The Rhetoric of Argument

The Rhetoric of The Rhetoric of ArgumentArgument

White and BillingsWhite and Billings

The Well-Crafted ArgumentThe Well-Crafted Argument

Monty Python's "Argument Clinic"

Nature and ProcessNature and Process

The more we know about argument – The more we know about argument – what it involves, how a strong what it involves, how a strong argument is constructed, and what a argument is constructed, and what a weak argument lacks – the more weak argument lacks – the more likely we are to benefit from this likely we are to benefit from this liberty.liberty.

Informal versus FormalInformal versus Formal– Casual arguments often consist of little Casual arguments often consist of little

more than exchanges of opinions or more than exchanges of opinions or unsupported generalizationsunsupported generalizations

– Formal arguments are expected to Formal arguments are expected to include evidence in support of include evidence in support of generalizations if they are to succeed in generalizations if they are to succeed in making strong points, solving real making strong points, solving real problems, or changing minds.problems, or changing minds.

Three basic ingredientsThree basic ingredients– Pattern of ReasoningPattern of Reasoning– Relevant informationRelevant information– Convincing EvidenceConvincing Evidence

Definition of ArgumentDefinition of Argument– An argument is a form of discourse in An argument is a form of discourse in

which the writer or speaker presents which the writer or speaker presents a a pattern of reasoningpattern of reasoning, , reinforced by detailed reinforced by detailed evidenceevidence and refutation of challenging and refutation of challenging claims, claims, that tries to persuade the that tries to persuade the audience to accept the claimaudience to accept the claim..

Opinion versus ArgumentOpinion versus Argument– Opinion = Public flogging of robbers would Opinion = Public flogging of robbers would

be a more effective deterrent than jailing be a more effective deterrent than jailing them.them.

– Opinion = “yeah, probably.” or “No way – Opinion = “yeah, probably.” or “No way – that would contribute to a culture of that would contribute to a culture of violence.”violence.”

– Argument = Supporting the statement with Argument = Supporting the statement with statistics that show a correlation between statistics that show a correlation between public punishment and the crime ratepublic punishment and the crime rate

*A good argument takes time to prepare and *A good argument takes time to prepare and also guides the audience through a logical also guides the audience through a logical step-by-step line of reasoning from thesis to step-by-step line of reasoning from thesis to conclusion.conclusion.

Definition of Argument BreakdownDefinition of Argument Breakdown

“… “… a pattern of reasoning” a pattern of reasoning” – logical progression that leads the reader logical progression that leads the reader

from thesis to support of thesis to conclusionfrom thesis to support of thesis to conclusion– unfamiliar terms or concepts are unfamiliar terms or concepts are

carefully defined or explained and background carefully defined or explained and background information is given to enable audience to information is given to enable audience to understand larger contextunderstand larger context

EX: SUVs are selling better than subcompactsEX: SUVs are selling better than subcompacts

EX: The enormous popularity of SUVs is rapidly EX: The enormous popularity of SUVs is rapidly increasing gasoline consumption nationally, which in increasing gasoline consumption nationally, which in turn is leading to greater dependence on foreign oil.turn is leading to greater dependence on foreign oil.


“… “… reinforced by detailed evidence” reinforced by detailed evidence” – any assertion must be backed up any assertion must be backed up

with specific, compelling evidence that with specific, compelling evidence that is accurate, timely, relevant, and is accurate, timely, relevant, and sufficient.sufficient.

– Evidence can be data derived from Evidence can be data derived from surveys, experiments, observations, surveys, experiments, observations, firsthand field investigations (statistical firsthand field investigations (statistical evidence), or from expert opinion evidence), or from expert opinion (authoritative evidence).(authoritative evidence).


“… “… that tries to persuade the that tries to persuade the audience to accept the claim” audience to accept the claim” – the ultimate goal: to convince the the ultimate goal: to convince the

audience that arguer’s point of view is a audience that arguer’s point of view is a sensible one, worthy of serious sensible one, worthy of serious consideration if not outright acceptance.consideration if not outright acceptance.

– Often times Pathos, Ethos appeals are Often times Pathos, Ethos appeals are used to reinforce evidenceused to reinforce evidence

Exercise 1.1Exercise 1.1

Formulate an answer for 2 a,b,c,dFormulate an answer for 2 a,b,c,d

Communicating with PurposeCommunicating with Purpose

Communication (Aristotelian) Communication (Aristotelian) Triangle (Audience, Writer, Subject)Triangle (Audience, Writer, Subject)

Rhetorical Rhombus (Audience, Rhetorical Rhombus (Audience, Writer, Subject, Purpose)Writer, Subject, Purpose)

Three Basic Kinds of CommunicationThree Basic Kinds of Communication– Referential (Expository)Referential (Expository)– Expressive (Narrative)Expressive (Narrative)– ArgumentativeArgumentative

Purpose in an Argumentative ContextPurpose in an Argumentative Context

The purpose is the reason why you The purpose is the reason why you want your audience to agree with want your audience to agree with your claim and take whatever actions your claim and take whatever actions is necessary to carry it out.is necessary to carry it out.

Role Play:Role Play:– Teacher X: Student X, your support seems a Teacher X: Student X, your support seems a

little limited – doesn’t seem to be any umpf to little limited – doesn’t seem to be any umpf to your argument, where can we add more to this your argument, where can we add more to this paper? paper?

– Student: I don’t know.Student: I don’t know.– Teacher X: Well, what was your purpose for Teacher X: Well, what was your purpose for

writing this paper?writing this paper?– Student: You assigned it.Student: You assigned it.

-------PROBLEM!--------------PROBLEM!-------

You should find a professional or intrinsic You should find a professional or intrinsic purpose for writing on the topic. This is how purpose for writing on the topic. This is how your scope will be limited and your essay will your scope will be limited and your essay will be full of passion and energy.be full of passion and energy.

Audience in an Argumentative ContextAudience in an Argumentative Context

Your audience for all papers, unless Your audience for all papers, unless otherwise noted, is Academic.otherwise noted, is Academic.– The purpose of academic writing is The purpose of academic writing is

knowledge-sharing or idea-sharingknowledge-sharing or idea-sharing Here is what scholars have said, now here is Here is what scholars have said, now here is

my two-bitsmy two-bits

Academic ArgumentsAcademic Arguments

Specialized precise languageSpecialized precise language Formal or semi-formal toneFormal or semi-formal tone All primary or secondary sources All primary or secondary sources

explicitly cited and documented, using explicitly cited and documented, using standard formatsstandard formats

Contributions by other scholars in the Contributions by other scholars in the field are discussed formally and in field are discussed formally and in detaildetail

Scholarly audienceScholarly audience

Reading Reading

The Perils of Obedience by Stanley The Perils of Obedience by Stanley Milgram (Well-Crafted 691-703)Milgram (Well-Crafted 691-703)

Find Evidence of Academic ToneFind Evidence of Academic Tone Answer Questions 1, 2, & (4) Answer Questions 1, 2, & (4)

Support, Refute, QualifySupport, Refute, Qualify

Writer in an Argumentative ContextWriter in an Argumentative Context

The Writer’s role is determined by The Writer’s role is determined by the other elements in the Rhetorical the other elements in the Rhetorical Rhombus.Rhombus.

Subject in an Argumentative ContextSubject in an Argumentative Context

The role of subject differs in each The role of subject differs in each argument based on the other argument based on the other elements of the Rhombuselements of the Rhombus

The Process of ComposingThe Process of Composing

Read, Read, Read – Immerse yourself Read, Read, Read – Immerse yourself in the subject then you may be in the subject then you may be reading to work through the writing reading to work through the writing process.process.


Question 2: What appeals are at Question 2: What appeals are at work in each of the following work in each of the following passages?passages?

Organizing the ArgumentOrganizing the Argument Introduce the topicIntroduce the topic

– The situation in the narrativeThe situation in the narrative– The subject matter to be explained in an exposition or The subject matter to be explained in an exposition or

explanation; the problem in an argumentexplanation; the problem in an argument Present the particulars of the situation Present the particulars of the situation

– the sequencing of incidents in a narrativethe sequencing of incidents in a narrative– elements of a phenomenon in an exposition or elements of a phenomenon in an exposition or

explanationexplanation– the nature of the problem, followed by the body of the nature of the problem, followed by the body of

evidence, in an argumentevidence, in an argument ConcludeConclude

– The outcome in a narrativeThe outcome in a narrative– The whole picture in an explanationThe whole picture in an explanation– The interpretation, assessment, and recommendations The interpretation, assessment, and recommendations

in an argumentin an argument

Organizing the ArgumentOrganizing the Argument Classical ModelClassical Model

– Begins with introduction that establishes the problem Begins with introduction that establishes the problem and states the thesisand states the thesis

– Analyzes the evidence and refutes opposing views in Analyzes the evidence and refutes opposing views in light of the evidence collectedlight of the evidence collected

– Draws conclusions and provides recommendationsDraws conclusions and provides recommendations Toulmin ModelToulmin Model

– Value Dependent, truth tested according to the valuesValue Dependent, truth tested according to the values Rogerian ModelRogerian Model

– One shifts the emphasis to the social act of negotiating One shifts the emphasis to the social act of negotiating difference through argumentdifference through argument

– Value Dependent but it must be negotiated Value Dependent but it must be negotiated cooperativelycooperatively

Composing OpeningsComposing Openings

Occasional OpeningOccasional Opening– Reference to current eventReference to current event

Startling OpeningStartling Opening– Use of unexpected informationUse of unexpected information

Anecdotal OpeningAnecdotal Opening– Brief story to engage the reader’s attention Brief story to engage the reader’s attention

Analytical OpeningAnalytical Opening– Launches immediately into a critical Launches immediately into a critical

discussiondiscussion


Question 1,2,3Question 1,2,3

Composing the Composing the Body of the ArgumentBody of the Argument

The Promise made to the readers is The Promise made to the readers is fulfilled in the bodyfulfilled in the body

The subject portion of the Rhombus: The subject portion of the Rhombus: the detailed support – facts, the detailed support – facts, examples, illustrations – as well as examples, illustrations – as well as the emotional, logical, ethical the emotional, logical, ethical appeals.appeals.

Composing ConclusionsComposing Conclusions

A good conclusion enables readers to A good conclusion enables readers to grasp the full impact of the argument.grasp the full impact of the argument.– If the intro states the claim, the body argues If the intro states the claim, the body argues

for the validity of the claim by citing evidence for the validity of the claim by citing evidence for it, the conclusion encapsulates all those for it, the conclusion encapsulates all those points of evidencepoints of evidence

– Reflect back on the paperReflect back on the paper– Broaden the scope beyond your paperBroaden the scope beyond your paper– Reinforce the readers’ emotional involvementReinforce the readers’ emotional involvement

Feelings of security, hope, happiness, self-Feelings of security, hope, happiness, self-confidence, optimism, or overall well-beingconfidence, optimism, or overall well-being


Discuss the weakness/strengths of Discuss the weakness/strengths of Body and ConclusionBody and Conclusion

Revising the ArgumentRevising the Argument

ChecklistChecklistAttend closely to the ways you …Attend closely to the ways you …

Presented the problemPresented the problem Stated your claimsStated your claims Reported evidence and testimonyReported evidence and testimony Represented challenging viewsRepresented challenging views Drawn inferencesDrawn inferences Reached conclusionsReached conclusions

Revision TasksRevision Tasks

Holistic (start a different draft)Holistic (start a different draft) Content (ideas and evidence)Content (ideas and evidence) Organizational (logical progression)Organizational (logical progression) Stylistic (syntax, tone, diction)Stylistic (syntax, tone, diction) Proofreading (line-by-line error Proofreading (line-by-line error

check)check)

Visual AidsVisual Aids

Headings and subheadingsHeadings and subheadings Images (must contribute)Images (must contribute)

Read Plato 650-657Read Plato 650-657Interrupted ReadingInterrupted Reading

The Rhetoric of Argument

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