The Reactionaries

The Isms

From Napoleon (1815)To

The End of 19th Century

19th Century ‘Revolutions’

• Economic – Industrial and Capitalism

• Political – The Advent of Socialism and Communism

• Nationalism• Arts – Romanticism• Society - Victorianism

Impact of Industrialism

• Goal is to grow industrial capacity• Pollution increases and the quality

of life is negatively affected• Increase in the standard of living• Created the ‘working class’ – men

are treated as commodities (time is money)

Why England?• The Industrial Revolution is evolutionary• Linked to an agricultural revolution –

more science, increased yields, increased income

• Centralized bank and well-developed credit system

• Willing to reinvest profits• Few government restrictions• Surplus labor

The Enclosure Crisis

End of the Commons

The Commons Defined

Pieces of land available to everyone - have been a key element in the mental concept and physical layout of English towns and cities since the Middle Ages. They are often believed to have served exclusively as grazing land where the townsfolk could let their livestock wander freely But they were in fact intensively used for all manner of activities, from agriculture to industry, from military training to amusement

Impact of the ‘Commons’• Open lands for village use were

ingrained in British Common Law

• Landlords wanted full use of agricultural lands to maximize profits

• Parliament passed ‘Enclosure Acts’

• Loss of Commons destroyed economic viability of many villagers

• Forced move to city to find work

• Created industrial workforce

The Enclosure Laws• First Enclosure Act (1603) designed to

keep people on farms

• 1760-1820 Taxes and landowners pushed for Enclosure Acts destroyed small landowning farmers

• By 1876 very little commons existed

• Pushed farm workers to city employment

Emigration

• From farms to cities

• From Ireland to America (U.S. and Canada)

• From all of Britain to Canada, New Zealand and Australia

City Growth• Loss of the commons• Improved farm technology reduced the

need for labor• New industry required centralized

work force• Colonial immigration (from colonies)

swelled urban populations• Crisis resulted in sanitation and health

care, crime and adequate housing

European Largest Cities1800

London 861,000

Constantinople 570,000

Paris 547,000

Naples 430,000

Moscow 248,000

European Largest Cities 1825

London 1,335,000

Paris 855,000

Constantinople 675,000

S. Petersburg 438,000

Naples 350,000

European Largest Cities 1850

London 2,320,000

Paris 1,314,000

Constantinople 785,000

World Largest Cities 1875

London 4,241,000

Paris 2,250,000

New York 1,900,000

Berlin 1,045,000

Vienna 1,020,000

The New Economists

Classic EconomicsClassic economists were interested in standards of living and the process of economic growth. Natural resources were seen as determinants of national wealth and growth; moreover, differences in resource availability was key to a nations wealth. between economies. Since land was fixed in supply, and was a necessary input in production, classical economists ranged from being actually pessimistic about the future of mankind (the Malthusian viewpoint) to taking the less severe view that economic progress was necessarily limited in the long run.

ThomasMalthus • Friend of Hume,Rousseau

• Trained as a mathematician• Ordained as a minister• Authored An Essay on the

Principle of Population (1798), Malthus predicted population would outrun food supply

• Massive population growth in the 20th century has not resulted in a Malthusian catastrophe, due to technological advances

• Believed that poverty and want would always exist

1766-1834

Manchester School

• Group of 19th Century Economists who met regularly in the British City of Manchester

• Believed that the state should interfere as little as possible in business

• Advocated Free Trade

John Stuart Mill

• Follower of Bentham and a utilitarian

• Believed in rights for women and greater Parliamentary power

• Pushed for general increase in voting rights

• Considered a radical, especially with his publication of the Westminster Review

1806-1873

David Ricardo

• Family native to Netherlands• Joined stock exchange at 14• Born Jewish, became

Quaker, ultimately Utilitarian• Friend of Mills, Mathus,

Bentham• Political Economist –

influential classical economist • Credited with systemizing

economics• Politician who advocated free

trade and repeal of Corn Laws

1772-1823

The Iron Law of Wages Ricardo: Principles of Political Economy (1817)

In the Iron Law of wages: Ricardo argued that wages will always be low as a result of the law of supply and demand. More money would enable the working class to maintain more children, who would then compete for work and lower wages again. This much discussed "law" confirmed employers decision to keep wages low. Provided arguments in opposition trade unions.

The Industrial Revolution

Review Needs of an

Industrial Revolution

• Capital• Centralized and Educated

Workforce• Access to Raw Materials• Markets• Genius• Accident

England’s Strengths• Centralized bank and excellent

credit system• Early agriculture revolution that

increased yield and money – food prices dropped

• English supported Weber (Protestant Ethic) of profits being okay

English Tradition of Industry

• ‘Workshop of the World’

• Produced 2/3 of the worlds fabric

• Remained dominant until the end of the 19th Century – replaced by Germany, Japan, and the United States

• Developed machines to produce machines

Laissez-Faire• "Laissez Faire" is French for "leave

alone" which means that the government leaves the people alone regarding all economic activities. It is the separation of economy and state.

• A negative reaction to Mercantilism• Advanced by Jeremy Bentham and

John Stuart Mill assumed that competition regulates market

The Condition of Labor

• Real wages were low – increased, but not enough to keep pace with inflation

• Inequitable wages – women to men and children to adults

• Long hours

• Poor working conditions, sanitations, air pollution, dangerous equipment

• No medical or retirement benefits

The Factory Acts• 1802 – Applied to apprentices in textile

mills. Restricted hours to 12 (6 days), and required clothing and education

• 1833 – Restricted the hours of child labor (up to 13) to nine hours

• 1844 – Reduced hours of children to 6 ½ and required that accidents causing death be reported

• 1847 – Established the 58 hour work week

The Inventors

1. “The Father of the Industrial Revolution”2. “The Father of Mass Production”3. “The Father of Microbiology”4. “The Wizard of Menlo Park”5. The world’s first engineer.6. The world's first industrial research

laboratory.7. Perfected the steam engine8. Invented the blast furnace.9. Invented the electric light bulb10.Created interchangeable parts

Things You Already Know …..

11. Factories were powered by steam12 .Factories were powered by electricity13. Replaced water power, horse power, and human power.14. Opened the first power station in New York City.15. Goods were manufactured on a massive scale16. Mass production of steel17. Division of labor: Each worker performed only a single operation.18. Machines, railroads, ships were all made of steel.19. Machines, railroads, ships all ran on steam.20. Improvements in medicine21. The germ theory22. Vaccines

James Hargreaves

Spinning Jenny1764

Used many spindles to improve textile production

James Watt1769

Watt Steam Engine

Water Frame1769

Improved Textile Industry

Richard Arkwright

Edmund Cartwright

Power Loom1785

GeorgeStephenson

Steam Locomotive1830

Rail service between Liverpool and London

And – of course

Water Closet1852

London Exposition - 1851

- First World’s Fair- Developed by Prince Albert – Victoria’s Husband- Opportunity to showcase British industrial strength

Crystal Palace

Politics and Isms

England in the 19th Century

• French Revolution had caused panic amongst aristocracy, but liberal policies were still strongly opposed

• Encouraged repression by law or force

• However, changes in patterns of wealth (prompt - industrial revolution) accompanied by cries for political reform (liberalization)

Battle of Peterloo, 1819

• Crowd (60,000) had gathered near Manchester to call for repeal of Corn Laws

• Led by Henry Hunt

• Cavalry was sent to disperse crowd

• 11 killed and 400 injured

• Provided moral force to reform movement

English 19th Century Politics

• Advocated personal freedom, and King ruled with peoples consent

• Out of power from 1800 to 1830

• Took power with reform movements

• Today’s Labour Party

• Supporters of strong monarchy

• Lost power through Glorious Revolution – regained it through reaction to French Rev.

• Lost power to reforms of 1830s

• Conservative Party

Whigs Tories

Chartists• Drafted in 1838• Wanted increased

franchise, elimination of property requirements, payment for politicians, secret ballot

• Demonstrations for Charter led to 24 deaths

• Led to rejection of Corn Laws and Reform Acts

Rejected by Parliament 3 times

The Two Key Players …..

Benjamin Disreali

• London born lawyer• Author (history and fiction)• Politically began as Whig

became a Tory• Sympathetic to Chartists

and Reformers• Served in cabinet, became

Prime Minister in 1868• Served off and on until

1880• Pushed a progressive

agenda• Favorite of Queen Victoria

1804-1881

William Gladstone

• Born in Liverpool of a merchant family

• Politically began as a Tory and eventually became head of the Liberal Party

• Served 4 terms as Prime Minister from 1868-1894

• Increased voting rights, focused on peace in foreign policy, restructured army, and attempted to find peace with Ireland

• At odds with Queen Victoria1809-1898

The Legislative Changes

Reform Acts• 1832, 1867, 1884

• Extended voting rights

• Reapportioned Parliamentary representation

• Increased power of lower classes

• By 1885 virtually all men could vote

• Women could not vote until 1918 (if they were over 30 – changed in 1928)

Corn Laws• In force between 1689 and 1846• Designed to protect landholders by

encouraging export and limiting the importation of corn (based on a fixed price)

• Agitation by Anti-Corn-Law-League formed in 1839 ultimately forced repeal

• Indicated increased power of middle class (law supported aristocratic landowners)

Poor Laws • Initially Public Assistance to end pauperism

• Began in 1601 – state needed to help poor

• By 19th century poverty was assumed result of laziness

• 1834 – England home relief and created workhouses. Conditions were to be harsh

• Hoped to discourage people from seeking welfare

Combination Acts• Repealed 1799 laws that forbid unions –

the government was concerned that workers would strike during a war and force agreement

• 1825 Act allowed workers to join together to ‘bargain over wages and conditions

• Trade unionists were not allowed to "molest", "obstruct", or “intimidate" others – very vague

The Utopians• Describes both intentional communities that

attempted to create an ideal society, and fictional societies portrayed in literature.

• Early nineteenth century - several utopian ideas arose, often in response to the social disruption created by the development of commercialism and capitalism. These are often grouped in a greater “utopian socialist" movement.

• Also – religious (based on specific religious ideals)/political (world peace)/scientific (utopian living standards, i.e. – absence of death.

Utopian Socialism• Credited to Karl Marx to describe early

Socialists – such as Thomas More• Assumes that there is no want, poverty,

crime, disease, or ignorance. Everyone works for the advancement of all humanity. (Borrowed by United Federation of Planets in Star Trek, The Next Generation)

• Marx argued for ‘Scientific Socialism’ – (Society based on reasoning and study of social sciences)

Karl Marx• German born , studied law, earned a PhD in philosophy

• Considered too radical to teach, he turned to journalism

• Connected to Engels in Paris• Fascinated by the study of

history• Concludes that capitalism is

inherently flawed • Communism is the logical

progression of society

1818-1883Died a ‘stateless person’ and was buried in London

Frederick Engels

• German industrialist, sent to England to manage cotton mill in Manchester

• Shocked by poverty, joined Chartists

• Met and collaborated with Marx – better writer

• Co-authored Communist Manifesto, and helped form international Communism

• Supported Marx financially• Died while editing third

volume of Das Kapital

1820-1895“The history of all … society is the history of class struggles”

Communist Manifesto1848

Das Kapital1867

Political Economy• Originally used for the study of production, the

act of buying and selling, and the relationship to laws and government

• Opposed the Physiocrats (used land as source or wealth) arguing that labor is the real source of value – fundamental to Marxism

• Studies economics through the lens of government action

• Uses ‘game theory’ – looks at cooperative and non-cooperative models to consider possible outcomes

Marx’s View of History• Primitive Communism: as seen in cooperative

tribal societies. • Slave Society: which develops when the tribe

becomes a city-state. Aristocracy is born. • Feudalism: aristocracy is the ruling class.

Merchants develop into capitalists. • Capitalism: capitalists are the ruling class, who

create and employ the true working class. • Socialism (Dictatorship of the Proletariat):

workers gain class consciousness, overthrow the capitalists and take control over the state.

• Communism: a classless and stateless society.

France• 1815 – Restoration of the monarchy

• Limited restoration of royal privilege

• Divine Right was not restored

• Some constitutional restrictions on crown

• Revolution spirit remained – seeking opportunity

Louis XVIII• Fourth son of Louis XV• Gains throne by Congress of

the Vienna• Allowed a bicameral

legislature and greater right of expression

• Chose moderate views to avoid repeating revolution

• Replaced by youngest brother

1755-1824

The White Terror

• A period of violence against radicals and followers of Napoleon

• Led by women whose relatives had died

• Bloody – no accurate count of deaths

• Tolerated by Louis XVIII

Charles X• King of France 1824-1830• In England during

Revolution and Napoleon• Attempted to restore pre-

Revolutionary Order• Attempted to return land

seized to aristocracy• Appointed reactionary

advisors• Dissolved Parliament in

1830• Overthrown in July 1830

Revolution

1757-1836

Revolution of 1830• Constitutional Charter was revoked and middle

class lost voting rights• Charles X left Paris to hunt• From July 27-29 barricades were erected in the

streets manned by workers and students• The army joined the protesters, and were joined

by Marquis de Lafayette who urged a change of monarchs

• Charles abdicated and Louis-Phillippe was named king – Victor Hugo write Les Miserable

Eugène Delacroix Liberty Leading the People

Louis Phillipe

• King from 1830-1848• Lived in exile during

Revolution, but not considered a traitor

• Military background appealed to Lafayette

• Was a favorite of the wealthy middle class

• Sought peace with England and acquired Algeria

• Opposed election reform and was ousted from power

• Fled to England1773-1850

Revolution of 1848• French population angry over

increased control of government by wealthy

• Economic situation was weakening

• February 22, 1848 revolution in Paris

• Barricades return

• Louis Philippe abdicates

• Revolt spreads to other nations

Louis Blanc • Socialist, educated in Paris

• Historian• Pushed government to

establish ‘national workshops’ to offer work at a fair wage – underestimated enrollment by 12X

• Workshops collapsed under weight of numbers.

• Blanc tried to overthrow government - failed

1811-1882

1848 – Revolution Elsewhere

• Sparked by events in Paris• In Hungary people demanded national

autonomy, but revolt was ended by Austrian and Russian troops

• In Austria revolts demanded reforms, but the revolt failed, and the emperor abdicated

• In Prussia people demanded a liberal constitutional monarchy, but failed to implement a constitution before the monarchy could reestablish control

Napoleon III• Nephew of Napoleon, born

Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte in Holland

• Raised to respect Napoleon legend, and to seek power

• Twice tried to overthrow Louis Philippe and was imprisoned

• Elected president in 1848 and limited to one four-year term

• Elected dictator for ten years in 1851

• 1852 – replaced Second Republic with Second Empire 1808-1873