The Relation of theory to The Relation of theory to research research 1/151/15

The example of the Freedom The example of the Freedom battery from the General battery from the General

Social SurveySocial Survey

Theory ResearchTheory Research

The central idea of the course is that The central idea of the course is that there is a dialectical or reciprocal there is a dialectical or reciprocal relation between theory and research:relation between theory and research:

Theory ResearchTheory Research• Valid and useful theory must have Valid and useful theory must have

empirical research implications empirical research implications Research TheoryResearch Theory

• Valid and useful empirical research must Valid and useful empirical research must be motivated by theory and have be motivated by theory and have theoretical implications.theoretical implications.

Theory ResearchTheory Research

Theoretical considerations play the dominant Theoretical considerations play the dominant role in the formulation and interpretation of role in the formulation and interpretation of any data.any data.

The facts never speak for themselves.The facts never speak for themselves. Data without theory are dumb.Data without theory are dumb. The role of theory includes: conceptualization The role of theory includes: conceptualization

of measures, the causal order and other of measures, the causal order and other forces that may be involved, interpretation of forces that may be involved, interpretation of the finding, and generalization to other the finding, and generalization to other cases.cases.

What about serendipity?What about serendipity?

Sometimes important discoveries Sometimes important discoveries have been made by theorists who did have been made by theorists who did not expect that particular finding.not expect that particular finding.

E.g. Penicillin from moldy bread.E.g. Penicillin from moldy bread. And that is one of the reasons that And that is one of the reasons that

empirical research is always empirical research is always indispensible.indispensible.

But there were also many theoretical But there were also many theoretical preconditions of the discovery of preconditions of the discovery of PenicillinPenicillin

Research TheoryResearch Theory Empirical research is basic to any science.Empirical research is basic to any science. ““Theories” that do not have a rich and varied Theories” that do not have a rich and varied

set of researchable implications are merely set of researchable implications are merely ways of talking about reality; they do not ways of talking about reality; they do not involve assertions about reality. involve assertions about reality.

Most sociologists correctly regard them as Most sociologists correctly regard them as meaningless and empty.meaningless and empty.

Theories without data are blind.Theories without data are blind. The role of data includes: modification and The role of data includes: modification and

clarification of theories as well as decisions clarification of theories as well as decisions between competing theories.between competing theories.

An example: Sources and nature of An example: Sources and nature of the value of freedomthe value of freedom

O. Patterson argues that freedom is a O. Patterson argues that freedom is a core value of the west, particularly the core value of the west, particularly the United States.United States.

Thus the view that some set of Thus the view that some set of arrangements or actions involves or arrangements or actions involves or promotes freedom has consequencespromotes freedom has consequences

But Freedom is a complex value.But Freedom is a complex value. Different people have different views Different people have different views

and concepts that need investigation.and concepts that need investigation.

Patterson’s concept of the three Patterson’s concept of the three notes in the “chord” of freedom:notes in the “chord” of freedom:

1.1. Freedom-from: The rights of individuals and Freedom-from: The rights of individuals and groups not to have others or the government groups not to have others or the government constrain them from doing what they wish.constrain them from doing what they wish.

2.2. Freedom-to: Providing the actual Freedom-to: Providing the actual wherewithall for individuals or groups to wherewithall for individuals or groups to actually do what they wishactually do what they wish

3.3. Freedom-with: The ability to influence and Freedom-with: The ability to influence and initiate collective actioninitiate collective action

The three notes are in tension with each The three notes are in tension with each other.other.

The basic paradox or dialectic of The basic paradox or dialectic of freedom, according to Patterson:freedom, according to Patterson:

Freedom comes from slaveryFreedom comes from slavery• The main societies that have engendered The main societies that have engendered

the value have been slave societies.the value have been slave societies.• The main groups that have promoted the The main groups that have promoted the

value have been slaves (or threatened with value have been slaves (or threatened with slavery)slavery)

But slavery is pervasiveBut slavery is pervasive And the value of freedom is unusualAnd the value of freedom is unusual

Why did it not become a core value Why did it not become a core value outside of the modern West?outside of the modern West?

1.1. Slaves aspired for freedom, butSlaves aspired for freedom, but They had no power.They had no power. Freedom for one person did not imply freedom for Freedom for one person did not imply freedom for

another.another. Indeed the conditions of an inclusive “social Indeed the conditions of an inclusive “social

horizon” are rare.horizon” are rare.

2.2. Freedom was seen as a good thing butFreedom was seen as a good thing but Particularistic social ties were indispensableParticularistic social ties were indispensable Freedom was “Jumping from a slave ship into Freedom was “Jumping from a slave ship into

shark infested water.”shark infested water.”

Christianity and FreedomChristianity and Freedom

Patterson argues that Christianity Patterson argues that Christianity played a fundamental role in played a fundamental role in institutionalizing freedom as a value.institutionalizing freedom as a value.• Paul made redemption from spiritual Paul made redemption from spiritual

slavery the fundamental promise.slavery the fundamental promise.• Augustine developed that idea.Augustine developed that idea.• But this involved a kind of freedom that But this involved a kind of freedom that

coexisted happily with slavery for coexisted happily with slavery for thousands of years.thousands of years.

Empirical analysis of the valueEmpirical analysis of the value

The Patterson battery on the last The Patterson battery on the last General Social Survey will General Social Survey will familiarize us with:familiarize us with:

1.1. The GSSThe GSS

2.2. Cross tabulationCross tabulation

3.3. Samples and populations.Samples and populations.

4.4. Theoretical interpretation.Theoretical interpretation.

Consider the following variablesConsider the following variables

1.1. Gender (male)Gender (male)2.2. Race (white)Race (white)3.3. How Free (Believes that Americans today How Free (Believes that Americans today

have “complete” or “a great deal”have “complete” or “a great deal”4.4. Free Now (Believes that Americans today Free Now (Believes that Americans today

have more freedom than in pasthave more freedom than in past5.5. Wlth Pov (Agrees or strongly agrees that “In Wlth Pov (Agrees or strongly agrees that “In

a free society, it is alright if a few people a free society, it is alright if a few people accumulate a lot of wealth and property accumulate a lot of wealth and property while many others live in poverty.”)while many others live in poverty.”)

Formulate hypotheses on:Formulate hypotheses on:

1.1. Gender How Free -- - 0 + ++Gender How Free -- - 0 + ++

2.2. Gender Free Now -- - 0 + ++ Gender Free Now -- - 0 + ++

3.3. Gender Wlth Pov -- - 0 + ++Gender Wlth Pov -- - 0 + ++

4.4. Race How Free -- - 0 + ++Race How Free -- - 0 + ++

5.5. Race Free Now -- - 0 + ++Race Free Now -- - 0 + ++

6.6. Race Wlth Pov -- - 0 + ++Race Wlth Pov -- - 0 + ++

7.7. Wlth Pov How Free -- - 0 + ++Wlth Pov How Free -- - 0 + ++