an overall picture of what is going on in the area at which the pilot of a UAV has it targeted at. There will now be discussed some of the existing algorithms that could be fed into VoisJet. Systems which may make useful inputs for VoisJet are Point Clouds, which using open source libraries can filter, estimate features, and remove outliers from distorted capture, which have already been tested to be effective with UAVs (McLeod et al., 2013).

Table 1, which is drawn from Endsley, Bolte, & Jones (2010) shows many of the problems with unmanned vehicles and their aerial versions that can impair situation awareness of the pilots. This next section will be looking at the way VoisJet

can improve situation awareness and thus reduce human casualties.

Reducing Poor Sensory Data, Intermittent Data, and Time-Lags in UAVs

A primary challenge in developing effective virtual reality systems is designing the human interface hardware which allows rich sensory information to be presented to users in natural ways (Rosen-berg & Stredney, 1996). It has been argued that autonomic systems can provide increased man-ageability and higher availability by executing in an autonomous execution environment and by having rich sensory information at their disposal (Durham, Milenkovic, & Cayton, 2006). Table 1 shows that rich sensory information (visual, audi-tory, haptic, etc.) about the in combat operation of a UAV is essential, especially relating to the state of the UAV in the operating environment

Table 1. Limitations on situation awareness in current UVs and UAVs

Factor DescriptionPoor sensory data, intermittent data, and time-lags

Rich sensory information (visual, auditory, haptic, etc.) about the in combat operation of a UV is essential, especially relating to the state of the UV in the operating environment. Many UVs result in visual or cognitive sub-optimisation, which can be fatal.

Difficulties in UV localisation

Disorientation in UVs is a common problem that seriously affects situation awareness. Being able to have a sense of localisation where the operator is aware of what is going on in combat is essential. Lack of situation awareness on the physical orientation and location of the vehicle can cause problems in any task that requires a special understanding of the area.

Demanding tasks in complex environments

UV operations often involve perceptually demanding tasks, especially visually, making it that more demanding. In the case of UAVs operators visual environment is often impoverished, with object properties (e.g. surface texture and colour) as well as poor spatial and chromatic resolution of the VDU through disrupted temporal and optical flow.

Low-Level data overload and interface design

The interfaces for UVs often only provide low-level data regarding vehicle systems and parameters. Particularly with UAVs, the situation awareness of operators is poor, often because of lack of key information or poor salience.

Multitasking in UV operations

Control over UVs often require multi-tasking and systems to date have been poor at obtaining it. In terms of UAVs this has often been in the form of not being able to target accurately, leading to crashes.

Lack of support for multi-person operations

UVs and in particular UAVs may be operated based on the needs of other team members who may possess critical information on the mission context, which can add additional task loading. This includes communications with commanders at observing those on the ground.

Increased autonomy for unmanned vehicle operations

Where autonomy is added to a UV problems in acquisition and maintenance of situation awareness are multiplied when the human must operate, monitor and supervise those UV systems under their control.

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(Endsley et al., 2010). Many UAV designs result in visual or cognitive sub-optimisation, which can be fatal (Endsley et al., 2010). Research has established that speech input is significantly bet-ter than manual input in terms of task completion time, task accuracy, flight/navigation measures, and pilot ratings in terms of UAVs (Draper, Calhoun, Ruff, Williamson, & Barry, 2003). UAVs can provide regular yet intermittent data transmission which is essential for the success of defence operations (Yang, Chen, Ammar, & Lee, 2005). VoisJet thus has an important role in reducing poor sensory data, intermittent data and time-lags. As an advice-giving agent it can process all the sensory information that the pilot is normally burdened with and also that which is absent, meaning they can make decisions based on their experience, rather than have to make do with incomplete information. The problems with time-lag, where the information collected by the UAV and presented to the operator can be removed by VoisJet through the processing being done machine-side and not by the pilot. This would enable the operator to make quicker decisions with less risk of incomplete information. One might there want to think of VoisJet like a Cloud application. The data processing is done server-side (on the UAV) and the decision-making is done client-side (by the pilot/operator).

Resolving Difficulties in UAV Localisation

Manned aerial operations are complex on their own, but in such situations fighter pilots have an awareness of the situation making it easy for judgements to be made that take account of the immediate circumstances. Traditional UAV opera-tions can be as limiting to a fighter pilot as a PC is to a novice user, who relies on a third-party to convey information for them to be situation aware. The aim therefore should be for UAVs to provide instant access to the information a fighter pilot needs to perform the mission being asked of them.

Indeed, whenever a task necessitates both local spatial task performance and knowledge of the global environment simultaneously, the operator at present is often forced to trade off performance in one task to maintain performance in the other task, which can result in poor performance in both local and global tasks and disorientation (Yee, 2013). As can be seen in Table 1, disorientation in UAVs is a common problem that seriously affects situation awareness of operators. Being able to have a sense of localisation where the operator is aware of what is going on in combat is thus essential (Endsley et al., 2010). Lack ofsituation awareness on the physical orientation and location of the vehicle can cause problems in any task that requires a special understanding of the area (Endsley et al., 2010). Even in non-military operations it is clear that the greatest improvements in situation awareness could be achieved by add-ing a localisation device to the UAV (Chisholm, Cui, Lum, & Chen, 2013). Through VoisJet it will be possible for the terrain to be evaluated for threats or to ensure civilian life is not lost by mistake. For instance, reports of wedding parties being interrupted by UAV strikes firing in error can be avoided, as the situation awareness algo-rithms in VoisJet can let the pilot know whether someone is likely to be a civilian or combatant and the best course of action to take such as in a hostage situation.

Improving Management of Demanding Tasks in Complex Environments

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are developed to perform more demanding tasks in civic and military applications such as geological surveys, aerial photography for mapping, security and environmental monitoring (Ando, Oguchi, & Yamada, 2013). As can be seen from Table 1, UAV operations often involve perceptually demanding tasks, especially visually, making it that more demanding (Endsley et al., 2010). In the case of

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UAV operators, their visual environment is often impoverished, with object properties (e.g. surface texture and colour) as well as poor spatial and chromatic resolution of the VDU through dis-rupted temporal and optical flow (Endsley et al., 2010). With VoisJet, as fighter pilots would not need to make judgements on what something is, and would be given options about what courses of action they can take, then it could play greater emphasis on their judgement in terms of know-ing what to do, as opposed to working out what is going on in such a way they lack the time to make good judgements.

Improving Low-Level Data Overload and Interface Design in UAVs

Table 1 shows that some of the interfaces for UVAs only provide low-level data regarding vehicle systems and parameters and the situation awareness of operators is often poor because of lack of key information or poor salience (Endsley et al., 2010). Low-level data for critical decision-making that is not readily available is necessary in UAVs, yet there are often demands for a single data stream that combines drone video feeds, cell phone intercepts, and targeting radar in UAVs (Gomez & Chimento, 2011). With VoisJet the most pertinent information would be available to the operator so that they have the appropriate number of options for the appropriate operating context they are in. The advancement in multi-touch technology might make it easier for pilots to access relevant information between various screens, as effortlessly as one might switch from one smartphone application to another.

Multitasking in UAV Operations

Control over UAVs often requires multi-tasking as Table 1 shows, yet to date systems have been poor at obtaining it and this often results in pilots not being able to target accurately, leading to crashes (Endsley et al., 2010). With VoisJet being based on

a multi-agent system, of which one embodiment can cope with over 250,000 action states, means the need for multi-tasking at a decision-making level could be reduced, leaving pilots to focus on operating the UAV based on their tacit experi-ence and knowledge. As VoisJet is based around providing information and suggestions by comput-ing several different inputs simultaneously, then it might mean that operation-specific interfaces could be designed to display that information de-pending on the specific goals of the pilot and the mission, of which the strategies could be varied by moving from one screen to another.

Overcoming Lack of Support for Multi-Person Operations in UAVs

As Table 1 makes evident, UAVs may be operated based on the needs of other team members who may possess critical information on the mission context, which can add additional task load-ing, which can included communications with commanders at observing those on the ground (Endsley et al., 2010). The advantage of VoisJet is that it can use information from the actions of one person to advise another. This need not be as simple as letting a UAV operator know whether someone is a combatant or civilian, but can also advise them in relation to other human-centred systems, like pilots of other UAVs on the same mission. Known as blue-on-blue attacks, poor situation awareness can lead to pilots targeting a colleague after mistakenly thinking they are an enemy combatant. Using VoisJet would make this less likely, as the user interface for the UAV could be adjusted to make sure that the pilot is aware when a colleague is in range. As VoisJet can take into account clothing as signifying whether someone is a threat, then it would make it easier for a UAV pilot to avoid targeting an ally if they wear a specific sign to indicate their allegiances. The risk is that enemies could also use this infor-mation to either deceive as to their identity or to target those signifying their identity.

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Allowing for Increased Autonomy in UAV Operations

Table 1 shows that where autonomy is added to a UAV that problems in acquisition and maintenance of situation awareness are multiplied when the human must operate, monitor and supervise those UAV systems under their control (Endsley et al., 2010). VoisJet would remove a lot of the cognitive load from achieving full situation aware-ness by making many of the calculations needed by a pilot so they can focus on using the data as opposed to having to generate it first.

The strategic and tactical component of VoisJet is based on the operational demands of those lead-ing military operations, and can be customised to each set of circumstances. It has been argued that current concepts of operation require multiple operators for every unmanned system, a ratio will be difficult to sustain if the projected increase in use is to be believed and if the wider use of UAVs is to be realized, then a more desirable manning concept must be identified (Hughes, 2012). This is where VoisJet comes into its own it is advanced situation awareness capability of giving pilots a set of options relating to the situation they are in, where they can exercise the judgement needed in standard aerial operations.

IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

The advantage of an invention like VoisJet is that it will make military engagements using UAVs more effective and practical, meaning military operations have more missions completed with fewest causalities. This could therefore mean that defence budgets could be cut as the money needed to train UAV pilots would be significantly reduced, as it may only be necessary to have a university education with minimal specialist training to take part in a military campaign. This would mean that military personnel would only be engaged as

and when necessary as they would be working in normal jobs the rest of the time. This would have the effect of reducing the size of standing armies as the skill and training currently needed would be eliminated. The need for university graduates trained in military hacking will increase, as cyber-warfare and cyber-terrorism become the norm. The brute-force based on-the-ground operations asso-ciated with wars to date will be all-but eliminated. Ground-operations will be for specific purposes such as interception of opposition personnel, andeven then the technology that forms part of VoisJet can be used to improve the effectiveness of those engagements. Future research will have to look at how a military reduced in size and budget can improve other aspects of national security, such as expanded departments of homeland security, where those military personnel who work abroad during wartime, can be part of national security services during peacetime.

DISCUSSION

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), known in the vernacular as drones are a military aircraft that looks certain to stay as a cost effective way to proceed with air-based military operations without risk to human life in terms of its pilots. Human life is at risk from such pilots however, as existing systems have major issues in terms of maintaining situation awareness. This chapter therefore has evaluated a system called VoisJet which can capture action-data from one person to provide information and advice to another. This can mean that UAV operators have a clear idea of what is going on around them so that they do not have to make complex calculations that increase cogni-tive load. VoisJet can at present cope with at least 250,000 action states, which goes way beyond what is consciously possible with the human mind, es-pecially when operating in high pressured military engagements. The chapter has proposed means for resolving difficulties in UAV localisation as well as

The Role of Affective Computing

reducing poor sensory data, intermittent data, and time-lags in UAVs. The chapter has shown how VoisJet can allow for increased autonomy in UAV operations as well as assist with overcoming lack of support for multi-person operations in UAVs. Furthermore it shows that multitasking in UAV operations can be improved with VoisJet taking over many calculations and also how low-Level data overload and interface design in UAVs can be improved, as can the management of demanding tasks in complex environments.

It is clear that with the advancements that can be made to UAVs through VoisJet, then public policy makers will have to reconsider how they fund national security operations. The costs in terms of training military personnel would be reduced by VoisJet-based UAVs, as they could be operated by university graduates with minimal training. Thus the size of a nations standing army could be reduced by such graduates holding other job roles during peacetime, and the more skilled personnel can be part of national security bodies, such as the FBI and CIA in the USA or the NCA in the UK.

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Endsley, M. R., Bolte, B., & Jones, D. G. (2010). Designing for situation awareness: An approach to user-centered design. London, UK: Taylor & Francis Group.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Action-Data: Information picked up by a sensor that describes what is occurring in the situation being monitored.

Autonomy: The extent to which a person can make decisions for themselves in any given operational environment.

Hamas: A group of Islamic militants who al-though not Jihadists are committed to using force in order to protect the Arab Semite territories from being occupied by Zionists. It can be compared to the First and Second Continental Congresses, which was a military force that existed prior to US independence and then became the US De-partment of Justice.

Jihadist: A person who believes that the Holy Land and other Middle East nations occupied since the Crusades should be based wholly on Islamic law and uses force rather than democratic means to achieve that.

The Role of Affective Computing

Sensory Data: Action-data that is made avail-able to a person for processing using their own senses and judgement.

Situation Awareness: Situation awareness refers to the extent to which someone is able to know what is going on in any given situation and the options available.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle: An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is an aircraft that is piloted by a remote operator in order to achieve a particular objective, such as to eliminate enemy combatants.

VoisJet: VoisJet is a method for assisting UAV pilots in making decisions while involved in military operations through reducing the cogni-tive load and other factors that can lead to errors of judgement.

Zionist: A person who believes that the Holy Land should only consist only of Jewish Semites, and use undemocratic means to exclude Arab Semites and other religious/ethic groups from that territory.

InstructionsTitle PageDetailed Table of ContentsAbout the ContributorsThe Role of Affective Computing for Improving Situation Awareness in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Operations: