The Renaissance, The Renaissance, Reformation, & Scientific Reformation, & Scientific RevolutionRevolution

The Renaissance, The Renaissance, Reformation, & Scientific Reformation, & Scientific RevolutionRevolution

The RenaissanceThe Renaissance

• Specifically a revival in art & literature

• Means “rebirth”

• Began in the northern Italian city-states in the 1300s, lasted until around the 1600s

• Specifically a revival in art & literature

• Means “rebirth”

• Began in the northern Italian city-states in the 1300s, lasted until around the 1600s

Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?1. Thriving Cities

– Trade led to growth of city-states, making them very rich & powerful

• Exs: Florence, Pisa, Venice, Genoa, Milan

– Controlled trade on the Mediterranean Sea– Economic Changes

• When the plague struck, it left fewer laborers• Survivors demanded higher wages• Expanded the middle class, which began to pursue other

interests, like art, because there were few opportunities to expand business

1. Thriving Cities– Trade led to growth of city-states, making them very rich &

powerful• Exs: Florence, Pisa, Venice, Genoa, Milan

– Controlled trade on the Mediterranean Sea– Economic Changes

• When the plague struck, it left fewer laborers• Survivors demanded higher wages• Expanded the middle class, which began to pursue other

interests, like art, because there were few opportunities to expand business

Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?

2. Classical heritage of Greece & Rome– Artists & scholars of Italy drew inspiration from the

ruins of Rome that surrounded them– Western scholars studied ancient Latin

manuscripts that had been preserved in monasteries

– Christian scholars in Constantinople fled to Rome with Greek manuscripts when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453

2. Classical heritage of Greece & Rome– Artists & scholars of Italy drew inspiration from the

ruins of Rome that surrounded them– Western scholars studied ancient Latin

manuscripts that had been preserved in monasteries

– Christian scholars in Constantinople fled to Rome with Greek manuscripts when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453

Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?

3. Wealthy Merchant Class– Merchants dominated political life

• Did not inherit wealth, earned it• Believed this gave them the right to be

powerful– This belief in individual achievement became

important during the Renaissance, leading to new art forms, biographies, and portraits

3. Wealthy Merchant Class– Merchants dominated political life

• Did not inherit wealth, earned it• Believed this gave them the right to be

powerful– This belief in individual achievement became

important during the Renaissance, leading to new art forms, biographies, and portraits

Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?

3. Wealthy Merchant Class– Why Florence?

• Was mostly urban while the rest of Europe was rural

• Because Florence was small, many of its citizens could be involved in politics

• The Medici Family– Banking family that ruled Florence’s gov’t

– Used wealth to be generous patrons of the arts

3. Wealthy Merchant Class– Why Florence?

• Was mostly urban while the rest of Europe was rural

• Because Florence was small, many of its citizens could be involved in politics

• The Medici Family– Banking family that ruled Florence’s gov’t

– Used wealth to be generous patrons of the arts

Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli • Wrote The Prince (1513)

– Writings demonstrated the value of humanism (more to come on this later)

– A guidebook for rulers– Recommended realistic actions a ruler could take to stay in

power– Machiavelli wrote that it a ruler should be kind and generous if

able, but it is better to “be feared than loved”– A ruler should use any means necessary to achieve goals

• The “end justifies the means”

• Wrote The Prince (1513)– Writings demonstrated the value of humanism (more to come

on this later)– A guidebook for rulers– Recommended realistic actions a ruler could take to stay in

power– Machiavelli wrote that it a ruler should be kind and generous if

able, but it is better to “be feared than loved”– A ruler should use any means necessary to achieve goals

• The “end justifies the means”

From this arises the question whether it is better to be loved more than feared, or feared more than loved. The reply is, that one ought to be both feared and loved, but as it is difficult for the two to go together, it is much safer to be feared than loved, if one of the two has to be wanting. For it may be said of men in general that they are ungrateful, voluble [changeable], dissemblers [liars], anxious to avoid danger, and covetous of gain; as long as you benefit them, they are entirely yours; they offer you their blood, their goods, their life, and their children, as I have before said, when the necessity is remote; but when it approaches, they revolt. And the prince who has relied solely on their words, without making preparations, is ruined.

- Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince

From this arises the question whether it is better to be loved more than feared, or feared more than loved. The reply is, that one ought to be both feared and loved, but as it is difficult for the two to go together, it is much safer to be feared than loved, if one of the two has to be wanting. For it may be said of men in general that they are ungrateful, voluble [changeable], dissemblers [liars], anxious to avoid danger, and covetous of gain; as long as you benefit them, they are entirely yours; they offer you their blood, their goods, their life, and their children, as I have before said, when the necessity is remote; but when it approaches, they revolt. And the prince who has relied solely on their words, without making preparations, is ruined.

- Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince

Ideas About Life ChangeIdeas About Life Change

• People remained devoutly Catholic– The spirit of society, however, was secular

(worldly)

• Church leaders and the wealthy believed they could enjoy life and liberty without offending God

– This is humanism (again, more on this later)

• People remained devoutly Catholic– The spirit of society, however, was secular

(worldly)

• Church leaders and the wealthy believed they could enjoy life and liberty without offending God

– This is humanism (again, more on this later)

Artists & SculptorsArtists & Sculptors• Influenced by Greeks & Romans• Emphasis on individual caused:

– Portraits of prominent citizens, showing what was distinctive about each

– Glorification of the human body in natural postures– Perspective to enhance realism

• Drawing objects smaller if they are far away (3D)

• Architecture– No more Gothic– Returned to columns and domes

• Influenced by Greeks & Romans• Emphasis on individual caused:

– Portraits of prominent citizens, showing what was distinctive about each

– Glorification of the human body in natural postures– Perspective to enhance realism

• Drawing objects smaller if they are far away (3D)

• Architecture– No more Gothic– Returned to columns and domes

Perspective

“The Renaissance Man”“The Renaissance Man”• Well educated in the Classics

– Knowledgeable in many subject areas

• Charming, witty, smart

• Could dance, write poetry, play music

• Should be physically fit

• A “jack of all trades”

• Well educated in the Classics– Knowledgeable in many subject areas

• Charming, witty, smart

• Could dance, write poetry, play music

• Should be physically fit

• A “jack of all trades”

The Renaissance WomanThe Renaissance Woman

• Should study the Classics• Could write, dance, paint, and make music

well• Should NOT seek fame or political power

– Renaissance women were far better educated but had fewer rights than Medieval women

• Should study the Classics• Could write, dance, paint, and make music

well• Should NOT seek fame or political power

– Renaissance women were far better educated but had fewer rights than Medieval women

Leonardo da VinciLeonardo da Vinci

• Considered to be a true “Renaissance Man”

• Studied the human body & flight

• Was an inventor, sculptor, painter, & scientist

• Considered to be a true “Renaissance Man”

• Studied the human body & flight

• Was an inventor, sculptor, painter, & scientist

Leonardo, the Artist

From his Notebooks of over 5000 pages

His “Last Supper” shows Jesus’ last meeting with the 12 apostles before the crucifixion

The facial expressions, detail, and emotion had made it a masterpiece

His “Last Supper” shows Jesus’ last meeting with the 12 apostles before the crucifixion

The facial expressions, detail, and emotion had made it a masterpiece

The Last Supper – da Vinci,

& Geometry

horizontal

vert

ical

The Last Supper and Perspective

The Da Vinci “Code”St. John or Mary Magdalene?

Convent of Santa Maria delle GrazieMilan, Italy

da Vinci’s Mona Lisa

is great for its emotion and

depth

da Vinci’s Mona Lisa

is great for its emotion and

depth

Mona Lisa has no visible facial hair at all - including eyebrows and

eyelashes

Mona Lisa has no visible facial hair at all - including eyebrows and

eyelashes

A Picasso Mona

• On August 12, 1911, a Louvre employee On August 12, 1911, a Louvre employee stole it by entering the building during stole it by entering the building during regular hours, hiding in a broom closet regular hours, hiding in a broom closet and walking out with it hidden under his and walking out with it hidden under his coat after the museum had closedcoat after the museum had closed

• After keeping the painting in his After keeping the painting in his apartment for two years, the man grew apartment for two years, the man grew impatient and was caught when he impatient and was caught when he attempted to sell it to an art dealer; it was attempted to sell it to an art dealer; it was exhibited all over Italy and returned to the exhibited all over Italy and returned to the Louvre in 1913 Louvre in 1913

• On August 12, 1911, a Louvre employee On August 12, 1911, a Louvre employee stole it by entering the building during stole it by entering the building during regular hours, hiding in a broom closet regular hours, hiding in a broom closet and walking out with it hidden under his and walking out with it hidden under his coat after the museum had closedcoat after the museum had closed

• After keeping the painting in his After keeping the painting in his apartment for two years, the man grew apartment for two years, the man grew impatient and was caught when he impatient and was caught when he attempted to sell it to an art dealer; it was attempted to sell it to an art dealer; it was exhibited all over Italy and returned to the exhibited all over Italy and returned to the Louvre in 1913 Louvre in 1913

• In 1956, the lower part of the painting was severely damaged when someone doused it with acid

• On December 30 of that same year, another person damaged the painting by throwing a rock at it

• The result was a speck of pigment near Mona Lisa's left elbow

• The painting is now covered with bulletproof security glass

• In 1956, the lower part of the painting was severely damaged when someone doused it with acid

• On December 30 of that same year, another person damaged the painting by throwing a rock at it

• The result was a speck of pigment near Mona Lisa's left elbow

• The painting is now covered with bulletproof security glass

Leonardo, the Scientist (Biology):Pages from his Notebook

Leonardo, the Engineer:

• Leonardo sketched several designs for flying machines including this one with a rotating screw

• He intended to power it with a wound-up spring

• Leonardo sketched several designs for flying machines including this one with a rotating screw

• He intended to power it with a wound-up spring

• Leonardo’s many military inventions included this design for an armored tank

• Four soldiers sitting inside could turn cranks to move the wheels on this “tank”

• Leonardo’s many military inventions included this design for an armored tank

• Four soldiers sitting inside could turn cranks to move the wheels on this “tank”

• da Vinci also invented a gigantic crossbow

• It's difficult to know whether it would have worked, or whether it would have been superior to cannons of the same period

• da Vinci also invented a gigantic crossbow

• It's difficult to know whether it would have worked, or whether it would have been superior to cannons of the same period

• The length of a man's outspread arms is equal to his height

• The maximum width of the shoulders is a quarter of a man's height

• The distance from the elbow to the tip of the hand is one-fifth of a man's height

• The length of a man's outspread arms is equal to his height

• The maximum width of the shoulders is a quarter of a man's height

• The distance from the elbow to the tip of the hand is one-fifth of a man's height

Vitruvian Man

MichelangeloMichelangelo• Michelangelo was a great painter &

sculptor; his “Pieta” & “David” sculptures are perceived as masterpieces

• His greatest work is the 130 ft x 44 ft ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which shows biblical images of amazing detail, power, & beauty

• Michelangelo was a great painter & sculptor; his “Pieta” & “David” sculptures are perceived as masterpieces

• His greatest work is the 130 ft x 44 ft ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which shows biblical images of amazing detail, power, & beauty

Michelangelo’s “Pieta” depicts

the Virgin Mary cradling the

limp body of the crucified Jesus

Michelangelo’s “Pieta” depicts

the Virgin Mary cradling the

limp body of the crucified Jesus

Michelangelo’s statue of “David”

expresses the Renaissance belief in human dignity

and greatness

Michelangelo’s statue of “David”

expresses the Renaissance belief in human dignity

and greatness

• Michelangelo painted more than 300 massive human figures onto the 5,800 square-foot ceiling while laying on his back

• The ceiling contains illustrations from the creation of Adam to the story of Noah

• Michelangelo painted more than 300 massive human figures onto the 5,800 square-foot ceiling while laying on his back

• The ceiling contains illustrations from the creation of Adam to the story of Noah

The Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

The Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

The Creation

of the Heavens

The Sistine Chapel Details

Creation of Man

• Michelangelo returned to the chapel to begin painting the altarpiece “The Last Judgment”

• This painting features Christ judging souls as the rise and fall from each side of the painting

• Michelangelo returned to the chapel to begin painting the altarpiece “The Last Judgment”

• This painting features Christ judging souls as the rise and fall from each side of the painting

Bartholomew's flayed skin

RaphaelRaphael

• Raphael “perfected” Renaissance painting• He became the favorite painter of the Pope

because of his amazing detailed paintings showing Greeks & Romans along with Renaissance people

• “School of Athens” is his greatest work

• Raphael “perfected” Renaissance painting• He became the favorite painter of the Pope

because of his amazing detailed paintings showing Greeks & Romans along with Renaissance people

• “School of Athens” is his greatest work

• All of the important Greek philosophers and thinkers are included in this painting all of the great personalities of the classical period

• A great variety of poses

• Raphael worked on this commission simultaneously as Michelangelo was doing the Sistine Chapel

• All of the important Greek philosophers and thinkers are included in this painting all of the great personalities of the classical period

• A great variety of poses

• Raphael worked on this commission simultaneously as Michelangelo was doing the Sistine Chapel

Raphael

Plato and Aristotle

Socrates

Michelangelo

Alexander the Great

Pythagoras

ZoroasterZoroaster

Ptolemy

Euclid

DonatelloDonatello

• Donatello was the greatest sculptor of the Renaissance

• Medieval sculptors only carved the front of a statue, but Donatello wanted sculptures to be viewed from all sides like Greek & Roman statues

• Donatello was the greatest sculptor of the Renaissance

• Medieval sculptors only carved the front of a statue, but Donatello wanted sculptures to be viewed from all sides like Greek & Roman statues

• Donatello’s “David” became the first large, free-standing human sculpture

• Donatello’s “David” became the first large, free-standing human sculpture

HumanismHumanism• The Humanities

– Subjects taught in ancient Rome & Greece• Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, History

• Humanism– Outlook focusing on human potential &

achievements• Humanists were practical; they wanted to learn about the

world and wrote in the vernacular (common language) either for self-expression or to portray the individuality of their subjects

• Ancient writings, rediscovered after being lost during the Middle Ages, influenced this movement

• The Humanities– Subjects taught in ancient Rome & Greece

• Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, History

• Humanism– Outlook focusing on human potential &

achievements• Humanists were practical; they wanted to learn about the

world and wrote in the vernacular (common language) either for self-expression or to portray the individuality of their subjects

• Ancient writings, rediscovered after being lost during the Middle Ages, influenced this movement

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)

• Writer from Florence• Traveled all over Europe looking for old

writings and realized how much had been lost

• Wrote sonnets in Italian about Laura, his ideal woman

– He also wrote in Latin

• Writer from Florence• Traveled all over Europe looking for old

writings and realized how much had been lost

• Wrote sonnets in Italian about Laura, his ideal woman

– He also wrote in Latin

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)

• Poet from Florence• Wrote The Divine Comedy

– The story is about Dante’s journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise

– Written in the vernacular (everyday language) so everyone could enjoy his writing

• Poet from Florence• Wrote The Divine Comedy

– The story is about Dante’s journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise

– Written in the vernacular (everyday language) so everyone could enjoy his writing

Desiderius Erasmus (1469?-1536)Desiderius Erasmus (1469?-1536)

• Christian Humanist writer• Wrote the book In Praise of Folly

– Poked fun at flaws in real people, such as greedy merchants, arrogant priests, etc.

– Criticized the Church for teaching rituals instead of following Christ

• Believed the clergy was ignorant• Believed in Christianity of the heart, not in a religion of rules and

ceremonies

– Believed that to improve society, people should study the Bible– Believed basis of education should be Roman & Greek classics

• Christian Humanist writer• Wrote the book In Praise of Folly

– Poked fun at flaws in real people, such as greedy merchants, arrogant priests, etc.

– Criticized the Church for teaching rituals instead of following Christ

• Believed the clergy was ignorant• Believed in Christianity of the heart, not in a religion of rules and

ceremonies

– Believed that to improve society, people should study the Bible– Believed basis of education should be Roman & Greek classics

Sir Thomas More (1478-1535)Sir Thomas More (1478-1535)

• Christian writer who was concerned with society’s flaws

– Said literature should serve Christian goals

• Wrote Utopia– Described his ideal society, where people

worked hard, lived in peace, and were well-educated

• Christian writer who was concerned with society’s flaws

– Said literature should serve Christian goals

• Wrote Utopia– Described his ideal society, where people

worked hard, lived in peace, and were well-educated

William Shakespeare (1564?-1616)William Shakespeare (1564?-1616)

• English writer• Invented 1,700 new words in 37 plays

– Plays examined human flaws and also expressed the Renaissance’s high view of human nature

– He drew on Greek and Roman classics for some of his plots

• Exs: Julius Caesar, Antony & Cleopatra

• English writer• Invented 1,700 new words in 37 plays

– Plays examined human flaws and also expressed the Renaissance’s high view of human nature

– He drew on Greek and Roman classics for some of his plots

• Exs: Julius Caesar, Antony & Cleopatra

Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)

• Spanish writer

• Wrote Don Quixote de la Mancha– Birth of modern European novel– It is about a poor Spanish nobleman who

went a little crazy after reading too many books about heroic knights

• Spanish writer

• Wrote Don Quixote de la Mancha– Birth of modern European novel– It is about a poor Spanish nobleman who

went a little crazy after reading too many books about heroic knights

The Printing PressThe Printing Press

• The most important invention of the 1400s• It was a gradual process:

– First, they learned to make paper from the Arabs– Then came the development of printing blocks

and moveable type– Johann Gutenberg built the first printing press

in 1455 and used it to print a Bible

• The most important invention of the 1400s• It was a gradual process:

– First, they learned to make paper from the Arabs– Then came the development of printing blocks

and moveable type– Johann Gutenberg built the first printing press

in 1455 and used it to print a Bible

The Printing PressThe Printing Press

• Effects:– Spread ideas – crucial for the success of the

Reformation– Books became cheap so many people could

buy them (especially the Bible)• Books written in vernacular for people who had not had

classical educations• Revolutionized learning because books were so

readily available, so more people learned to read

• Effects:– Spread ideas – crucial for the success of the

Reformation– Books became cheap so many people could

buy them (especially the Bible)• Books written in vernacular for people who had not had

classical educations• Revolutionized learning because books were so

readily available, so more people learned to read

The The ProtestantProtestant

ReformationReformation

The The ProtestantProtestant

ReformationReformation

Comunicación y Gerencia

The Protestant Reformation The Protestant Reformation

Religious reform movement that divided the western church into Catholic and Protestant groups

Events Leading to the Events Leading to the Reformation Reformation 1. Christian Humanism

Began in Northern EuropeGoal: Reform the Catholic ChurchErasmus was the leader of

Christian Humanism

Events Leading to the Events Leading to the ReformationReformation2. Corruption within the Catholic Church

People were looking for salvationChurch leaders did not seem

concerned with the spiritual needs of the people

Indulgences (release from all or part of the punishment for sin) were being sold by the Church

Events Leading to the Events Leading to the ReformationReformation3. Martin Luther & his 95 Theses

Luther was a monk & a professor

He became convinced that humans are saved through their faith and God alone

He believed that the Bible, not the Church, was the only source for religious truth

1517:1517:Luther posts his Luther posts his 95 Theses 95 Theses on the church door at on the church door at WittenbergWittenberg. .

Cause:Luther attacked JohannTetzel, a

friar, for selling indugences. The theses were a list of questions & an attack on the abuses being committed by the Chuch

Luther called for only two sacraments (Baptism and Communion) and called for clergy members to be allowed to marry

Effect:Luther’s words were spread all

over Germany and attracted many followers

1520:1520:Luther is Luther is excommunicatedexcommunicated and declared an and declared an outlawoutlaw & & hereticheretic in 1521. in 1521. Cause:

The pope realized that Luther was a serious threat to papal authority. The emperor, a devout Catholic, also felt threatened.

Effect:Luther was sheltered in Saxony where

he translated the New Testament into German. When he returned to Wittenberg, he found many of his ideas already in use. He and his followers had become a separate religious group called Lutherans.

Lutheranism Lutheranism Became the first Protestant

faith of ChristianityFeatured services including

Bible readings, preaching the word of God, and song

Many German territories took control of Catholic Churches and formed state Protestant Churches

Politics During the Politics During the ReformationReformationHoly Roman Empire under

Charles V suffered from internal & external pressures

Individual German territories became more powerful due to Renaissance trade

Calvinism Spreads Calvinism Spreads

1536: John Calvin publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion

Expressed his ideas about God, salvation, and human nature

Wrote that men & women are sinful by nature

Expanded Luther’s ideas that humans cannot earn salvation & said that God chooses a very few people to save, called the “elect”

God has known since the beginning of time who will be saved

This doctrine is called predestinationCalvinism eventually replaced

Lutheranism as the fastest growing Protestant religion in Europe

1555:1555:The The Peace of Augsburg Peace of Augsburg is is signed. signed. Cause:

The Holy Roman Emperor had fought a war against the German Protestant princes and defeated them. However, he could not force them back into the Catholic Church.

Effect:The settlement ended the

war and allowed the ruler of each German state to decide his state’s religion.

This formally recognized the split between Catholicism & Protestantism

The Catholic Counter The Catholic Counter ReformationReformationMovement in which the

Roman Catholic Church sought to make changes within the Church in response to the Protestant Reformation

The Catholic Counter The Catholic Counter ReformationReformationThree Driving Forces:Three Driving Forces:1. Jesuits

Founded by Ignatius of Loyola (Spanish nobleman)

Three Major Activities:1. Founded & staffed schools throughout Europe 2. Sent out missionaries to convert non-Christians to Catholicism3. Sought to stop Protestantism from spreading

*Their work was so long lasting because the missionaries that were sent out founded schools, colleges, & universities around the world.

The Catholic Counter The Catholic Counter ReformationReformationThree Driving Forces:Three Driving Forces:2. Reform of Papacy

In response to corruption within the Church

Pope Paul IIIHad a council of cardinals investigate abuses

within the ChurchApproved the Jesuit orderUsed the Inquisition to identify & punish

heresy in papal territoriesConvened the Council of Trent

Pope Paul IVCarried out council’s decreesHad the council draw up an Index of

Forbidden BooksHad offensive books collected and burned

The Catholic Counter The Catholic Counter ReformationReformationThree Driving Forces:Three Driving Forces:3. Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Reaffirmed the split between the Catholic & Protestant churches

Catholic bishops & cardinals agreed on several doctrines:

The Church's interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic.

Christians needed faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued.

The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life.

Indulgences were valid expressions of faith. But the false selling of indulgences was banned.

1534:1534:English Parliament approved the English Parliament approved the Act of Act of

SupremacySupremacy.. Cause:

Henry VIII needed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and remarry in order to have a male heir. When the pope would not agree to this, Henry called a Reformation Parliament to strip away the pope’s power in England. The Act of Supremacy completed this break with the pope by making the king the head of England’s church.

This was different from the Protestant Reformation because it took place for political reasons

Effect:Henry closed all English monasteries

and seized their wealth and land. This act increased royal power as well as the king’s treasury.

1559:1559:Parliament established the Parliament established the Anglican ChurchAnglican ChurchCause:

Elizabeth I returned England from Catholicsm (under Queen Mary) to Protestantism and asked Parliament to set up a national church.

Effect:The Anglican Church became the

only legal church in England and people were required to attend its services. Elizabeth organized the church so that both Catholic moderates and Protestant moderates might accept it.

Effects of the ReformationEffects of the ReformationPolitical

Church authority declined; individual monarchs & states gained power

1600s – rulers of nation-states sought more power for themselves and countries through warfare, exploration, and expansion

Groundwork was laid for the Enlightenment

ReligiousProtestant churches flourishedRoman Catholic Church became more unified as

a result of the reforms at the Council of Trent

SocialBoth religious put an emphasis on education in

promoting beliefs led to new schools & universities

Women remained mainly limited to concerns of home & family

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)• Polish mathematician & astronomer• Wrote a book called On the Revolution of

the Heavenly Bodies– Challenged the theories of Ptolemy, which

stated that the Earth was the center of the universe

• Copernicus had two theories:1. Earth rotates on its own axis2. Earth and the planets revolve around the sun.

» He had no proof, so his theories were rejected.

• Polish mathematician & astronomer• Wrote a book called On the Revolution of

the Heavenly Bodies– Challenged the theories of Ptolemy, which

stated that the Earth was the center of the universe

• Copernicus had two theories:1. Earth rotates on its own axis2. Earth and the planets revolve around the sun.

» He had no proof, so his theories were rejected.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

• Astronomer• Agreed with Copernicus• 1609:

– Used mathematics to prove Copernicus was correct• Mathematical laws govern planetary motion• Orbits of the planets are elliptical, not circular

– His ideas influenced Galileo• Galileo’s and Kepler’s work made Catholics question church

teachings

• Astronomer• Agreed with Copernicus• 1609:

– Used mathematics to prove Copernicus was correct• Mathematical laws govern planetary motion• Orbits of the planets are elliptical, not circular

– His ideas influenced Galileo• Galileo’s and Kepler’s work made Catholics question church

teachings

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)• Used the telescope to prove Kepler’s theories• Contributed to the development of the Scientific Method (based on testing

hypotheses)• Announced these discoveries in the early 1600s:

– Observed rough surface of the moon and the sun– Discovered four moons of Jupiter– Each pendulum swing takes the same amount of time– Falling objects accelerate at a fixed rate

• Catholic Church– Forbade the teachings of Copernicus and Galileo was brought before the

Inquisition– To avoid execution, Galileo admitted he was wrong (even though he knew he was

not)• He continued his work from his home and kept journals, which were found later, after his

death

• Used the telescope to prove Kepler’s theories• Contributed to the development of the Scientific Method (based on testing

hypotheses)• Announced these discoveries in the early 1600s:

– Observed rough surface of the moon and the sun– Discovered four moons of Jupiter– Each pendulum swing takes the same amount of time– Falling objects accelerate at a fixed rate

• Catholic Church– Forbade the teachings of Copernicus and Galileo was brought before the

Inquisition– To avoid execution, Galileo admitted he was wrong (even though he knew he was

not)• He continued his work from his home and kept journals, which were found later, after his

death

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)• English mathematician• Wrote a book called Mathematical Principles of

Natural Philosophy• Invented calculus• Developed laws of nature & physics

– The same force, gravity, rules all matter on earth and in space

– Every object in the universe attracts every other• The degree of attraction is determined by mass and distance

• English mathematician• Wrote a book called Mathematical Principles of

Natural Philosophy• Invented calculus• Developed laws of nature & physics

– The same force, gravity, rules all matter on earth and in space

– Every object in the universe attracts every other• The degree of attraction is determined by mass and distance

Developments in Scientific InstrumentsDevelopments in Scientific Instruments

• Inventions:– Telescope– Microscope– Barometer– Thermometer

• Inventions:– Telescope– Microscope– Barometer– Thermometer

Developments in MedicineDevelopments in Medicine

• Study of human anatomy• First vaccine (against smallpox)• Ointment to stop infection• Stitching of wounds• William Harvey discovered that the heart is

a pump and circulates blood throughout the body

• Study of human anatomy• First vaccine (against smallpox)• Ointment to stop infection• Stitching of wounds• William Harvey discovered that the heart is

a pump and circulates blood throughout the body

Developments in ChemistryDevelopments in Chemistry• Boyle’s Law

– Explained the relationship of volume, temperature, and pressure of gas

• Discovery of oxygen

• Boyle’s Law– Explained the

relationship of volume, temperature, and pressure of gas

• Discovery of oxygen