The public trust and the First Americans

title: ThePublicTrustandtheFirstAmericansauthor: Knudson,Ruthann.;Keel,BennieC.

publisher: OregonStateUniversityPressisbn10|asin: 0870710257printisbn13: 9780870710254ebookisbn13: 9780585271309

language: English

subject

IndiansofNorthAmerica--Antiquities--Collectionandpreservation--Congresses,IndiansofNorthAmerica--Antiquities--Lawandlegislation--Congresses,Archaeology--Moralandethicalaspects--UnitedStates--Congresses,Culturalproperty,Protectionof--Un

publicationdate: 1995lcc: E77.9.P621995eb

ddc: 973.1

subject:

IndiansofNorthAmerica--Antiquities--Collectionandpreservation--Congresses,IndiansofNorthAmerica--Antiquities--Lawandlegislation--Congresses,Archaeology--Moralandethicalaspects--UnitedStates--Congresses,Culturalproperty,Protectionof--Un

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ThePublicTrustandtheFirstAmericans

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THECENTERFORTHESTUDYOFTHEFIRSTAMERICANSTheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericansisanaffiliateoftheDepartmentofAnthropologyatOregonStateUniversity,establishedinJuly1981byaseedgrantfromMr.WilliamBingham'sTrustforCharity.ItsgoalsaretoencourageresearchaboutPleistocenepeoplesoftheAmericas,andtomakethisnewknowledgeavailabletoboththescientificcommunityandtheinterestedpublic.Towardthisend,theCenterstaffisdevelopingresearch,publicoutreach,andpublicationsprograms.

TheCenter'sPeoplingoftheAmericaspublicationprogramfocusesontheearliestAmericansandtheirenvironments.TheCenteralsopublishesaquarterlynewspapercalledtheMammothTrumpet,writtenforbothageneralandaprofessionalaudience,aswellasanannualjournal,CurrentResearchinthePleistocene,whichpresentsnote-lengtharticlesaboutcurrentresearchintheinterdisciplinaryfieldofQuaternarystudiesastheyrelatetothePleistocenepeoplingoftheAmericas.

ManuscriptSubmissionsBOOKSTheCentersolicitshigh-qualityoriginalmanuscriptsinEnglish.Forinformationwriteto:RobsonBonnichsen,CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,DepartmentofAnthropology,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis,OR97331orcall(503)737-4596.

CURRENTRESEARCHINTHEPLEISTOCENEResearcherswishingtosubmitsummariesinthisannualserialshouldcontacteditorBradleyT.Lepper,OhioHighSchool,1982VelmaAvenue,Columbus,OH43211-2497orrequestInformationfor

ContributorsfromtheCenter.ThedeadlineforsubmissionisJanuary31ofeachcalendaryear;earlysubmissionissuggested.

MAMMOTHTRUMPETNewofdiscoveries,reportsonrecentconferences,bookreviews,andnewsofcurrentissuesinvited.ContacteditorDonHall,CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericansat(503)745-5203.

ADDITIONALLY...AuthorsareencouragedtosubmitreprintsofpublishedarticlesorcopiesofunpublishedpapersforinclusionintheCenter'sresearchlibrary.Exchangesofrelevantbooksandperiodicalswithotherpublishersisalsoencouraged.PleaseaddresscontributionsandcorrespondencetotheCenter'slibrary.

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ThePublicTrustandtheFirstAmericans

RuthannKnudsonBennieC.Keel

Editors

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ThepaperinthisbookmeetstheguidelinesforpermanenceanddurabilityoftheCommitteeonProductionGuidelinesforBookLongevityoftheCouncilonLibraryResourcesandtheminimumrequirementsoftheAmericanNationalStandardforPermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterialsZ39.48-1984.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

ThepublictrustandtheFirstAmericans/RuthannKnudson&BennieC.Keel,editors.p.cm.PaperspresentedatthePublicTrustSymposiumattheWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas,heldattheUniversityofMaine,Orono,May24-28,1989.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN0-87071-025-7(alk.paper)1.IndiansofNorthAmericaAntiquitiesCollectionandpreservationCongresses.2.IndiansofNorthAmericaAntiquitiesLawandlegislationCongresses.3.ArchaeologyUnitedStatesMoralandethicalaspectsCongresses.4.Culturalproperty,ProtectionofUnitedStatesCongresses.5.UnitedStatesAntiquitiesCongresses.I.Knudson,Ruthann.II.Keel,BennieC.,1934-.III.CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans(OregonStateUniversity).IV.PublicTrustSymposium(1989:UniversityofMaine)E77.9.P62199595-7423973.1dc20CIP

Copyright©CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans1995AllrightsreservedPrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

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ToHannahMarieWormington1914-1994

"Inthefuture,asinthepast,thegatheringofinformationwilldependtoagreatextentoncooperationbetweenavocationalandprofessionalarchaeologists"H.M.WormingtonColoradoArchaeologicalSociety,1978

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FOREWORDDennisStanford

ThisvolumefocusesontheconceptthatthearchaeologicalremainsoftheFirstAmericansarepartofapublictrusttobeprotectedandusedtothebenefitofallpeople:thegeneralpublic,avocationalarchaeologists,NativeAmericans,andprofessionalarchaeologistsalike.Aswithalltrustrelationships,therearemutualresponsibilities.Avocationalarchaeologistsknowthelandanditsresourcesperhapsbetterthandomostprofessionalarchaeologists,whospendmostoftheirtimeteaching,inmuseums,ormanagingpublicandprivateorganizations.Inthisforeword,therelationshipbetweentheavocationalandprofessionalarchaeologistisemphasized.

Thereiscurrentlydistrustamongamateurs,professionalarchaeologists,andNativeAmericanswherepartnershipsareneededtomeetpublictrustresponsibilities.RecentU.S.archaeologicalprotectionlawshaveinhibitedcooperationamongthesegroups,andeffortsneedtobemadetoreestablishconnectionsforinventory,analysis,andinterpretation.Partnershipsarebasedonearnedrespectandmutualexpectations.Forexample,thegeneralpublicaswellasarchaeologistsneedtorespectthespiritualqualitiesofancientNativeAmericansitesandartifacts.AndscientificanalysisofFirstAmericans'physicalremainscanprovidemuchneededinformationimportanttoaddressingmodernNativeAmericanhealthissuesandsupportingadditionalNativeAmericanunderstandingoftheirpast.

Paleoindianstudiesaremultidisciplinaryandrequireavarietyofscientificexpertiseandsignificantlocalknowledge.MostPaleoindiansiteshavebeenfoundandreportedbyavocationalarchaeologistsandinterestedlandownersorbygeologistsinthecourseoftheirresearch.

Oncetheyhavebeenfound,itistheresponsibilityoftheprofessionalarchaeologisttoinsurethatthearchaeologicalinformationis

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carefullyrecovered,analyzed,synthesized,reportedinbothtechnicaljournalsandpopularpublications,andmanagedforfuturegenerations.ItistheresponsibilityofalltoseethattheFirstAmericansitesareprotectedfromdevelopmentordestruction.Throughapartnershipinthepublictrustallgroupshaveanopportunitytoparticipateinthepastandhelpbringthepastbacktolifeasanunderstandingofwhoweare,wherewecamefrom,andwhywearethewayweare.

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PREFACETheWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericaswasheldattheUniversityofMaine,Orono,May2428,1989.TheconferencewassponsoredbytheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,thenlocatedwithintheUniversity'sInstituteforQuaternaryStudiesandnowanintegralpartofOregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.MostoftheconferenceconsistedofpresentationsaboutcurrentresearchontheearliestpeopleintheAmericas,butwithintheconferencethePublicTrustSymposiumwasdevotedtounderstandingthepubliccontextinwhichthatresearchisconducted,andinwhichFirstAmericansresourcesareused,preserved,ordestroyed.Thisvolumeincludesthesymposiumpresentations,plusasummaryoftheconferenceresearchpresentations(Bonnichsenetal.)andafinaloverviewonthetopicofthepublictrustandtheFirstAmericans(KeelandCalabrese).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSManypeoplecontributedtothePublicTrustSymposiumfromwhichthepapersincludedinthisvolumewerederived,andtothetransitionfromasetofspokenideastoacraftedbook.RobsonBonnichsen,DirectoroftheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans(CSFA),organizedandchairedtheFirstWorldSummitConference,initiatedtheideaofthePublicTrustSymposiumandhassupporteditspublication.Theeditorsparticularlyappreciatehissupport,andthatofotherCSFAstaffmembersinOrono(LouiseBennett,JudithCooper,andJohnTomenchuk)andCorvallis(PattiGood,RebeccaFoster)from1988untilpublicationofthisvolume.Incomplement,thecontributionsofallsymposiumparticipantsandvolumeauthorsare

alsoacknowledgedwithappreciation.PapersinthisvolumebyBense,Devine,Douglas,Fowler,Gallant,Knudson,Le

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Master,Magne,McGimsey,Watson,andWilliamswerepresentedorallyinthesymposium.ThepaperherebyMcManamonandKnudsonisbasedonanoralsymposiumpresentationofthesamenamebyGeorgeS.Smith,FrancisP.McManamon,andRichardC.Waldbauer.ThepapersherebyBonnichsenetal.andbyKeelandCalabresewerewrittenspecificallyforthisvolume,andarebasedonotherconferencediscussionsandthesymposiumpresentations.

TheU.S.NationalParkService(NPS)sponsoredthePublicTrustSymposiumandprovidedtravelfundsfromtheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorOfficeoftheDepartmentalConsultingArcheologist(ODCA;BennieC.Keel,thenDCA),Washington,DC,underaNPS-UniversityofMaineCooperativeAgreement(CA1600-5-0005)administeredbytheScientificStudiesProgram,NPSNorthAtlanticRegionalOffice,Boston.ThisODCAsupportprovidedtravelexpensestotheconferenceforJudithA.Bense,JohnG.Douglas,RoyGallant,LeslieStarrHart,RuthannKnudson,DennisC.LeMaster,CharlesR.McGimsey,III,GeorgeS.Smith,PattyJoWatson,andSteveWilliams.TheCSFAprovidedtravelsupportforHeatherDevineandMartinP.R.Magne.Expensesofothersymposiumparticipantsweresupportedbytheirhomeinstitutions.

RuthannKnudson'sparticipationpriortoApril1990wasacontributionofKnudsonAssociates,ofwhichsheistheprincipal,exceptforthepreviouslyacknowledgedODCAtravelsupport.HersubsequentinvolvementinthedevelopmentofthisvolumehasbeenacontributionoftheODCAandNPSArcheologicalAssistanceDivision(FrancisP.McManamon,DCAandDivisionChief),andKnudsonAssociates.JeanAlexander,RuthannKnudson,andJoAlexandertechnicallyeditedthevolume.BennieKeel'sinvolvementintheplanningofthesymposiumandpreparationofthisvolumehasalsobeensupportedbytheNPS,througheithertheODCAortheSoutheastArcheologicalCenter,Tallahassee.F.A.Calabrese's

participationinthisvolumehasbeensupportedbytheNPSMidwestArcheologicalCenter,Lincoln.Subventionofthisvolume'sprintingcostswasprovidedbytheODCA.

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CONTENTS

ForewordDennisStanford

vii

PrefaceandAcknowledgments ix

I.PublicStewardshipofFirstAmericansResources

TheFirstAmericansandtheNationalParkServiceLeslieStarrHart

3II.ThePublicTrust

ThePublicTrustandArchaeologicalStewardshipRuthannKnudson

9

III.ResearchGuidance

FutureDirectionsinFirstAmericansResearchandManagementRobsonBonnichsen,TomD.Dillehay,GeorgeC.Frison,FumikoIkawa-Smith,RuthannKnudson,D.GentrySteele,AllanR.Taylor,&JohnTomenchuk

30

IV.TheLegalEnvironment

TheLegalStructurefortheProtectionofArchaeologicalResourcesintheUnitedStatesandCanadaJohnM.Fowler

75

Archaeology'sWorld:TheLegalEnvironmentinAsiaandLatinAmericaCharlesR.McGimseyIII

87

GovernmentSupportofArchaeologyinCanadaMartinP.R.Magne

93

AnEnvironmentOutofBalanceDennisC.LeMaster

106

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V.PublicEducation

PublicArchaeologicalInformationfromU.S.GovernmentSourcesFrancisP.McManammon&RuthannKnudson

117

SchoolCurriculumandArchaeologyHeatherDevine

127

PublicEducationthroughPublicMediaRoyA.Gallant

140

Public-PrivatePartnershipsinArchaeologyJudithA.Bense

145

VI.Funding

FederalU.S.Funding:FirstAmericansResearchPattyJoWatson

160

SeekingPrivateFundingforAmericanOriginsStephenWilliams

167

FederalU.S.Funding:ResourceandLandManagementSupportJohnG.Douglas

173

VII.Summary

StewardshipofFirstAmericansResourcesBennieC.Keel&F.A.Calabrese

187

ListofContributors 207

Index 209

IPUBLICSTEWARDSHIPOFFIRSTAMERICANSRESOURCES

first,adj.1.beingbeforeallotherswithrespecttotime...American,adj.5....aninhabitantoftheWesternHemisphere.

FirstAmericansarethesubjectofpublicfascinationandscholarlyresearch,thatresearchincludingthedevelopmentofmodelsofpasthumanadaptationtochangingworldclimatesandecosystems.Theirarchaeological,geological,andpaleoenvironmentalremainsarenonrenewableoncegone,theyaregoneforever.AcriticalfactoringleaninginformationabouttheFirstAmericansthepeople,theirlifeways,andtheirworldistheinterrelationshipsamongtheseremainsandthecontextsinwhichtheinformationisfound.NothingissimpleaboutunderstandingtheFirstAmericans.

ThisvolumewasdevelopedoutofasymposiumonpublicresponsibilitiesforprotectionofFirstAmericansresources,includingdiscussionsof

theconceptofthatresponsibility;

relationshipsamongresearchersworkingonFirstAmericansresourcesthatareoftenpubliclymanaged,andthoseresourcemanagers;

thelegalbasisforprotectingFirstAmericansresourcesintheAmericasandrelatedmaterialsinAsia;

opportunitiesforeducatingthepublicabouttheFirstAmericansandtheirinformationvalues;and

howtopayforFirstAmericansresearchandprotectionofresources.

FirstAmericansresources,betheyarchaeologicalornonculturalpaleoenvironmentalsites,collections,orrelatedrecords,arenonrenewableandfinite.Theuseoftheseresourcesmustbecarefullymanaged,conservingwhileatthesametimeexploitingthemtocreatepublicinformation.Aroundtheworld,avarietyofprivateandpublicindividualsandorganizationsmanagetheuseofFirstAmericansmaterials.ThePublicTrustSymposiumwascosponsoredbytheNationalParkServiceandtheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,andfocusedonthepublicnatureoftheseresourcesandthevariousaspectsinvolvedinitswiseuseapublicethicofstewardship,thepubliccontextinwhichresearchisconducted,thelegalenvironmentofresourcemanagement,andpubliceducationaboutandfinancialsupportforresearchandmanagement.TheNationalParkService'sconcernsaboutFirstAmericansresourcestewardship,asexpressedbyLeslieStarrHart,reflecttheneedofmostlandmanagersforinformationaboutFirstAmericansresearchandhowtoprotectFirstAmericansresourcessothatthosemanagerscanbebetterpublicservants.

RUTHANNKNUDSONBENNIEC.KEEL

TheFirstAmericansandtheNationalParkServiceLeslieStarrHart

TheNationalParkServicerequeststechnicalguidanceregardingtheroleofindigenouspopulationsinFirstAmericansresearch,methodsforachievingcooperationandinformationexchangeamongfederal,tribal,stateandprivatesectorsinArcticresearch,andwaystoenhanceongoinganddevelopinginternationalscientificexchanges.

FederalManagementNeeds

TheU.S.NationalParkService(NPS)'scosponsorshipoftheinternationalmulti-disciplinaryWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas,specificallyofthePublicTrustSymposium,isveryappropriate.Itisobviousthatthesynthesisofscientificinformationandthedelineationofprioritiesresultingfromthesedeliberationswillassistusnotonlyinmanagingarchaeologicalresourcesonourparklandsbut,perhapsmoreimportantly,inoureffortstoprovideleadershipandcoordinationforfederal,tribal,state,andlocalagenciesinmanaging,interpreting,andpreservingthearchaeologicalresourcesthatarethefocusofthismeeting.

(1)Theinvolvementofindigenouspopulations(localresidents)inthedevelopmentandimplementationofresearchinareasthatmayhavedirectbearingontheirabilitytocontinueasubsistence-basedwayoflife.Manyofthesepeople,livinginremoteareas,representcultures''onthebrink";however,theypossessanevolvedcompetencyforsurvivalinastressedenvironmentthatwewoulddowelltoconsiderandlearnfrom.

(2)TheongoingdevelopmentandimplementationofbasicandappliedresearchundertheArcticResearchandPolicyActof1984.

ThisActstressesthecoordinationofArcticresearch,throughinteragencyfederal/stateandprivatesectorcooperationwithrespecttoplanninganddatasharing.Itcould,

andshould,includeresearchrelatedtothepeoplingoftheAmericas.

(3)Theenhancementofongoinganddevelopinginternationalexchangesamongscientistsandscholars.AlaskahasbeenthebeneficiaryofglasnostwiththeformerUnionofSocialistSovietRepublicsinaverypositivemannersince1987.WehopetoexpandthesecooperativeendeavorsintothecircumpolarandFennoScandiaregionsandbeyond.

BeingassociatedwiththeFirstWorldSummitConferenceprovidesacertainsenseofhistory.OnecannothelpbutwonderwhateffectthiswillhaveontheglobalvisionofAmericanorigins.Fortrulythisisaglobalquestion,onethatoverridesthegeopoliticalboundariespresentlydividingtheplanet.TheseboundarieshaveattimescloudedissuesrelatingtohumanoccupationoftheAmericas,butareovercomebycooperationandexchangeofinformationamongthosewhoseresearchaddressesthepeoplingoftheAmericasinAsia,NorthAmerica,andCentralandSouthAmerica.Althoughtheconferenceisdividedalongthesetraditionallines,Itrustthattheseorganizationalconstructswillprovideacommonground,anacademiclandscape,ifyouwill,onwhichtherecanbeafruitfulexchangeofideasandaconsensusofdirection.

Asamanager,Iamverypleasedtoseethattheconferencenotonlyaddressesquestionsconcerningcurrentresearchanddatagaps,theestablishmentofprioritiesforfutureresearch,thelegalenvironmentforaddressingarchaeologicalresourcemanagement,andfundingforthisresearch,butalsoissuesrelatedtotheprotectionoftheresourceasexemplifiedinconferencetopicsconcerningpubliceducation,preservationofthepublictrust,andthestewardshipofthearchaeologicalrecordthroughouttheAmericas.GiventhefactthatthemajorityofthearchaeologyconductedintheAmericasisfundedbythepublic,itisclearthatthepublichasabigstakeinarchaeology.It

isalsoclearthatprotectionoftheresourcerequirestheactiveparticipationofthepublic.Increasingthepublic'sawarenessofandappreciationforarchaeologywillnodoubtresultinincreasedprotectionofthearchaeologicalresourcebasethroughouttheAmericas.

Beforewecaneffectivelyprotect,study,andmanagethearchaeologicalresourcebase,wemustdeterminehowbigitisandwhatitconsistsof.EstimatesbyfederalagenciesintheUnitedStatesindicatethatthereareapproximately425,000knownarcheologicalsitesonfederallymanagedU.S.lands.Takeintoconsiderationthatthesesameagenciesreportthatapproximately93percentoftheirlandhasnotbeenexaminedforarchaeologicalsitesandthesizeoftheactualarchaeologicaldatabasewillbeseentobetremendouslyunderstated.Buteventhisconservativeestimate,ofcourse,doesnotincludethestateandprivatelandswhichmakeupapproximatelytwo-thirdsoftheUnitedStates.IfthislevelofsurveyisindicativeofeffortsinotherpartsoftheAmericas,andIthinkitlikelyis,thenwehavealongwaytogointermsofdefiningthearchaeologicalresourcebase.NodoubtmanyofthesitesstillundiscoveredcouldaddressquestionsrelatingtothepeoplingoftheAmericasandoureffortstounderstandthistopicwouldbeenhancedbyresearchdesignedtolocateandinventorythesesites.

InventoryEnhancement

Since1971,U.S.federalagencieshavebeenmandatedtoinventorytheirlandsforarchaeologicalresources.A1988amendment(P.L.100-555)totheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979mandatesfederalagenciesto"developplansforsurveyinglandsundertheircontroltodeterminethenatureandextentofarchaeologicalresourcesonthoselands[andto]prepareascheduleforsurveyinglandsthatarelikelytocontainthemostscientificallyvaluablearchaeologicalresources."Althoughmandated,nofundshavetodatebeenallocatedforextensivearchaeologicalinventory(cf.LeMaster,thisvolume).Insteadthechargehasbeentoinventorywithinexistingprogramsandbudgetstodomorewithless.ItisnotsurprisingthatlessthansevenpercentoffederallandsintheUnitedStateshavebeen

surveyedforarchaeologicalsites.Thearchaeologicalresourcesofanevensmallerpercentageof

AmericanlandsoutsideoftheUnitedStateshavebeeninventoried.

InsettingprioritiesandmakingrecommendationsforarchaeologicalinventoryintheAmericasandotherappropriategeographicalareas,considerationshouldbegiventocooperativeacademic-governmentresearchefforts,perhapsintheformofjointprojectsorstudiesinvolvingscientistsfrommanycountries.TheNPSsupportsthesetypesofcooperativeefforts,andendeavorstoprovideaccesstoNPSlands,information,technicalandlogisticalsupport,andfundingforthesetypesofstudiesatboththenationalandinternationallevelstotheextentthattheycanbearticulatedwithinexistingprograms,responsibilities,andmissions.

Knowing,understanding,andprotectingthearchaeologicalresourcesoftheAmericasisourpermanentandundividedobligationandoneofourmostimportantresponsibilities.Thiswillrequirethecooperationofthosewhostudytheresource,thosewhomanagetheresource,andthosewhoultimatelysupporttheseeffortsthepublic.

IITHEPUBLICTRUSTTheissueofownershipundoubtedlyhasperplexedtheanimalkingdomsinceitsearliesthistory.Perhapsitisasoldasthekingdomitself.Weknowthatanimalscompeteforspaceandresourcesatthefundamentallevelofexistence.Verysimpleformsofanimallifecompeteforterritoryandprotecttheirspacebymechanismsrangingfromsimpletocomplex.Asanimallifebecomesmoreevolved,complexbehaviorsprotectingtheownershipofterritoryanditsresourcesmovefromtheindividualtothegroup.Tobesure,wearetaughtthatthesebehaviorsaremechanismsforsurvivalandcanbeinterpretedasoperatingatabiologicallevel.Undoubtedly,humanityhasthemostevolved,involved,andcontradictoryconceptsofownershipandproperty.

Anthropologicalstudiestellusthatconceptsofownershipcanincludenotonlythematerialbutthenonmaterial.Weknowthatinsomesocietiesrealestate,houses,businesses,ideas,andconceptscanbeprivatelyheld,butthattherearealsosocietieswherethesesameitemsareownedbythegrouporthestate.Elsewhereonthefaceoftheearthindividualsownorhaveownedspirits,songs,dances,magicalincantationsandthelike,butasindividualspossesslittlematerialwealth.

Inourlifetimeswehaveseentwopolitico-economicsystemsdominatetheworld.Interestingly,theysharefundamentaldifferencesintheownershipofproperty,especiallypropertythatiswealth-producing.Atthismomentwearelivinginmostinterestingtimesasoneofthesesystemspeacefullyreanalysessomeofitsfundamentaldoctrines.Timewillprovideuswithsomeveryinterestingeventsandsolutionsinthisregard.

Universally,irrespectiveoftheprevailingpoliticalsystem,thepast,thecommonhistoryofanation,isrecognizedasthecommonpropertyofthegroup.Tobesure,howthathistoryisdevelopedandthepurposesforwhichthepastisusedvary,asdoestheownershipofthematerialremainsofthepast.Consideringthecomplexityofconceptsofpropertyandownership,furthercommentsherewillberestrictedtothegeneralareaofarchaeology.

Insomenationstherelicsofthepastarethepropertyofthestate,whereasinothersownershipoftheculturalrelics(andothermaterialevidenceofthepast)belongstothelandowner,pureandsimple.However,thiselementaldichotomyinownershipisrare,aspapersinthisvolumeshow.Aswithotherhumanendeavors,wetendtocreateallkindsofexceptionsandcomplexity.

ThefollowingpaperbyKnudsonespousesanideaofauniversalpublictrustforthepastanditsmaterialmanifestations.Herideasarenotcompletelyoriginal.Archaeologistshavefollowedtheircallingoutoftheirpersonalintellectualneedsorwants;mostofushavenottakenuptheshovelandtroweltobecomerichandfamous.Isuspectthatonlyafterembarkingonthestudyandpracticeofourtradedidwerecognizethatwewerecontributingtothegrandenterpriseofcreatingknowledgeabouttheundeniablecommonthreadofourhumanness.WeareindebtedtoKnudsonforaclearpresentationofthePublicTrustDoctrine.Hopefully,herdiscoursewillserveasadocument

withwhichwecanpersuadeotherstoacceptamoreresponsiblevisionoftheirstewardshipofthepast.

BENNIEC.KEEL

ThePublicTrustandArchaeologicalStewardshipRuthannKnudson

Inmostmodernsocieties,archaeologicalresourcesareconsideredtobepartofaworldwidepublictrust,beingjointandseverallyownedbythemembersofthehumancommunitywhoallhaverightstotheirheritageinformationandresources.Inthisperspective,allpeoplethushavestewardshipresponsibilitiesfortheserightsandtheseresources,andneedtounderstand,affirm,andimplementthisethic.FirstAmericansarchaeologicalresourcesareaparticularlyimportanttrustelement,becauseoftheirrarityandtheuniqueinformationtheycontainabouthumans'adaptationtoapristineNewWorld.Ultimately,governmentshavearchaeologicalstewardshipresponsibilitiestoactonthepublic'sbehalf.Theseresponsibilitiesmeritclarificationandimplementation,buttheethicalresponsibilitybelongsfirsttotheaveragecitizen.

Beginningwithaleapoffaith,asdoallethicalpositions,Iassertthatarchaeologicalresourcesarepartofaworldwidepublictrust,andthattheyshouldbeused,conserved,and/ordestroyedonlyfollowingconsiderationofthatstewardshipresponsibility.Somesystemsofculturalvaluesdenythisassertion(seeLayton1989),whichIrespect,butthisdiscussionfocusesonwhatIbelieveisadominantworldwidepattern.Underthisscenario,archaeologistshavearesponsibilitytooperateasarchaeologicaltrustees,asdoothermembersofthepublicandprivateworld.ThisisparticularlytruewhendealingwiththeremainsoftheFirstAmericans,whicharerare,oftennotsurfaceevident,andholdirreplaceableinformationaboutourspecies'adaptationtoapristine"NewWorld."

AConceptualFramework

In1986Iinitiatedadiscussionofcontemporaryculturalresourcemanagementwiththequestion,"Whoownsanarchaeologicalsite?"(Knudson1986:395).TherewasnoobviousanswerintheUnitedStates,norindeeddidthereappeartobeoneelsewhereintheworld.Inmakingacomparative

studyofworldculturalresourcemanagementsystems,Cleere(1984:127)notedthattheprogramsofthosecountriesdiscussedinhisvolumegenerallylackedproperlyconceivedarchaeologicalconservationpolicies.ThisisdespitethefactthattheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganizationadoptedinternationalprinciplesonarchaeologicalexcavationsin1956(UNESCO1985).Cleere'sworkreflectedthelackofanyconsistentethical,muchlessanyformallegal,nationalpoliciesacrosstheworld.

Thisquestionofownership,andconsequentstewardshipresponsibilities,isforemostanethicalissuebut,aswithmostquestionsofrightandwrongandthebalanceofpublicandprivaterights,itsimplementationisalegalquestion.Alegalsystemissimplya(usuallyincomplete)codificationofanethicalvaluesystem.ThispaperdiscusseshowtheUnitedStateshaslegallyaddressedmybasicethicalaffirmation.Subsequentpaperswilladdressarchaeologicalresourcemanagementintheethicalandlegalcontextsofothernations.

Thebasicpropositionsunderlyingarchaeologists'responsibilityforpoliticalparticipationareauniversalethicofpublicarchaeologicalvalues:

(1)Thereisaworldwidemoralconsensusthatthelong-termconservationofasignificantportionofourculturalpastisgoodforthehumancommunity.Asacorollary,lossofournonrenewableheritageresourcebaseengenderssignificantsocialcost(Knudson1984:245).

(2)Thelong-termgoalisconservationofaheritageresourcebaseforthegoodofthehumancommunity,forthepreservationofknowledgeandobjectsastheyholdvalueforlong-termculturalcoherence.Itisnotconservationofanindividualsiteorbuildingperse,orfocusonaspecificresearchtopicoutofcontextofitsrelationshiptotheoverall

culturalneedsofthehumancommunity(Knudson1984:246;cf.Knecht1994).

(3)Whileanimportanthumanvalue,culturalresources(Knudson1986,forthcoming)areonlyoneaspectofahumansocialandeconomicsystem,andallresourcemanagementdecisionsaremaderelativetothebroadersystem;toignorethisbroadpubliccontextisunethical.Thus,archaeologicalresourcesshouldbemanagedwithinamoreinclusivecontext

ofculturalresourcesand,further,withinthecontextofnational,state,andlocalpublicmulti-resourcepoliciesandprograms(Knudson1984:246).

ThissetofpropositionsdevelopedoutoftheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology's1980BasicPrinciplesofArchaeologicalResourceManagement(Knudson1982).Implicitwithintheseprinciplesisapublictrustconcept.SuchaconceptisalsoimplicitinMcGimsey's(1972:5)seminaldiscussionofpublicarchaeology,andindiscussionssuchasFowler(1986),GradyandLipe(1976),Mayer-Oakes(1989),Schaafsma(1989),TainterandLucas(1983)inWoodall(1989),andZelaya(1981).HavingaconceptlabelornamethePublicTrustisanextremelyimportantmnemonicforproselytizing.Andwemustproselytize,becauseuntilthereisaclearpublicethicalconsensusaboutarchaeologicalvalueswecannotstopthelootinganddestructionofresourcesbydevelopmentforces.

ChristopherChippindalehasnotedthatthisconceptisnotonewithwhichtheBritisharefamiliar,largelybecauseofthestrongmodernpresumptioninEuropeanlawthatlandowners'rightsaretemperedbymanyotherinterests(Chippindale1983).Thatunfamiliarityandlegaldifferenceshouldnotdetractfromtheuniversaladoptionoftheethicandterm.IntheUnitedStates,then-SecretaryoftheInteriorManuelLujan,Jr.(1991)promulgatedANationalStrategyforFederalArchaeologyinwhichhestated,"[Thearchaeologicalpaleoenvironmental]recordisapublictrusttobeunderstoodandevaluatedtohelpshapeourpresentresponsestochangingenvironments."

ThePublicTrustDoctrineinU.S.Law

AsaU.S.citizen,Ihavebeenraisedtorespectthesanctityofprivatepropertyrights,withtheassumedcorollarythatarchaeological

resourcesarethepropertyofthelandowner.ButFirstAmericansresourcesaretoovaluabletoallofustobetreatedaseitherprivatecommoditiesortreasure.OverthepastfewyearsIhavediscoveredthatunderU.S.waterqualitylawsthepublicinterestoftenprevailsoverconstitutionalFifth

Amendmentpropertyrights.WhynotforFirstAmericansarchaeologicalresourcesaswell?

Since1986,IhaveattemptedtoidentifytheconceptualbasesunderlyingtheUnitedStates'apparentlycontrastinglegalrequirementsforthemanagementofarchaeologicalandwaterresources.ThisattempthasledmetothePublicTrustDoctrine(PTD),anappropriateethicforworldwidearchaeologicalresourcemanagement,thougharelativelyinchoatesetofprincipleswithnoclearconstitutionalbasis.

Lipe(1984:2)hascogentlypointedoutthatarchaeologicalculturalresourceshavevalueonlyasthosevaluesareassignedbyhumanbeings,andthatnotallsuchresourceshave,muchlessareassigned,equallyhighvalue.Archaeologicalresourcesaremostfrequentlyassignedscientific,humanistic,andspiritualvalues(Knudson1991).ThePublicTrustprincipleassertstherightofthewholehumancommunitytopreserveallresourcesuntilavaluejudgmenthasbeenmadeinamannerthatbestservesthepublic'sbroadinterests.

ThefollowingdiscussionofthePTDincludesamorearticulatestatementofaworldwidePublicTrustprinciple,anethicalprescriptforallprivateorpublicindividualsororganizationswhohavesomeinteractionwitharchaeologicalresources.Theacceptanceandimplementationofthisethicalvalueisthefocusofthisdiscussionandsymposium,firstingeneralandsecondarilyinrelationtotheFirstAmericans.Itsexplicitlegalcodificationisasubsidiaryissue,asistheissueofcompensationofprivaterightsinassertingapublicgood.

Heritageintoday'sworldisanownedpast(seeMcGuire1989).Itcomprisesbothmaterialproperty,withactualvalueinanantiquitiesmarket,andinformationaboutpatrimonyandenvironmentaladaptation.Wemustfirstaskwhoownsthisheritage,andthen,secondarily,whocaresforit.

Inourcontemporarylegalisticworldcommunity,stewardshiprightsandresponsibilitiesareexplicitlytiedtopropertyrights.Thislinkageofownershipandstewardshipisincontrasttosometraditionalculturalvaluesystems(forinstance,NezPercemutualcross-utilizationstewardshiprightsandresponsibilities[Walker1967]).Thepublicnatureofarchaeologicalresources,andtheobligationofgovernments,private

individuals,andorganizationstofulfilltheirresponsibilitiesastrusteesofthesepublicresources,meritsbroaderrecognitionandaffirmation.

In1970,JosephSaxpublishedaseminalpaperonthePTDinU.S.naturalresourcelaw.Naturalresourcelawisdifferentfromenvironmentallawinthattheformerusuallyreferstotheresourceconsumerandthelattertotheresourceprotector(Freedman1987:66).Archaeologicalresourcemanagement,likemineralsmanagement,fallsbetweenthesetwocategorieswhenitisdirectedtotheconservativeconsumptionofanonrenewableresourcebase(cf.Lipe1974,Thompson1974).U.S.federalarchaeologicallaws(e.g.,AntiquitiesActof1906,ArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974,ArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct)areenvironmentalratherthannaturalresourcelaws,prescriptivereactionstothreatsofdamageanddestruction.Thereisnoarchaeologicalresourcelawthatisaproactivestatementofmanagementpolicy(seeDouglas,thisvolume).

Sax(1970:476)pointedoutthatwhilethePTDhaditsoriginsintheRomanJustinianCodeandinMagnaCartapropertyrightsinrivers,seas,andtheshore,

OfalltheconceptsknowntoAmericanlaw,onlythepublictrustdoctrineseemstohavethebreadthandsubstantivecontentwhichmightmakeitusefulasatoolforgeneralapplicationbycitizensseekingtodevelopacomprehensivelegalapproachtoresourcemanagementproblems(Sax1970:474).

BasicallythePTDisamixtureofideasthathavebeensetforthinU.S.caselawsince1821(Stevens1980:199),focusingonSax's(1970:484)concept

...thattherearecertainintereststhatareintrinsicallysoimportanttoeverycitizenthattheirfreeavailabilitytendstomarkthesocietyasoneof

citizensratherthanserfs;toprotectthese,itisnecessarytobeespeciallywarysonoindividualorgroupacquirespowertocontrolthem.

Sax(1970:485)wentontonotethatprivateuseofthesepubliclysignificantresourcesisoftensoinappropriatethatanindividuallandsurfacetitleownercanonlyhaveusufructownershipofthoseresources,andhencemustrecognizethepublicnatureofarchaeologicalresourceswhichhappentobeonthisproperty.Huffman(1986:571)arguesthatthismaybetrueforwaterbecauseofitsmigratorynature,butprobablyisnotapplicabletononmigratoryresources.However,noonehasexploredtheconcept'slegalapplicationtoheritageresources,muchlessitsexplicitethicalstatement.

Propertyis''thatwhichispeculiarorpropertoanyperson...anaggregateofrightswhichareguaranteedorprotectedbythegovernment"(Black1979).Theessenceofpropertylawisrespectforapropertyholder'sreasonableexpectationsthatherorhisrightscanbeexercised(Reich1964,Sax1980:186-187).Itisassertedherethattheworld'sentirepopulationhasarighttoinformationaboutitshumanheritage(cf.CaliforniaHeritageTaskForce1984:24,DiStefano1988)andthereforeallmembersofthehumancommunityarejointandseverallyownersofallarchaeologicalresources,nomattertheownershipstatusofthedepositionalcontextofthoseresources.Itisthusalogicalcorollarythateachgovernmentorprivateindividualwithlegaljurisdictionoverthephysicalcontextofarchaeologicaldepositshasatrustresponsibilitytoprotectthejointownershiprightsoftheentirehumancommunity.Afurthercorollaryisthatallsitediscoverershavesucharesponsibility.

ThePTDisnotexplicitlyrecognizedintheU.S.Constitutionoritsoriginalsupportingdocuments(Huffman1986:579,Kammen1986).ItsimplicitstatementhasbeentiedtotheNinthAmendment"TheenumerationintheConstitution,ofcertainrights,shallnotbeconstruedtodenyordisparageothersretainedbythepeople"asa"righttoadecentenvironment"(Freedman1987:32-35,Sloan

1979:63;cf.Adler1988).

ThePTDhasalsobeentied(Sax1980,Wilkinson1980:311)tothePropertyClauseoftheU.S.Constitution(Art.IV,Sec.3,Para.2):

TheCongressshallhavePowertodisposeofandmakeallneedfulRulesandRegulationsrespectingthe

TerritoryorotherPropertybelongingtotheUnitedStates....

However,thePropertyClausehasbeenonlyinfrequentlyappliedtotheregulationofprivateproperty(Reed1986,Shepard1984),andmoreoftensuchregulationhasreliedonwhatisgenerallyknownasthe"policepower"toregulatepublicnuisances(Grad1971:1-15,Humbach1987:561,Sax1964).

Inaddition,theFourteenthAmendment

...NoStateshallmakeorenforceanylawwhichshallabridgetheprivilegesorimmunitiesofcitizensoftheUnitedStates;norshallanyStatedepriveanypersonoflife,liberty,orproperty,withoutdueprocessoflaw;nordenytoanypersonwithinitsjurisdictiontheequalprotectionofthelaws(Sec.1).

hasbeencitedasabasisforthePTD.

Somestates(California,NewJersey,Illinois,Wisconsin,Florida,Louisiana,Massachusetts,NorthDakota,andOregon)haveexpresslycodifiedthePTDinrelationtospecifiednaturalresources(Huffman1986:572,Wilson1984).InLouisiana,thisspecificallyincludesthe"healthful,scenic,historicandaestheticqualityoftheenvironment"(Freedman1987:230).

Untilrecently,therehadbeenlittleexplicitlegalconfrontationbetweenthePTDandthetakingissueorJustCompensationClauseoftheFifthAmendment(Bosselmanetal.1973,thoughseeReagan1988,U.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorSolicitor1979).ThatAmendmentstatesthatnopropertyshallbetakenforpublicusewithoutduecompensation.Thereclearlyhavebeenethicalconfrontationsbetweenthetwoperspectives,asinarchaeologicalminingofprivatelands.Similarly,thereareconflictsbetweensurfaceownershiprightsandtherightsofAmericanIndiansinthedispositionofIndianhumanremainsandassociatedfuneraryitems(Price

1991:23-24).

Humbach(1987:551-553)pointsoutthattherearetwotypesofpropertyintereststhatcanbetaken:propertyrights(legaladvantageanownerhasbecauseoflegaldutiesimposedonothers[e.g.,notrespass])andpropertyfreedoms(legaladvantageofbeingabletodowhatonewantsonone'sproperty).

TheSupremeCourthasrarelyrequiredcompensationoffreedomtakingssuchasmayoccurthroughgeneralzoning,althoughExecutiveOrder12630statesthatsuchgovernmentalactionsmayrequirecompensation(Reagan1988:347).However,newscholarlyattentionisbeingpaidtothesocialbenefitsofcommonownershipofnaturalresources(McCayandAcheson1987),andthetradeoffsinbalancingpropertyrightsandjustice(Goldfarb1988,Sagoff1988).FormerU.SSupremeCourtJusticeWilliamJ.Brennan,whowasmostinfluentialinrulingsonhistoricbuildingpreservationvs.privatepropertyrights,heldtothefollowinglanduseproposition:

Althoughtheindividual'srighttodevelopanduseprivatepropertymaybeseverelylimitedbyrightsofthecommunity,theindividualinalleventsisentitledtoanexpectationofreasonableeconomicuseandmustreceivecompensationforlossofvalueifaregulationgoestoofar(HaarandKayden1991:15).

Andfurther:

Wemustdistinguishthoseproperty"rights"thatrelatetotheuse,enjoyment,privacy,therighttoenforcetrespass,andtherighttodisposeofandinheritlandfromthe"right"togainthehighestandimmediatedollarreturnbasedonexpectancyorspeculativevalue(Collins1991;cfWeber1991).

Thereisundeniableethicalandlegaltensionbetweenthesetwoconcepts,andeachgovernmentalandprivatelandownerdecisionaboutresourceusemustinvolveacase-specificbalancingofcompetinguses(Stevens1980:223).ThereisaneedtoreconcilethePublicTrustwithacommunity'srighttothebenefitsofprivateownership(Wilson1984:897).But,asJohnGardner(1960:23)hasnoted:

Ourpluralisticphilosophyinviteseachorganization,institution,orspecialgrouptodevelopandenhanceitsownpotentialities.Butthepriceofthattreasuredautonomyandself-preoccupationisthateachinstitutionconcern

itselfalsowiththecommongood.Thisisnotidealism;itisself-preservation[italicsintheoriginal].

ApplicationofthePTDtoU.S.historicarchitecturalpropertieshasbeenaspecialissuesincetheSupremeCourtPennCentralcasein1978,whichrenderedadecisionthat

...standsforthepropositionthattherightsincidenttopropertyownershiparenotabsolute,butaresubjecttoreasonableregulationforthebenefitofthecommunitywithoutthenecessityofrequiringthepublictopaymonetarycompensation[Doheny1993:8].

Recently,JosephSaxhasaddressedtheapplicationofthePTDtothepreservationofhistoricproperties,assertingthat"Propertyrightsclaimsdonotstandasasignificantbarriertoprotectionofculturalproperties"(Sax1993:137).WhenU.S.courtsconsidertheconflictbetweenindividualfreedomandthevaluesofacommunitywitheitherasharedcultureordiversecultureswithinthelargersociety,overtimetheyhavequietlysupportedtheprotectionofheritagevalues.

TheU.S.courtscontinuetorefinethejudicialinterpretationoftheFifthAmendmentJustCompensationClause(Harper1994,Roddewig1993),andtherecontinuestobeconsiderablemisunderstandingintheUnitedStatesofthedifferencebetweenpropertyrightsandpropertyvalues(Rypkema1993).ThebuiltenvironmentcommunitywithintheU.S.historicpreservationprogramhasrecentlyarticulatedmorecarefullyitsbeliefintheappropriatenessofapplyingthePTDtothatprogram.Recentpapersrelatehistoricpreservationtocivicresponsibilitiesforstewardship,managingtheimpactofchangeonpeopleandtheirenvironmentandvalueconflictsbetweenindividualsandcommunity(Beaumont1993);toopenspaceprotection(DehartandFrobouck1993);andtoqualityoflife(Lewis1993).TodatethesediscussionshaveaddressedtheapplicationofthePTDonlytosubmergedarchaeologicalresources(Dentonetal.1993),andnotbroaderissues,muchlessthearchaeologicalresourcesofindigenouspeople(cf.Brush1993).AllFirstAmericansscholarsandother

enthusiastshavearesponsibilitytoparticipateintheapplicationofthePublicTrustconcepttothefullrangeofcultural(Hufford1990,1994)andnaturalheritageresources,includingthebuiltenvironment.

InOctober1993,a"carefullyplanned,no-holds-barredstrategysession"washeldinSundance,Utah,toaddressthetakingsissue,theparticipantsbeingwesternU.S.statelegislators,environmentalandconservationleaders,environmentallobbyists,andunionleaders(MacWilliamsCosgroveSnider1994).WhileFirstAmericanspreservationconcernswerenotdiscussedspecifically,theSundanceConferenceandcoalitionareanappropriatesociopoliticalforuminwhichtoaddressthoseconcerns.

Beforearchaeologicalsitesonpublicorprivatelandscanconsistentlybethesubjectofpublicdecisions,theirmembershipwithinaninalienablepublictrustmustberecognizedbybotharchaeologistsandnon-archaeologists.Thischangemustbecomplementedbyachangeinthepublic'sperceptionofarchaeology'sintrinsicnatureandvalues.

Stewardship

StewardshiphasbeenusedtostandforarchaeologicalsiteprotectionandconservationintheUnitedStatesforatleastthepasttwodecades;itmayhavebeencommonearlier,butIwasnotfamiliarwithit.Thedictionarydefinesstewardas"apersonwhomanagesanother'spropertyorfinancialaffairs,orwhoadministersanythingastheagentofanotherorothers"(Stein1975:1289).Inusingtheterm,archaeologistsimplicitlyaffirmthatarchaeologicalresourcesaresomeone'spropertywithoutdealingexplicitlywiththeconceptsofownershiprightsandresponsibilities.Thesemustbeaddressedbeforethequestionofwhomanagestheproperty,andhowisittobedone,canbeadequatelyaddressed.

Myinitialassertionincludedtheconceptofapublictrust,notjustapublicinterest.Identifyingsomethingasbeinginthepublic'sinterestisastatementofacollectiveethic,buthasnoenforcementmechanism.Whoaregoingtobethestewardsofthispublicinterest?

TheconceptofaPublicTrustrequiresanagentofaction,atrusteeofthepublicinterest.

WhileIbelievearchaeologicalresourceshavemorescientific,humanistic,andspiritualvaluethangenerallyisperceived,theirapparentinertnessandinabilitytodoworkmeansthattheaveragecitizenseesthemascuriositiesbutnotasignificantfactorintradeoffsthatdohaveeconomicbenefit(Knudson1989a).Atpresent,theaveragecitizenisunlikelytobeastewardofarchaeologicalresourcesorthepublicrightsrelatedtothem.InthelongrunthereprobablyisaneedforlegalcodificationofthePublicTrustconceptasitappliestoarchaeologicalresources.First,though,archaeologistsandotherconcernedcitizensmustaffirmandarticulatetheconceptofpeopleaspublictrustees,toenhanceinformalstewardship.Acceptanceofthisethicwillinturndevelopaconstituencyforapossiblynecessaryfuturepoliticalcampaign.And,secondarilybutbeforecodification,theeconomicbenefitsandcostsofarchaeologicalmanagementandconsumptionmustbearticulatedtoprovideavalidbasisfordebatesovertradeoffsandcompensation(Schmid1989;cf.Cantor1991,ChappelleandWebster1993,Lutz1993,Tietenberg1992;seeKnudsonforthcoming).

ManuelLujan,Jr.,U.S.SecretaryoftheInteriorfrom1988to1992,establishedaten-pointagendaforthedepartmentunderthethemeofSTEWARDSHIP(Greenberg1989).Thefocuswasoriginallyonnaturalresources,butin1991theSecretarypromulgatedhisNationalStrategyforFederalArcheology(Lujan1991),complementinghisearlieragenda.Itisimperativethatthearchaeologicalcommunitycontinuetoeducateitspoliticalleadersabouttheneedtokeepastewardshipfocusonourculturalresources.

Mostimportanttoeffectivearchaeologicalstewardshipisthepublic'sperceptionofthepublictrust,includingprivatelandowners'participationinarchaeologicalresourcemanagementacrossthecountryandworld.Conservationofarchaeologicalsitesinplace,orcollectionofinformationandartifactsexcavatedtoallowother

resourceuses,whileconsideringtheprivateinterestsofrelatedindividuals,isresponsibleexecutionofapublictrust.Itcanbringbenefitsbycontributingscientificknowledge(oftenaboutissuessuchas

wastemanagementmethodsanddesiredfutureecosystemconditionsaswellasaboutculturalheritage),heritagecontinuities,goodpublicrelations,recreation,ortourismopportunities.

FirstAmericansResourceswithinthePublicTrust

FirstAmericansarchaeologicalresourcesareanirreplaceablerecordofhumanadaptationtoapristinenaturalNewWorld,onenotmodifiedbyoilspills,nuclearwaste,municipallandfills,oracidrain.Interdisciplinarystudiessuchasthosedescribedthroughoutthisconferenceprovideauniquerecordofhumantechnologicalandsocioculturalgrowthanddevelopmentandpaleoenvironmentalconditions.TheycanprovideasignificantdatabaseforbetterunderstandingrelationshipsbetweenpeopleandtheirenvironmentintheArtic,whichhasbeenidentifiedasatopprioritybytheCommitteeonArcticSocialSciences(1989).Theycanprovidesimilarinformationinotherenvironments,andinthebroadeststudiesofglobalclimaticandecologicalchange(cf.EarthSystemSciencesCommittee1988,MaloneandCorell1989:33).Nuclearwastemustbedisposedoftobesafefor10,000years;mostpeoplehavenoconceptof10,000years,muchlesshowtodesignengineeredsystemsthatprovidethatsafety.Archaeologicalstudiescandoworkinareassuchasthese,ifarchaeologistsunderstandthequestionsthatneedtobeaddressed,andcanhelptosearchforsomeanswerswhiledoingpersonallysatisfyingresearch.

FirstAmericansresourcesarerelativelyrare,oftennotsurfaceevident,andoftendonotincludesuchspectacularfeaturesorartifactsthattheyacquireanimmediatepublicfanclub.TheycanbeconservedonlywithinaPublicTrustconcept.

SummaryandConclusions

Archaeologicalresourcesarepartofapublictrust,beingjointandseverallyownedbythemembersoftheuniversalhumancommunity.Affirmativestewardshipofallarchaeologicalmaterialsmustincludearchaeologicaleducationofthegeneralpublic,politicians,NativeAmericans,andotherinterestgroupsinadditionto,ifnotbefore,thephysicalmanagementofthesitesandartifacts.

Archaeologyalsoneedstoberecognizedaspartofthegeneralenvironmentalmanagementequation,becauseofitspublicnatureaspartofatrustmanagedbybothprivateindividualsandgovernments,beforetherearenositesleftaboutwhichtoworry(Knudson1989b).Atthesametime,theU.S.FifthandFourteenthAmendmentsconcerningpropertyrightsneedtobeaddressedinspecificmultiresourcemanagementdecisionsthatinvolvearchaeology.U.S.societyisbasedonthegenerationofwealththroughtheuseofnaturalresourcesthatarethemselvesalsoelementsofthepublictrust;resourcemanagementisthusalwaysabalancingofcompetinggoalsandinterests.

Acknowledgements

IamindebtedtoRogerRyman,retiredManager,LandandEnvironment,ShellPipeLineCompany,whofirstforcedmetoconfronttheissueofarchaeologicalsiteownershipandmanagementresponsibilitywhenIwasworkingwithhimontheCortezPipelineproject.StevenE.James,VicePresident,Woodward-ClydeConsultants,ledmetotheconceptofthePublicTrustDoctrine.TheUniversityofIdahoCollegeofLawLibrarywasinvaluableinmybackgroundresearchonthedoctrine,andArthurD.Smith,Jr.,AssociateDeanoftheCollege,wasaninterestedsupporterofthatresearch.Subsequentparticipationinthe1990CulturalConservation

ConferencesponsoredbytheAmericanFolklifeCenter,U.S.LibraryofCongress,Washington;the1991annualmeetingoftheNationalAssociationofEnvironmentalProfessionalsinBaltimore;and1992-1993discussionsonpropertyrightsandhistoricpreservationwithPreservationActionandtheNationalTrustforHistoricPreservation,Washington,havebeeninvaluableinassistingmetounderstandthecontextofhowthePTDcanbeimplemented.

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1982TheOASasPreserveroftheCulturalHeritage.InRescueArcheology:PapersfromtheFirstNewWorldConferenceonRescueArcheology,editedbyR.L.WilsonandG.Loyola,pp.11-17.ThePreservationPress,Washington.

IIIRESEARCHGUIDANCEThefocusoftheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericaswascurrentresearchinFirstAmericansstudies,andthosepapersarepresentedindetailinfourotherproceedingsvolumes.AsecondconferencethemewasthepubliccontextinwhichFirstAmericansresourcesarestudied,used,managed,anddestroyed.ThefollowingpaperbyBonnichsenetal.isasummaryofcurrentandfutureFirstAmericansresearchneedsinthatcontextofpublicmanagement.

BENNIEC.KEEL

FutureDirectionsinFirstAmericansResearchandManagementRobsonBonnichsen,TomD.Dillehay,GeorgeC.Frison,FumikoIkawa-Smith,RuthannKnudson,D.GentrySteele,AllanR.Taylor,&JohnTomenchuk

FirstAmericansresearchhascomeofageandprovidesprimarydataimportantforunderstandinglocal,regional,andglobaldynamicsandlinkagesamongpastclimates,ecologies,andhumanadaptations.Bettersitereportsandanalyticalhypothesesneedtobedeveloped,alongwithstandardizedclassificationanddescriptivetechniques.Bioanthropologicalstudiesneedtomakebetteruseoftheavailablesampleofearlymodernhumanskeletalmaterial,andtodevelopmoreaccuratemodelsofbiologicalrelationships.Additionalmethods,relyingonstatisticsandvariouskindsoftypologies,areneededtodealwithlinguisticresemblancestoevaluaterelationshipsamongindigenousAmericanandAsianpopulations,andSouthAmericanlanguagesneedtobedocumentedmorefully.Thetraditionallinkbetweenscholarlyandpublicarchaeologyneedstobere-established,becausepubliclandandresourcemanagementisthecontextforFirstAmericansresourcemanagementandresearchinNorthAmericaandothernations.PublicoutreachandarchaeologicaleducationarevitalelementsinconservationandcontinuedstudyofFirstAmericansresources,andtheNativeAmericancommunityshouldbemoreinvolvedinFirstAmericansstudy.ThecomingofageofFirstAmericansresearchinvolvesaffirmativepartnershipswithotherpublicandprivatestewardsoftheheritagepublictrust.

Aswestandatthethresholdofthetwenty-firstcentury,ourworldisa

globalvillage.Sophisticatedinformationtechnologiesprovidedbysatelliteimagery,electroniccommunication,andcomputertechnologyareprofoundlyaffectinghowweperceive,analyze,andcomprehendtheworldaroundus.Intheglobalvillage,wearebecomingmoreawareofourindividualresponsibilitiesasscholarsofpubliclyvaluedarchaeologicalinformation,andasmanagersofpubliclyvaluedarchaeologicalmaterials.

Withthedevelopmentofspace-agetechnology,wearenownotonlycapableofgaininganevenmorecomprehensiveunderstandingofhowtheearthanditsculturesfunction,butalsoofprobingtheremotepastanddevelopingamorerealistic

understandingoftheoriginanddispersalofmodernhumans.Centraltothisendeavorisarchaeology'sgreatunansweredquestionofwhenandhowtheAmericaswereinitiallypeopled.Adefinitiveanswertothisglobalproblemisnotyetinhand,thoughanumberofsignificantscientificadvanceshavebeenmadeoverthelasttwodecades.Yetmostpeopleareunawareoftheseadvances.

Developingandintegratingintosocietyscientificknowledgeaboutourhumanheritageinvolvesresearch,conservation,andpubliceducation,aswellaspublicpolicytoguideandintegratethesecomponents.Asamajorstepinthisprocess,theCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans(CSFA)convenedtheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericasduringMay1989(Summit'89)tosynthesizescientificknowledgeaboutearlyAmericanorigins.ScientificresearchspecialistsfromAsia,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmericaparticipatedintheconferenceandhavecontributedpapersforfoureditedvolumesrelatingtomethodandtheory,theIceAgeprehistoryofNorthAmericaandSouthAmerica,andtheIceAgeenvironmentsandtheprehistoryofAsia(BonnichsenandSteele1994,Bonnichsenetal.forthcoming(a)and(b),BonnichsenandDillehayforthcoming).WithinSummit'89,asymposium,"ThePublicTrustandtheFirstAmericans,"focusedonthepubliclegalandeducationalenvironmentsnecessarytosupportresearchontheAmericas'earliestculturalheritage,conserveFirstAmericansresources,andeducatetheworld'speoplesaboutthisuniquelegacy.Thisvolumeincludesthespecialsymposiumproceedings,andthispapersummarizesthescientificandpubliccontextoftheconferenceinwhichthediscussionsofpublicresponsibilityoccurred.

Scientificresearchdrivesthedevelopmentofnewknowledge.Yetoften,asinthecaseofFirstAmericansstudies,manyimportantresultsarenotdisseminatedtootherscientists,integratedintoresourcemanagementpractices,ormadeavailabletothepublicandschool

educators.BuildingfromresultsofinformationdevelopedinconjunctionwithSummit'89,thepurposeofthispaperisto:(1)outlinepotentialfutureresearchdirectionsimportanttounderstandingtheoriginandspreadofIceAgepeoplesandtheirculturesintotheAmericas;

(2)discusspublicstewardshipissuesimportanttopreservingandconservingfragileFirstAmericansculturalandnaturalresources;and(3)outlinetheneedforenhancedpubliceducationprogramstoinformtheworldabouttheimportanceofourhumanheritage.

ScholarlyFrontiers

Recentworldevents,particularlytheopeningofChinaandtheendoftheColdWar,makethisanopportunetimetoformulateaglobalvisionofFirstAmericansstudiesthatembracesAsia,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmerica.

DevelopmentofknowledgeaboutearlyAmericanhumanpopulationsisimportanttotheanthropologicalsubdisciplinesofsocioculturalanthropology,archaeology,linguistics,andphysicalandappliedanthropology.DataprovidedbyFirstAmericansresearchareessentialforthedevelopmentoftheoriestoexplainthemechanismsinvolvedinthedispersalofhumanpopulationsandvariationamongbiologicalpopulations,languages,andsocioculturalpatternsinferredfromthearchaeologicalrecord.TheyareimportanttoNativeAmericans'identificationofheritagevaluesforincorporationwithineducationandculturalmaintenanceprograms.FirstAmericansresearchprovidestheframeworkforunderstandinglaterperiodsofenvironmentaladaptationandculturaldevelopmentinAmericanprehistory,history,andcontemporarysociety.

Thefieldofearly-humanresearchintheNewWorldhascomeofage.FirstAmericansresearchdoesnotsimplycontributetoanthropologicalorhistoricalproblems;itprovidesprimarydataimportantforunderstandinglocal,regional,andglobalissuesrelevanttoexplainingthedynamicsandlinkagesamongpaleoclimatic,geologic,paleoecologic,andhumanadaptivesystemsandchangesintheselinkedsystemsthroughtime.

ArchaeologyandQuaternarySciences

Ratherthanadvocatingasingleperspectiveormodel,weoutlinephilosophicalconsiderationsimportanttodevelopingasystematicknowledgeofAmerica'searlyprehistory.Archaeologicalfieldresearch,whichproducestheprimaryscientificdataforreconstructingAmerica'searlyculturalheritage,hasbecomeincreasinglysophisticatedinusingamultidisciplinaryapproach.BydrawingupontheallieddisciplinesofarchaeologyandtheQuaternarysciences,researchersnowhaveamultiplicityofspecializedtoolsattheirdisposalforreconstructinghowpeoplelivedinpastenvironments,aswellasthemeansforinvestigatinghumanresponsetorapidlychangingenvironmentalcircumstances.

MuchnewinformationdocumentingregionalenvironmentalandarchaeologicalrecordsfromAsia,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmericaisnow,orsoonwillbe,available(Agenbroadetal.1990,BonnichsenandDillehayforthcoming,BonnichsenandSorg1989,BonnichsenandSteeleforthcoming,BonnichsenandTurnmire1991,Bonnichsenetal.forthcoming(a),Bonnichsenetal.forthcoming(b),Bryan1986,Carlisle1988,DillehayandMeltzer1991,Dillehayetal.1992,MeadandMeltzer1985,NunezandMeggers1987,StanfordandDay1991,TankersleyandIsaac1990).Despitethisgrowingvolumeofqualityinformation,ourunderstandingofearlyAmericanprehistoryremainsamazinglysketchyandeventhebestdefinedregionalpatternsarepoorlyknown.Forexample,theCloviscomplexoftheUnitedStateshasreceivedgreaterscientificattentionthananyotherearlyregionalpatterninthecountry,andpopularwritershavecharacterizedthispatternasproducedbyspear-wieldingmammothhunters.Yetwedonothaveafirmunderstandingof(1)theantecedentsofthispattern,(2)theorganizationaldynamicsofClovissocioculturalgroups,(3)thefactorsresponsibleforregionalvariationofflutedpointassemblages,

(4)whetherClovisrepresentsoneorseveralculturalgroups,or(5)whatledtothedemiseortransformationofthispatterntootherforms.

EarlyAmericanarchaeologicalcomplexesareusuallydistinguishedbyuniqueanddiagnosticprojectilepointstyles.

Thesestylesareassumedtohavebeenproducedby,andthustoarchaeologicallyidentify,differentsocioculturalgroupsofprehistoricpeople.SuchcomplexesincludetheNenanaofAlaskawithitslanceolateprojectilepoints(Goebeletal.1991),thePaleoarcticpatternwithwedge-shapedmicrobladecores(Clark1991),theGoshenwithitsconcave-basedlanceolatepoints(Frison1991),theWesternPluvialLakewithitslonglanceolatepoints(Bryan1991),theElJobowithitsbullet-shapedlanceolates(Bryan1991,Gruhn1991),andthefishtailpointcomplexwithitsstemmedflutedpoints(Politis1991).However,ourunderstandingoftheorganizationalanddistributionalvariabilityofthesevariouscomplexesispoor,asisourunderstandingofthesimplecoreandflaketoolpatternsofSouthAmerica(Bryan1991,Gruhn1991).ItshouldcomeasnosurprisethatrelationshipsamongregionalarchaeologicalrecordsareoftenambiguousandhavemitigatedagainstwidespreadacceptanceofgeneralmodelsofhumanmigrationwhichseektoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

SeveralimpedimentshavestoodinthewayofdevelopingasystematicknowledgeoftheFirstAmericans.Ithasbeendifficultforwidelydispersedresearchers,isolatedbylanguagebarriers,tobeawareofandtoassimilateresearchresultsfromoutsideoftheirownnations.Researchisoftenguidedbydissimilarstandardsandresultsareoftennotcomparablefromonereporttothenext.Availablefinancialresourcesareunevenlydistributedamongnations.Consequently,researchonthepeoplingoftheAmericashasdevelopedinanunevenandpiecemealfashion.

AbroaderperspectiveisneededtooffsetacommonbiasinPaleoindianresearchabiastowardviewingchronologiesandotherideasdevelopedintheU.S.SouthwestandGreatPlainsasappropriateasabasisforinterpretingrecordsfromotherareas.ScholarstraditionallyhaveapproachedthepeoplingoftheAmericasby

attemptingtoexplainlocalandregionalarchaeologicalrecords.Ratherthanextrapolatingresultsfromoneareatoanother,thecaseforAmerica'searliestculturalheritageshouldbedevelopedbyencouragingtheproductionofqualitysitereportsfrommanyareaswithdetaileddatapresentationthatdrawonthefullcomplementofallieddisciplines

embracedbytheQuaternarysciencesincludinganthropology.QualitysitereportsarevitalfordevelopingasystematicknowledgeofLatePleistocenearchaeologicalandenvironmentalrecordsfromAsia,SouthAmerica,andNorthAmerica.Thesedatacan,inturn,besynthesizedandusedforconstructingviablemodelsofearlyAmericanprehistory.

Abasicproblemwithearlyhumansresearchisthatitistoodependentuponinductiveinterpretation.Althoughthiscomplaintmayseemold,astrongargumentcanbemadeformoreproblem-orientedresearchthanthatdonebymostFirstAmericanscontributors.Thegoalofunderstandingtheorganizingprinciplesresponsibleformigration,colonization,adaptation,andpossiblelinkageswithnaturalenvironmentalchangesisafarmoredifficultandtime-consumingtypeofsciencethanisdevelopingaphasesequenceorexcavatingasinglesitepresumedtoberepresentativeofacultureorsubculture.Toviewacultureasamobileniche-fillingsystemcallsforarchaeologiststostructuretheirresearchwithinaproblemframework.

Well-formulatedhypothesesabout(1)thedynamicsgoverningtherise,operations,anddemiseofpastsocieties;(2)thecausesresponsibleformigrationandcolonization;and(3)linkagesbetweenenvironmentalandculturalchangesareneededtofocusandinvigoratethisfieldofinvestigation.Thiswillalsorequireafocusonspecific,usuallylocal,problemsorsetsofcloselyrelatedproblemsofsignificance.Becauseofthemultidisciplinarynatureofdataatarchaeologicalsites,eachofusmustbeawareofproblemsofconcerntootherscientistsandofthedatademandsofaddressingthoseproblems.Thedevelopmentofviablemultidisciplinaryresearchdesignsfordatarecoverymustbetemperedbythekindsofdatapresent,availabletimeandmoney,andthedesiretoobtainandreportrepresentativesamplesofalltypesofdatapresentatasite.And,ifpossible,thedatademandsofas-yet-undefinedfutureproblemsmust

beanticipated.

Anumberofneedsmustbemetinfulfillingthegoalofpreparingbettersitereportsanddevelopinghypothesesimportantforinterpretinglocal,regional,andglobalproblems.

1.Toevaluatetheappropriatenessofassumptionsemployedinmakinginferencesaboutspecificarchaeologicalsitesandthenaturalenvironmentsinwhichtheyoccurred.Forexample,itwouldbeusefultoevaluatetheappropriatenessofbasicassumptions,suchas:(1)therewasauniversalPaleoindianstage;(2)therewerevastmigrationsduringthePleistocene/Holocenetransition;and(3)theinitialpeoplingofBeringiarequiredanUpperPaleolithicleveloftechnology.

Intheprocessofdevelopinganaloguesforinterpretingthepast,wemustbekeenlyawarethatthedynamicsandlinkagesamongtheearth'soceanographic,atmospheric,climatic,glaciologic,geologic,andbioticsystemshavenotbeenconstantthroughtime(RuddimanandWright1987).Contemporarypaleoclimatologicalresearchsuggeststhatthelinkagesamongtheearth'senvironmentalsubsystemswerediscretelydifferentduringglacialandinterglacialtimes(BroekerandDenton1990a,1990b).Thetransitionfromglacialtointerglacialperiodsisthoughttohavebeenabruptandtohavebeensynchronousworld-wide.Theprecisemechanismsresponsiblefortransitionsbetweenglacialandinterglacialenvironmentalsystemsarenotfullyunderstoodandarebeingresearchedactively.

OfparticularimportancetothepeoplingoftheAmericasistheissueofhowhumansrespondtoabruptclimatechange.ThechangeatthePleistocene/Holoceneboundaryispostulatedtohavehadadramaticimpactontheworld'slandscapes.Theamountofavailableglacialicewassignificantlyreduced;sealevelsrose,drowningformershorelines;temperatureandprecipitationpatternschanged;theamountanddistributionofsurfacewaterwasgreatlyaltered;andthestructuresofplantandanimalcommunitiesweresignificantlymodified.AlthoughconsiderableeffortisbeingmadetounderstandthedynamicsofhowthelastIceAgeended,wealsoneedtounderstandhowglacialandinterstadialperiodsbeginandterminate.Therecanbelittledoubtthattheselinkedeventsdramaticallyaffected

thewayshumansrelatedtothenaturalenvironment.

ArchaeologicalresearchonhumanadaptationstoHoloceneenvironmentsprovidesuswithawealthofinformationonthearrayofadaptivepatternsdevisedinresponsetothemostrecentinterglacialenvironment.However,ourknowledgeofhumanadaptationstoglacialandinterstadialenvironmentsislimitedbyasparseandfragmentaryarchaeologicalrecord.

Welackmodernanaloguesforunderstandinghowhumansrespondedtoglobalenvironmentalchangesduringthetransitionsbetweenglacial,interglacial,andinterstadialperiods.AlogicalbeginningfocusforFirstAmericansresearchisonhumanresponsetoglobalclimaticchangeattheendofthelastIceAge.Fortunately,thelateAsiaticUpperPaleolithicandlateIceAgeAmericanarchaeologicalrecordsprovideunparalleledopportunitiestoexaminehumanresponsetoglobalenvironmentalchangeatopicofcontemporaryrelevance.

2.TointroducenewconceptsandanalytictechniquesmoreconsistentwiththecontentandstructureoftheLatePleistocenearchaeologicalsites.OneofthemajorweaknessesofFirstAmericansresearchistheminimalamountofsystematicsurveycarriedouttosearchforLatePleistocenesettlementandland-usepatterns.MostearlyhumanresearchinAsiaandtheAmericascanbecharacterizedasreactive,i.e.,wereacttothediscoveryofaninterestingsiteorartifactsratherthansystematicallyandproactivelysearchingforsuchsites.

AmajorthemeofFirstAmericansresearchshouldbetheinvestigationofvariables,bothenvironmentalanddemographic,thatmighthaveinfluencedhunter-gatherergroups'decisionsconcerningsiteplacementanduse,migration,andcolonization.ThearchaeologicalrecordpriortotheClovisperiod,beginningat11,500yearsBP,remainspainfullysparse.Westilldonothaveaclearunderstandingofwhythesegroupslocatedsiteswheretheydid,muchlesswheremoreearlysitesarelikelytobefound.Weneedtodevelopreliable

proceduresforisolatingdeterminantsofsitelocationusingempiricaldata.

3.Todevelopachronologicalframeworkofwell-datedarchaeologicalandassociatedenvironmentalremainsbasedonradiometricdates(Kra1988,1989a,1989b).ReneeKra'sInternationalRadiocarbonDataBaseisanimportantpioneereffort

tocompileexistingdataanduseastandardizedprotocolforevaluatingradiocarbondates.Thisworld-widecompilationofradiocarbondatescanbequeriedtoinvestigateavarietyoftopicsbygeographicalareaorbysubject.ItprovidesanimportantresearchtoolforinvestigatingQuaternarytopics,includingprehistoricarchaeologicalsitesandtheirenvironments.

Anadditionalbrightspotonthechronologicalfrontisthemethodologicaladvancerepresentedbyacceleratormassspectrometry(AMS).TheAMSmethodprovidesameansfordatingmuchsmallersamplesthanwaspreviouslypossiblewithconventional14Cmethods(Stafford1991;Taylor1991).Withthisnewtechnologywenowhaveasufficientlyprecisetechniquetotestnumeroustemporalhypothesesaboutmigration,colonization,andadaptationstopastenvironments.

4.TodeveloppaleoenvironmentaldatabasesfortheLatePleistoceneandHoloceneperiods.Theformulationoflocal,regional,andglobalhypothesesrelevanttoFirstAmericansstudiesrequiressynthesisandintegrationofinformationfromavarietyofdisciplines.Anincrediblewealthofnewinformationisnowavailable(RuddimanandWright1987).ComputertechnologycoupledwithdatabasesoftwareprovideameansforaccessingrelevantdatafromtheallieddisciplinesoftheQuaternarysciences.Theadvantagesofthedatabaseapproacharethatit(1)imposesstandardsinrecordingdata;(2)allowsbiasesinexistingdatatobeidentified;and(3)permitsmassivevolumesofdatatobeanalyzed,displayed,andintegrated.Electronicdatastorageprovidesthemeansfortestingawealthofhypothesesaboutculturalandenvironmentalrelationshipsonthelocal,regional,andglobalscales.

Inamajorongoingeffort,staffattheIllinoisStateMuseum,Springfield,aredevelopingpubliclyaccessibledatabasestoaccommodatepaleoecologicalinformation(WiantandGraham1987).Paradox,astandardrelationaldatabasesoftware,coupledwitha

GeographicalInformationSystem(GIS),accommodatesbothpaleobotanicalandfaunaldata.ApaleobotanicalDatabase-NorthAmericaandEuropeisbeingcompiledwiththeultimateobjectiveofreconstructingpaleoclimaticsystems.

Enteredvariablesincludegeology,14Cdates,sitelocation,andtreering,historic,andoceanographicdata.FaunMap,adatabasedevotedtovertebrateremainsfromNorthAmericaoverthelast40,000years,isapilotprojecttocompilesystematicallywhatisknownaboutlatePleistoceneandHolocenevertebratesinNorthAmerica.UsinganARC/INFOprogram,digitizedinformationcanbeplottedontomapssothatitispossibletoexaminethedistributionofspeciesbyindividualsorincommunitiesintimeseries.TheMineralsManagementServiceintheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorhasdevelopedacomputerized(indBASEIV)ArchaeologicalandShipwreckInformationSystemtoprovideinformationaboutsubmergedprehistoricsitesontheU.S.continentalshelfoffthecoastsofthelowerforty-eightstates.

5.Toinvestigatetherangeandnatureofarchaeologicalsitedata,withineacharea,thatwillelucidatethevariouskindsofbehavioral,organizational,andenvironmentalpatternspresent.TheArcheologicalSurveyofArkansas,withthesupportoftheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,hasdevelopedthedatabasesystemAutomaticManagerofArcheologicalSiteDatainArkansas(AMASDA).Thisdatabase,whichcoverstheNorthAmericanSouthernPlainseight-statearea,integrateswithGRASS,aGISrelationaldatabasedevelopedbytheCorpsofEngineers.Anumberofvariablesisincluded,suchasremotesensingdata,drainage,soils,geology,artificialboundaries,adaptationandbioarchaeologicaldata,andreportinformationaboutauthorandproject.AMASDAbibliographicalinformationisincludedwithintheNationalParkService'scomputerizedon-lineNationalArcheologicalDatabase(NADB)-Reportsofthegrey(i.e.,minimallyreproducedandavailable)literatureofU.S.archaeology(Canouts1991).Numerousreportsandoverlaymapscanbegeneratedbythisinnovativesystem.TheAMASDAsystemisnowbeingappliedtotheU.S.CentralandNorthernPlainsten-stateareabytheArmyCorpsofEngineers(Ewen

1993).Thissystemappearstobeideallysuitedforintegratingdatafromamuchlargerarea,andcouldbeadaptedtothetaskofintegratingculturalandenvironmentaldatafromAsia,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmericaimportanttounderstandingthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

6.Todevelopstandardizedclassificationanddescriptivetechniquesforreportingartifacts.Abriefglanceattheartifactsectionofmostsitereportswillattesttotheirscantandofteninadequatedescriptions.Thelackofuniversallyacceptedterminologyanddifferentstandardsforreportingartifactformaldimensions,technology,use-wear,andrawmaterialsusedinartifactproductionhavecreatedapersistentproblem.Poorlydevelopedlinedrawings,weaksupportingdescriptions,andcasual,inconsistent,andundescribedanalyticalproceduresareamongthemanyissuesthatnowdiminishthevalueofreportsandmakecomparisonsamongarchaeologicalassemblagesdifficult.Thesemethodologicalissuesmustbeaddressedifwearetoconductcrediblescienceandgeneratemeaningfulreconstructions.Asthingsnowstand,scholarswhoareseriouslyinterestedinFirstAmericansresearchmustexaminemostcollectionsfirst-handbytravelingtowherecollectionsarehoused.Thisapproachisextraordinarilyexpensive,time-consuming,andsubjective.

Morlan(1991)hasrecommendedtheestablishmentofaninternationalcommissiontodevelopauniformterminologyforarchaeologicalartifactdescription.Standardscanbemostreadilyachievedbytakingadvantageofnewadvancesinvideoandcomputertechnology.Itisnowpossibletostoreandmanipulateartifactimagesinthecomputer;variousimageenhancementandmorphometrictechniquesarenowavailableinsoftwarepackagesthatcanbeusedtoanalyzecomputerimagesofartifactsandtomeasuredimensionsandfeaturesofinterest.Theadvantageofavisualdigitalimagerysystemisthatartifactimagesfromimportantsitescanbestoredinadatabaseandelectronicallyreproducedforusebymanyinvestigators.AprototypeofthissystemisnowinoperationattheCSFA,anditappearstobeaviablesolutiontotheproblemofcomparingartifactsfromdistantpartsoftheworldingreaterdetailthanwaspreviouslypossible.Tomaximizethebenefitsofthisnewtechnology,thecommission's

mandateshouldalsoincludeadirectivetoformulatestandardsfordocumentingimages,developanetworktocollectimages,deviseaprotocoltoregulateaccesstodatabaseinformation,andcreateastandardizednomenclaturesystem.

Insummary,toadvanceFirstAmericansstudies,thefullarrayofdisciplinesandmethodsofmodernscienceshouldbeusedtolocateandinvestigateearlysitesandinformation.Wemustfocusondevelopingqualitysitereportstoprovidetheessentialinformationformodelingmigrationandculturaldevelopment.Furthermore,thenewtechnologyofelectronicdatastorageandprocessingpromisestoprovideaframeworkforsynthesizingamassiveamountofmultidisciplinaryinformation.Theflexibilityofferedbythesedatabaseswillallowconsiderationofanalmostinfinitenumberofpaleoecologicalandarchaeologicalresearchquestions.DatabasesystemsbeingdevelopedinNorthAmerica(radiocarbon,paleoecology,archaeology,bibliography,artifactimagery)mustbeintegratedandexpandedtoincludedatafromAsiaandSouthAmerica.SuchanapproachtothedevelopmentofnewknowledgeinFirstAmericansstudieswillallownumerousnewquestionstobeconsideredaswellasprovideaccesstonewdatabyawiderrangeofscholarsthanisnowpossible.

BiologicalAnthropology

RecentlystimulatedbytheuseofpopulationdifferencesinmitochondrialDNAtopostulatetheorigininAfricaofmodernhumansbetween200,000and100,000yearsagoandtheirworld-widedispersal,researchontheoriginsanddispersionofmodernhumanshasbecomeoneofthemostexcitingandhotlydebatedissuesinhumannaturalhistory.InternationalsymposiahavecenteredontheoriginanddispersalofAsianpopulations(theUniversityofTokyoSymposium1990),thepeoplingofthePacificRim(Krantzetal.1989),andthebiologicalaffinitiesandoriginsofNorthAmericanpopulations(HumanBiologyVol.64[1992]).

ThereisresurgentscientificinterestinthebiologicalhistoryofNorthAmericanIndians(Armelagosetal.1982,HarperandLaughlin1982).

Duringthefirsthalfofthiscentury,interestinthebiologicalandculturalhistoriesofAmericanIndiansdominatedNorthAmericanarchaeology.Frustrationwiththe

inabilityofthisresearchtoresolveintricateevolutionaryhistoryandbiologicalrelationshipsofAmericanIndiansresultedinmostNorthAmericanpaleobiologiststurningtomorefunctionalandecologicalissues(Little1982,Lovejoyetal.1982,Meltzer1983).Today,however,thebiologicalhistoryofindigenousNorthAmericanpopulationsasapartoftheglobalpopulationisbecomingamajorscholarshipissue.EvenacasualperusalofthecurrentliteratureonthepeoplingoftheNewWorlddocumentsthatscholarsareusingawiderangeofdatatoaddresstheissues.Forexample,Turner(1989)baseshisanalysesondifferencesinthedentitionofhumanpopulations,Szathmary(1989)usesgeneticmarkerstoevaluatephylogeneticrelationshipsofpeoples,Ossenberg(1989)analyzesnonmetricalcranialtraits,Braceetal.(1989)relyonmetricalanalysesofthefacialregionandthedentition,andHowells(1973)andSteeleandPowell(1992,1994)relyoncraniometricanalysesthatincorporatesizeandshapedifferencesinthebraincaseaswellastheface.

Althoughscholarsdifferinthedatasetsusedtoassessbiologicalrelationshipsandevolutionaryhistories,allrecognizethenecessityforlargenumbersofindividualstorepresentthepopulationsbeingstudied.Weareonespecies,anddifferencesbetweenpopulationsareofdegreeratherthanofkind.Consequently,apopulationcannotbedistinguishedbythepresenceorabsenceofasinglecharacteristicorevenafewtraits.Rather,populationsarecomposedofindividualswhotendtosharecommontraits,anditisthefrequencyofthesetraitsthatdistinguishesonepopulationfromanother.Becausetraitsaresharedbetweenpopulations,anditistheirfrequencythatisdistinctive,comparisonsoflargesamplesofmanytraitsarenecessarytoassessaccuratelybiologicalrelationshipsbetweenpopulations.

Whenextantpopulationsarecomparedonetoanother,itispossibletoestablishamodelormapofrelativerelationshipsoftheselivingpopulations.Totakethenextstepandinferfrommodernrelationships

thetimethatpopulationsdifferentiatedfromoneanotherrequiresscholarstoacceptmajorpresumptionsthathavebeendifficulttoverify.Asexamples,thosemodelsbaseduponlivingornearrecentpopulations

presumethatratesofchangeareconstant,thattherehasbeennogeneflowbetweenpopulationsaftertheirinitialdivergence,andthatallpastpopulationsarerecognizableinthelivingpopulations.

Acknowledgingthesepresumptions,itbecomesevidentthatverificationofthesepresumedrelationshipsmustbemade,andthatverificationcomesfromthescholarlyexaminationofourfossilrecord.WhenweevaluatethestudyofthefossilrecordofAmericanhumanpopulations,however,werealizethatthemajoremphasishasbeenonmorerecentpopulations,thepeoplesoftheLatePrehistoricperiod.Therehavebeenseveralreasonsforthisfocus.Themostobviousreasonisthatadoptionofagricultureallowedpopulationstoincreaseinnumber,sotheresimplyweremoreLatePrehistoricpeoplesand,therefore,moresuchsitestoencounter.Secondly,archaeologistshavebeenattractedtothemajordwellingsandcommunityruinsleftbythesepeople,and,intheprocessofexcavatingthesesites,haverecoveredrelativelylargesamplesoftheirbiologicalremains.Anotherreasonforthefocusonmorerecentpopulationsisthattheoldersitesaremoredeeplyburied,andthusdifficulttolocateandexcavate.Whenoldersitesareencounteredbeneathmorerecentsites,timeandresourceshavegenerallybeenexpendedtoexcavatetheupperlevels,sothatthedeeperearlierlevelsarelittlemorethansampled.Whenscholarsspecificallyseekearlyhumansites,theterraincommonlyhasbeenalteredsogreatlyovertheyearsthatitbecomesdifficulttopredicttheirlocation.Thisiswhysomanyoftheearlyhumansiteshavebeenfoundbyserendipityandchanceexposure.

Recognizingtheseproblems,itbecomesapparentthatthearchaeologicalandbiologicalrecordoftheearliestinhabitantsoftheAmericasislimitedandcomesfromwidelydispersedlocalities.Compoundingtheissuefurther,therecoveredindividualsarerepresentedbylittleinthewayofphysicalremains.Typically,less

than20-25percentofeachPaleoindianskeletonhasbeenpreservedbynature.TheconsequenceofallthisisthatmanyofAmerica'searlyHoloceneandlatePleistocenepopulationsarerepresentedbyfewbonesfromfewsites.Theverificationoftherelationshipsoflivingpopulations,theiden-

tificationofextinctpopulations,andtheunderstandingofthehealthandbiologicaladaptationsofthesefirstAmericansrestsuponaverysmall,fragile,andirreplaceablesample.

ItisintheareaofFirstAmericansbioanthropologicalresearchthatAmericanIndiansandthearchaeological/anthropologicalresearchcommunitymayfindtheirstrongestcommonground.

FirstAmericansbioanthropologicalstudyneedstofollowtheseguidelines.

1.Makethebestuseofeachsampleofearlymodernhumansavailableforstudy.Researchonexistingsamplesshouldbeencouraged,castsshouldbemadeofallPaleoindianhumanskeletalmaterialtofacilitatethisresearch,andthelatestmethodsincomputer-assisteddatacollection,imaging,andretrievalshouldbeused.Further,meaningfulconsiderationshouldbegivenbyallpartiesonhowtomaketheoriginalremainsavailableforfutureresearchthatcannotbeaccommodatedbyanalysisofpreviouslyrecordeddata,whiletreatingthoseremainswiththerespecttheydeserve.

2.Fullyinvestigateexistingsamplesthatmaybeofgreatantiquity.Untiltheirantiquitycanbeverified,analysisoftheseremainsliesinlimbo.

3.Increasetheefficiencyoflocatingearliersites.Whilethesensitivenatureofactivelyseekingsitesfortherecoveryofhumanremainsisfullyrecognized,manyoftheearliestknownsiteshavebeendisinterredbytheerosiveforcesofnatureandthehumanremains,onceexposed,havesoondeteriorated.Locationofthesesiteswouldpotentiallysignificantlyincreasethesampleofremains,aswellasallowmoreeffectivemonitoringofthesesitesagainstfurtherdamage.

4.Conductresearchonfurtheringtheaccuracyofmodelingbiologicalrelationships,basedupontheevaluationofmodernpopulations.These

solutionswillhelptoretrievethemostinformationfromthelimitedAmericansamplesavailableforanalysis.

Linguistics

ModernscientificlinguisticsistraditionallydatedtothediscoverybySirWilliamJonesofthegeneticrelationshipbetweentheclassicallanguagesofEurope,LatinandGreek,andtheclassicallanguageofIndia,Sanskrit.In1786JonesannouncedinCalcuttahishypothesisthattheselanguagesmusthave''sprungfromsomecommonsource,which,perhaps,nolongerexists"(Lehman1967).Duringthefollowingcenturyandahalf,linguistsprovedtherelationshipandexpandedtheputativeancestrallanguagefamily,nowcalledIndo-EuropeaninEnglish,toincludemostofthelanguagesofEuropeandmanyofthoseofwesternandsouthAsiaaswell.ClassificationofthelanguageswasfollowedbyeventuallysophisticatedattemptstoreconstructtheIndo-Europeanancestor,basedoncomparisonoftheirstructuresandvocabularies.Theresultswerespectacular,inboththeirexplanatorypowerandtheirprovisionoffruitfulhypothesesforallofthehumansciences,andnineteenth-centurylinguisticsisrightlyconsideredasoneofthegreatscientificachievementsoftheperiod.Thus,fromitsveryinception,andwellintothepresentcentury,linguisticswasregardedasahistoricaldiscipline,withpre-,proto-,andunrecordedhistoryasitsareaofprimaryinterest.

Theriseofstructurallinguisticsinthelate1920sshiftedtheinterestoflinguisticsciencetodescriptivetheoryandlanguagedescription,andconcernwiththehistoricalimplicationsoflanguagestudybecamelessprominent.Sincethe1950s,linguisticshasbeenconcernedmostlywiththeroleoflanguageincognition,attemptingtounderstandinparticularhowpeoplelearnanduselanguages.

Sincetheheydayofhistoricallinguisticsinthelatenineteenthcentury,languageasatoolforthestudyofprehistoryhasnot,however,beenneglected,andtheabundanceofsophisticateddescriptiveworkproducedinthiscenturyhasmadehistorical

linguisticsapowerfuladjuncttothetraditionalhistoricalsciences.

Workinlanguageclassification,withallthatimpliesforprehistory,andthereconstructionofprotolanguages,hasbeenontheincreasesinceitsnadirinthe1950sand'60s,and

present-dayknowledgeaboutdeeprelationships,theoryandtechniquesofreconstruction,andthedynamicsofdiachronicchangewouldastoundoureighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryforebears.

GeneticclassificationofAmerindianlanguagesfraughtwithimplicationsfortheprehistoryofthespeakersoftheselanguagesbeganalmostasearlyasdidconcernabouttheprovenienceandprehistoryofthebetter-knownOldWorldlanguages.ThelaborsofsuchscholarsasGallatin,Powell,Sapir,andKroeberaretoowellknowntorequiredescriptionhere.SufficeittosaythatthereisatpresentnoAmericanlanguagethathasnotbeenexaminedfromthepointofviewofwhereitfitsinthemosaicofAmericanlanguages.

EarlyworkontheAmericanlanguagessoughttoestablishfamily-levelrelationships,comparabletotheprincipalbranchesofIndo-EuropeansuchasGermanicorSlavic.Powell's(1891)workisaclassicexampleoffamily-levelclassification.Laterworksoughttofittheselow-levelrelationshipsintohigh-levelcategoriescomparabletoInto-AryanwithinIndo-European,toIndo-Europeanitselfasamotherstock,orevenhigherconstructssuchasNostratic,asuperphylumincludingIndo-EuropeanandmanyotherancestrallanguagesofwesternAsic.Sapir(1919),Swadesh(1959),andGreenberg(1987)arewell-knownexamplesofreductionisteffortsofthiskind.

Recently,however,mostscholarsofAmericanlanguageshavereturnedtosplitting,basedonmuchmorestringentstandardsofproofofrelationship(e.g.,CampbellandMithun1979).ClassificationofSouthAmericanlanguages,withafewnotableexceptions,hasalwaystendedmoretosplittingthantolumping(cf.Loukotka1968,Kaufman1990).

Mostoftheearlyclassificatorywork,bothchronologicallyandintermsofproceduresused,involvedinspectionandsuggestionofputativerelationshipsonthebasisofresemblancesofformand

meaning.Workinghypothesesforgedinthiswaywerethensubjectedtodetailedcomparativeworkwhichsoughttodiscoversignificantsystematiccorrespondencesbetweenitems.Alargeenoughnumberofsystematiccorrespondencespermitsaclassificationacceptedbyotherscholars.Thehypothesishasnowbecomeatheory.

Wheretheresemblancescannotbe"proved"byrecurrentcorrespondencesofsomekind,relationshipisrejected.Obviouslythereisroomfordifferenceofopinionhavingtodowithsufficiencyofexamplesandstandardsofproof;GoddardandCampbell(1994)andRuhlen(1994)areexamplesofsuchinterpretativedifferences.

The"allornothing"approachofthetraditionalcomparativemethodworksadequatelywhenarelationshipisclose(therearealwaysenoughclearcorrespondencestopermitthrowingoutthosewithproblems)butlesswellasonegoesbackintime.Atdeeplevels(anythingbeyond6,000yearsBP,althoughmanywouldargueforevenlesstimedepth),resemblancesarefewerandtheyceasetobetightlysystematic.Manyhistoricallinguistsstopprobingatthispoint.Buttheresemblances(suchasthosecalled"Panamericanisms"byscholarsofAmericanlanguages)donotceasetherebytobeintriguingandtodemandsomesortofexplanation,evenifnotgenetic.

Additionalmethodologiesareneeded,perhapsbasedonsomethingotherthanthetraditionaliron-cladregularityrequiredbythecomparativemethod,whichcandealwithresemblancesunamenabletostandardtechniquesofcomparison.Itisverypossiblethatanewapproachwillbedirectedattheglobalissuenotattheresemblancesthemselves,butattheirverypresence.

Statisticswillcertainlybeoneofthetoolsofsuchnewmethodologies,aswillvariouskindsoftypology.Argumentswillofnecessitybeindirectandcomplex,butthesefactsshouldnotandwillnotpreventtheformulationofnewtechniquesforaddressingthemultiplicityoflanguageandotherkindsofdatanowathand.

OnescholarofthenativelanguagesoftheAmericas,JohannaNichols,isalreadymovinginthesedirections,andherworkisprobablythemostpromisingatthemoment.Inseveralrecentpapers(e.g.,Nichols1990,1992),sheusesprimarilylinguisticdatato

confrontthequestionofwhenandhowtheAmericasweresettled.SheassumesaxiomaticallythatthepeoplingsofthePacificBasinandtheAmericaswereseparateaspectsofthesameevent.SoliddatesfortheearliestoccupationofAustraliaandNewGuineaestablishaterminusaquo.Usingmuch

persuasiveanalogicalargument,shefixesadateofsettlementoftheAmericassomewherebetween40,000and50,000yearsago,correspondingwithrecentdatesfromAustralia.Notsurprisingly,Nichols'sargumentsdrawonotherdisciplinesaswell(e.g.,thehistoryofagricultureforplantdomestication),andherpersuasiveconclusionscallintoseriousquestionthewidelyacceptedClovis-basedchronology.

WorkofthiskindwillmakethepictureofthesettlementoftheAmericasclearer,andmaywellpointtowardconclusionsevenaboutlinguisticprehistorywhichcannotnowbemadeonlinguisticbasesalone.

Regardlessofshufflingandreshufflingbyscholars,NorthandCentralAmericanlanguagesareforthemostpartwelldocumentedanddescribed;thiscorpusisinastatetobeusedindefinitelyforscientificpurposes.ThesameisnottrueofthelanguagesofthesouthernAmericancontinent.Manylanguageshavebeenlosttherewithscarcelyatrace,andmanyothersareonthevergeofextinction,withlittleornodocumentation.Rainforestspeciesandlanguagesareaffectedequally.WorkonthedocumentationoftheremainingnativelanguagesofSouthAmericamustbeanissueofhighestpriorityforthestudyofAmericanprehistory.

ConservationandPublicPolicy

BecauseofthemultinationalscopeofFirstAmericansresourcesandstudies,nosingleinstitutionalframeworkexistsforthemanagement(includingthepreservation,conservation,anduse)oftheseresources.Indeed,nosuchframeworkexistswithinanynationwhoselandsholdarchaeologicalandrelatedpaleoenvironmentalmaterialsrelevanttoFirstAmericansresearch.Thislackofaunifiedframeworkhasimpactedresearchandmanagementpoliciesandpracticesusedto

locate,investigate,andprotectearlysitesandrelateddataonpublicandprivatelands,andhasledtoafailuretomakeimportantresearchdevelopmentsavailablethroughpubliceducationprograms.

ThefocusofthesymposiumpublishedinthisvolumewasthepublicnatureoftheFirstAmericansresourcebase,includingtheinformationderivedfromthearchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalmaterialsincludedintheseresources."Thereisaworldwidemoralconsensusthatthelong-termconservationofasignificantportionofourculturalpastisgoodforthehumancommunity"(Knudson1984:245),and"allpeople...havestewardshipresponsibilitiesfor...theseresources...Ultimately,governmentshavearchaeologicalstewardshipresponsibilitiestoactonthepublic'sbehalf"(Knudson,thisvolume).FormerU.S.SecretaryoftheInteriorManuelLujan,Jr.(1991)statedthat"[thearcheologicalpaleoenvironmentalrecord]isapublictrusttobeunderstoodandevaluatedtohelpshapeourpresentresponsestochangingenvironments.''Thispublictrustconceptandethicareadministereddifferentlybyvariousgovernmentsbasedprimarilyon(1)theirlegalheritage;and(2)thedirectnessofeachcountry'spoliticallydominantpopulation'stieswiththeculturerepresentedbythearchaeologicalremainswithinthatcountry'sadministration.ThelegalheritageofCentralandSouthAmericannationsisdirectlytiedtoRomanorBritishcommonlaw.Thesenationsgenerallyhavecodifiedorregularlyapplythepublictrustconceptwhendealingwithheritageresourcesonalloftheirlands,whetherthoselandsareprivatelyorpubliclyowned.ThelegalbasisinboththeUnitedStatesandCanadaisalsoinBritishcommonandRomanlaw,butinadditionbothlegalsystemsexhibitstrongsupportforindividualrights,developedinreactiontothetraditionalEnglishpowerofthecommunity(thegovernment)overtheindividual(cf.Fowler,Knudson,thisvolume).Thus,thebasiclaworlegalpracticeinthesecountriesinmostcaseshasassertedthepriorityofindividuallandownerrightsovercommunityheritageinterests.Howseriouslyandconsistentlyanyheritageprotectioncodesareenforcedalsovariesamongnations,basedinpartontheeconomicsofsitelootingandartifacttraffickingaswellasonthedirectnessoftheculturaltiesof

theenforcersandthethreatenedsites.

TheauthorsofthispaperareallbasedinNorthAmerica,andthosewithpublicarchaeologicalconservationormanagement

experienceareallU.S.-based.Thus,thisdiscussionfocusesonexperiencesinU.S.publicarchaeologicalconservationpoliciesandpractices.ThereisnonationalprogramformanagingprivatelyownedarchaeologicalsitesintheUnitedStates,butsuchprogramsoperatethroughsomestate,tribal,andlocalgovernments.Elsewhereinthisvolume(Fowler,Magne,McGimsey)therearediscussionsoflegalapproachestotheprotectionofFirstAmericansresourcesinothercountries.However,noneofthesediscussionsaddressespublicresourcemanagementprogramsthatcansupport,orsometimesinhibitoractuallyharm,FirstAmericansresearch.TheUnitedStateshasanarchaeologicalmanagementprogramthatmustbeappliedonthe1.2millionsquaremilesoffederalU.S.publicandIndianlands(athirdofthenation).ThefollowingdiscussionoftheimplementationofU.S.publicarchaeologicalconservationpolicyisabasisforcomparisonofthepublictreatmentofFirstAmericansresourcesonbothpublicandprivatelandsinsideandoutsidetheUnitedStatesasreflectedingenericissuessuchascompetingmanagementinterests,bureaucraticstructures,andtheconflictbetweenscholarshipandmanagement(cf.Keel1979,King1987).Cleere(1989)hascompiledanexcellentsetofpapersonarchaeologicalresourcemanagementaroundtheworld,withspecificdiscussionsofprogramsinthenorthernAndes,southernOntario,Canada,andtheformerUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics,aswellasintheUnitedStates.

Inadditiontohavingalegalheritageorientedtowardsprivaterights,thedominantU.S.politicalandresourcemanagerialcommunityhasfewdirectculturaltiestotheprehistoricarchaeologyofFirstAmericansresources.TheU.S.NationalTrustforHistoricPreservationwascongressionallycharteredin1949"toprovideforthepreservationof...antiquitiesofnationalsignificance...andtofacilitatepublicparticipationinthepreservationofsites,objects,andantiquitiesofnationalsignificance"(PublicLaw[P.L.]408,16United

StatesCode[U.S.C.]461).TheTrusthasexhibitedlittleinterestinanyprehistoricU.S.resources,muchlessthoseoftheFirstAmericans;however,thatbegantochangein1993(Edmondson1993).Historically,theTrusthasapparentlybelievedthatarchaeologicalresourcesareadequatelyaddressedbythe

SmithsonianInstitution'sNationalMuseumofNaturalHistory(note,nottheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory),whichinthelatenineteenthcenturyencouragedthestudyoftheFirstAmericansasabioevolutionaryinterest(Hinsley1981:104-108).Similarly,academicdisciplinesgenerallydifferentiateamonganthropology(includingprehistoricarchaeology),historyorAmericanStudies(oftenthehomeofhistoricarchaeology),chemistry,physics,linguistics,geology,agriculturalsoils,andbiology.MostpeopledonotunderstandthecomplexitiesofFirstAmericansresearchandresourcemanagement,whichshouldbebasedonmultidisciplinaryanalysisofnonhumanpaleoenvironmentsaswellasearlyprehistoryandmodelsofhumangeneticsandlanguage.

Giventhisperceptualbackground,itisnosurprisethattheU.S.legalframeworkforinsitumanagementofFirstAmericansresourcesismisunderstood.ThislegalframeworkonlyimplicitlyvaluestheinformationcontentofU.S.archaeologicalsites,sinceitisorientedtoprotectioninplace.TheU.S.AntiquitiesActof1906madeitacrimetodisturbanyprehistoricsiteonpubliclandswithoutapermit,whichwastobegrantedonlytoqualifiedindividualsfromrecognizedscientificoreducationalinstitutions,butthelawdoesnotincludeanyexplicitstatementofwhythesesitesarevaluable.Theintentofthelaw'sscientificsupporterswastoreservesitesforscholarlyresearch(Lee1970),butcodificationofamonumentpreservesysteminthesamelegislationwasanexpressionofpublicrecreationalintereststhatfrequentlyconflictwithscientificanalysis(Rothman1989).The1960ReservoirSalvageact(P.L.86-523)wascomparablyphrased,aswasitsamendment("Moss-Bennett,"P.L.93-291)in1974.Thelatterincludedamechanismtofederallyfundtherecoveryof"significantscientific,prehistorical,historical,orarcheologicaldata"ifdesiredbytheimpactingfederalagencyorbytheSecretaryoftheInterior.TheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979(ARPA;P.L.96-95)

hasastatementoffindingsandpurposethatthelawisto"secure,forthepresentandfuturebenefitofthe[UnitedStates]Americanpeople,theprotectionofarchaeologicalresourcesandsiteswhichareonpubliclandsandIndianlands"(Sec.2(b)),andthisdoesnotelaboratethescientificinformationvaluesthatarebasictotheprotectedbenefits.

Incomplement,theNationalHistoricPreservationAct(NHPA)in1966statedthat"thehistoricalandculturalfoundationsoftheNationshouldbepreserved...togiveasenseoforientationtotheAmericanpeople"(P.L.89-665,preamble)andincludedmechanismsforevaluatingwhichheritageresourceswereimportantenoughtopreserve,andtheappropriatenessofsuchpreservationincompetitionwitheconomicdevelopments(Sec.106).

Inthelate1960stheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA;42UnitedStatesCode[U.S.C.]4321)statedthatitwasthe"continuingresponsibilityoftheFederalGovernmentto...preserveimportanthistoric,cultural,andnaturalaspectsofournationalheritage[toenhancethequalityofU.S.Americanlife]"(Sec.101(b))andrequiredpubliclyavailabledocumentationofresourcemanagementdecisions.NEPArequiresthatinterdisciplinaryscientificanalysesofresourcesandimpactstothembeusedinmakingthosemanagementdecisions(Caldwell1982).Thispolicystatementdoesnotmandatetheprotectionofeitherarchaeologicalmaterialinplaceoritsderivedinformationvalues,butrequiresuseofthatinformationindecisionmaking.

NEPAisalanduseandresourcelegaltoolthatoverridestheconceptofprivatelandownership(Caldwell1970,Knudson1986:397-398),andhasascientificinterdisciplinarybasisthataddressesboththenaturalandsocialworld.TherearecomparablelawsthroughouttheU.S.states,inCanada(CanadianEnvironmentalAssessmentActof1994,seeMagnethisvolume)anditsprovincesandmanynations,andseveralinternationallendinginstitutions(e.g.,WorldBank)requireenvironmentalassessmentsaspartofprojectfundingapproval.IntheUnitedStates,NEPAclearlyisanumbrellathatincludesalltheresourcesofconcerntoFirstAmericansstudies.Itisaplanningtool,asaretheU.S.stateandCanadianprovincialhistoricpreservationplansandtheresourcemanagementplansoftheU.S.

ForestService,BureauofLandManagement,NationalParkService,ArmyCorpsofEngineers,andotheragencies.InvolvementofFirstAmericansscholarsinthedevelopmentoftheseplanningdocumentsisacriticalelementinresponsiblestewardshipofFirstAmericansresources.

Thesearchaeological,heritage,andenvironmentalprotectionlawsintheUnitedStatesandothercountriesareallorientedtothepublicbenefitandallincludemechanismsthatrequirerules,regulations,andregulatorybureaucracieskeyedtofundingcyclesandpersonnelauthorizations.NoneoftheU.S.lawsisexplicitlyfocusedontheresearchvaluesofarchaeologicalresources,thoughthoseareimplicitlyunderstoodtobethebasisforpublicunderstandingofthepreservedheritageresources;thefocusisontheprotectionofphysicalthingsfirstandinformationsecond.ARPAismostexplicitabouttheprotectionofinformationanddata,notjustsitesandobjects.Intheseandotherlaws,insituarchaeologicalsiteprotectionhasalwaysbeenrequiredtobeconductedinacontextofmanyland-basedresources,allofwhichinturnhavemanyuses.

FirstAmericansscholarshavehadlittleinvolvementinthepromulgationandimplementationofthislegislation.Mostsuchscholarsareinacademiaandmuseums,corporateculturesthathavetraditionallynotencouragedpublicandpoliticalinvolvementbytheirmembers.Further,theindividualsandorganizationswhodeveloplegislationandthebureaucracythatimplementsithavetheirownculture,withwhichfewFirstAmericansscholarshavehadanyfamiliarityoreveninterest.YetthatcultureisresponsibleforthemanagementofthepubliclyvaluedprehistoricFirstAmericansresourcesandtheirincludedinformation,asapublictrust.

Giventhislegalframework,howcanFirstAmericansscholarsfulfilltheirworld-widepublictrustresponsibilitiesto(1)identifyAmericanandrelatedAsianarchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalsitesatleast10,000yearsold;(2)conservativelyderivetheirincludedinformation(Fowler1986,Lipe1974,Lujan1991);and(3)conserveallorpartsofthemforfuturescholarsandtheinterestedpublic?Amajorbasisfortheanswerstothesequestionsliesintheresearchquestions,methods,andtechniquesthatwerethefocusoftheconferencereportedinthese

volumes,andwhicharesummarizedinthischapter.AsecondimportantresponsibilityforscholarsistoparticipateinpublicmanagementandawarenessactivitiesthatrelatetoFirstAmericansresources.

IntheUnitedStates,whentheMoss-BennettbillpassedCongressin1974,manyarchaeologistsanticipatedafuturewithincreasedresearchfunding.Theydidnotrealizethatthebenefitsofthislegislationwouldnotautomaticallybehandedouttothemintheformofexpandedresearchfunding.Instead,itsdistributionwouldbedeterminedbyabodyofregulationsformulatedbyindividualswhosemaininterestwasnotnecessarilytheinvestigationofarchaeologicalorotherpaleoenvironmentalresourcestogainmaximuminformation.ArchaeologicalresourcesonU.S.publiclandsaremanagedbyagencylandmanagerswhoseresponsibilitiesarefocusedontheiragency'scongressionallymandatedmissionwhichisgenerallyanythingbutarchaeologicalorpaleoenvironmentalprotectionorresearch(Keel1979).

NoU.S.lawsprotectnonculturalpaleoenvironmentaldataperseincludingpollen,soils,tephra,plantandanimalmacrofossils,orlandformscriticaltoFirstAmericansresearchandpublicinterpretation.

U.S.federalarchaeologylawsaregenerallyplaceoriented,focusedontheprotectivemanagementofthingsinplace,complementedbyaconcernforthemanagementofobjectsremovedfromtheiroriginalarchaeologicalcontext.Therefore,inventoryofthoseplacesthathaveprotectedarchaeologicalresourcesisapriorityforland-managingagencies,sothatotherusescanbeauthorizedwherenoarchaeologicalresourceshavebeenfound.Ifpubliclydesirableeconomicdevelopmentscannotavoidimportantarchaeologicalresources,time-consumingandexpensiveresourcerecoveryislegallyrequired.Thus,avoidanceisdesirableforboththeland-managingagencyandtheland-usingeconomicinterest.

U.S.archaeologicalprotectionlawonlyimplicitlyfostersdesirableresearch(cf.Elston1992).MostscholarlyarchaeologistsintheUnited

Statesdidnotunderstandthelegalandbureaucraticframeworksdevelopedtoimplementarchaeologicalprotectionbut,inordertoconductFirstAmericansresearchonpubliclands,mustnowworkwithinasystemthathasbeenconstructedlargelybybureaucraticnon-scholarsandnon-archaeologistsand/orworktowardchangingthesystem.

GiventhevastexpansesoffederallandsintheU.S.andnumbersofprojectsrequiringfederalauthorizationandthussubjecttoNHPA,NEPA,orARPArequirements,bytheearly1970salargenumberofarchaeologistswasrequiredtoconductthemandatedinventory,evaluation,andrecoveryofimportantarchaeologicalresources.AsimilarsituationdevelopedinCanada.ThisledtotheexpansionofU.S.andCanadianpublicarchaeology,includingbothgovernment-employedandprivatecontractingarchaeologists.IntheUnitedStates,thelatterwererequiredtohaveAntiquitiesAct,andsubsequentlyARPA,permitstoconductthesearchaeologicalinvestigations,butmostsuchinvestigationsrequiredminimaltechnicaloranalyticalarchaeologicaltrainingandprovidedfewopportunitiestoconductmoresyntheticstudies.Thiscomplianceorientedarchaeologicalactivityemployedalotofpeople,butdidnotproducemuchacademicallyacceptableresearchbecauseitsgoalswerequitedifferent.TherelativelycomplementaryassociationofpublicandacademicarchaeologythathaddevelopedintheUnitedStatesduringthe1930sWorksProgressAdministrationarchaeologicalinvestigations,andwhichcontinuedduringthe1950sRiverBasinSurveysprojects(Fowler1986),rarelycarriedthroughinthe1970sand'80spublicarchaeology.

ThegrowingseparationofpublicandacademicarchaeologyinNorthAmericainthelatetwentiethcenturyhasmeantthatacademiccontributionstotheory,methods,andtechniquesusedinpublicarchaeologicalprojectsareusuallysecondhand.Therehasbeensignificantdissensionoverwhoisa"professional"archaeologist,thatappellationbeingmoreimportanttopublicarchaeologiststhanitistoacademiciansdefinedbytheiraffiliation.Andtherehavebeenargumentsaboutthenatureoftheresourcewhenitsregulatorystatusmeantdollarstooneperson,whileitsresearchcontributionmeantmoretoanother.Manywordshavebeenexpendedoverthe

philosophicaldifferencebetweenthesignificanceandimportanceofaNorthAmericanarchaeologicalsite,fromvaryinglegalandscholarlyperspectives.FirstAmericansresearchisaffectedbyallofthis.

Archaeologicalresourcemanagementdevelopedacrosstheworldoverthelasttwodecades.ButintheUnitedStates,to

protectallpotentiallyusefulinformation,every"culturalresource"(whichincludesarchaeologicalaswellasarchitecturalandfolkliferesources[Knudson1986]),howeverlargeorsmall,wassometimesidentifiedasbeingeverybitasimportantasanyotherculturalresource.Theideathatkeysitesorsitesofhighintegrityareofgreaterimportancethanasurfacescatterofflakeswasoftendenied,whileatthesametimeundistinguishedsmallsitesofcriticalresearchvaluewereidentifiedasexpendable.NorthAmericanpubliccompliancearchaeologyproduceshugequantitiesofmonograph-sizepublicationsoutliningdata-recoveryplans,samplesurveys,eligibilitystatements,memorandaofagreement,guidelines,rulesandregulations,andinnumerableothertopicsthatareoftenjudgedtobeirrelevantbyscholarlyarchaeologists.Thesereportsarewrittentomeetregulatoryrequirementsandguidelines,andoftenarealmostunintelligibletoanyonelookingforinformationrelatedtoFirstAmericansresearch.MostNorthAmericanpublicarchaeologistshavelittleornoworktimeavailableforconductingsyntheticanalysesoftheinformationacquiredincompliancearchaeology,muchlessthetimeandlibrarynecessarytopublishscholarlytreatises.Thepublic'sattitudeisthatresearchshouldbedoneinuniversities,andresourcemanagersshouldmanage;thisisreflectedingovernmentagencies'lackofrewardsfor,orevenauthorizationof,employeescholarship.

Theminimallydistributed"greyliterature"ofNorthAmericanpublicarchaeologyincludesimportantinformationaboutwheresiteshaveandhavenotbeenfound,andsometimesimportantcluestoFirstAmericansarchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalresourcelocationsandcharacteristics,butworthwhiledataaredifficulttoextractandhavenotbeenabstracted.Asaresult,anyonewishingtodoresearchwiththisliteraturemustspendinnumerablehoursseparatingoutvaluabledatafromlegallyrequireddocumentationofdataandprocesses.Asmentionedearlier,aNationalArchaeologicalDatabase

(NADB)-Reports,acomputerizedbibliographyofreportsandotherwrittenproductsofU.S.archaeologicalinvestigations,isbeingdeveloped(Canouts1991)andin1994includedmorethan150,000citations.Keywordcategoriesare

tobeincludedinthefuture.InclusionwithinNADB-ReportsofkeywordssignificanttoFirstAmericansresearchisimportant.Thissystemisavailableon-lineandtheU.S.NationalParkService,whichhasdevelopedseveralNADBmodules,ispresentlytalkingwithothercountriesaboutlinkingsystemstocreateinternationalarchaeologicalbibliographies.

Probablyover90percentofthearchaeologicalsitesknowntooccurintheUnitedStatesandCanadahavebeenidentifiedduringcompliancearchaeology,andtheirpubliclyavailabledocumentationisrarelyfoundanywherebutinthegreyliterature.Whilemostofthewell-knownFirstAmericanssiteshavebeenfoundbyamateurs(Knudson1991),theyarefewinnumbercomparedwiththeinformationcollectedbypublicarchaeologyprojects.ManycriticalFirstAmericansresourcesarecurrentlyidentifiedonlyincomplianceinventoryrecords.TherelativeinaccessibilityofimportantFirstAmericansresourceidentificationinformationisaggravatedbytherefusaloftheU.S.NationalScienceFoundation(NSF)tosupportbaselinearchaeologicalsiteinventory,believingthatsuchinformationshouldbeprovidedinotherways(bytheland-managingagencycomplianceinventory?)toidentifysitesimportantenoughforNSFsupportoftheiranalyticalinvestigation.

ManyconflictsofinteresthavesurfacedinNorthAmericanpublicarchaeology,allofwhichaffectFirstAmericansresearchandmostofwhicharereflectedinothernations'publicarchaeologyprograms.IntheUnitedStates,thesameagenciesthatissuearchaeologicalpermitsoftenjudgetheresultsofthepermittedworkinreviewingrelatedlandmanagementdecisions.Researchisencouraged,inmostcircumstances,onlywithnon-agencyfundsunlesstherehasbeenagencysupportthroughadevelopmentproject,whichtendstoresultinsitedestructionthrough"mitigative"excavationandanalyses(seeDouglas,thisvolume).Likearchaeologicalinvestigationsrelatedto

landmanagement,exploitationofanarchaeologicalresourceonU.S.publiclandmustbedoneunderapermitevenwhentheonlygoalistheaquisitionofinformationthroughproperscientificquery.Allsuchland-usepermitswhichhavebeenrequiredforarcheologicalworkonpubliclandsinthe

UnitedStatessince1906mustbejustifiedasbeinginthepublicinterest.Inthe1990s,U.S.publiclandismanagedunderacomplexwebofoverlappingandsometimescompetinglaws,regulations,andguidelines.Becausetheselawsaredirectedtositeprotectionorpreservation,andbecausearchaeologicalexcavationisinherentlydestructiveofanonrenewablesite,itcanbelegallydifficultforaU.S.publicarchaeologisttojustifytoresourcemanagerswhoarenotarchaeologists,butareempoweredtoissuethepermitstheexcavationandstudyofanotherwiseunthreatenedarchaeologicalresource.

Somepublicarchaeologistsbringsuperiorresearchcredentialstotheircontractsandjobs,butmanyhaveonlyminimalacademicbackgroundsandhaveverynontechnical,bureaucraticresponsibilitiesthathoweverincludecriticalrecommendationsaboutresourcevaluesandresearchauthorities.Manyoftheseindividualsareover-committedmembersofunder-staffedagencies,whichinturnarecompliancedrivenwithinaverycomplexbureaucracy.

Toreestablishthetraditionallinkbetweenscholarlyandpublicarchaeology,tosupportthestudyaswellastheconservationofFirstAmericansresources,thefollowingmeasuresareproposed.

1.EverypracticingFirstAmericansscholarshoulddevelopaworkingknowledgeoftheland-basedresourcelaws,regulations,guidelines,andmanagingagenciesthatimpingeonFirstAmericansresearchinthatscholar'scountryandresearcharea.Participationinbroadenvironmentalassessmentandmanagementactivitiesisdesirable,tofindouthowtolocatekeyFirstAmericansdatainthemassesofpaperandjargonthatgowithmulti-resourceenvironmentalmanagementdocumentation.AcriticalelementinFirstAmericansresourceconservationistolearnaboutanyavailableregionalhistoricpreservationplans(e.g.,anexcellentplanningdocumentjustforPaleoindianresourcesinGeorgiaintheUnitedStates[Andersonetal.

1990])andotherlanduseplans.

2.WithineachcountryholdingFirstAmericansresources,thenationalscienceacademyshouldevaluatetherelationship

betweenFirstAmericansscholarlyresearchandpublicmanagementofFirstAmericansresources,andrecommendanyneededpublicprogramandpolicychangestoenhanceresearchinthepublicinterest.Itisappropriatethatsuchanoversightreviewbeconductedatanationallevel,involvingindividualsknowledgeableaboutthecountry'sresourcemanagementneedsandcurrentprograms,aboutmultidisciplinaryFirstAmericansresearchneeds,andaboutspecificfieldandanalytical/curatorialarchaeologicalconservationmethodsandtechniques.

3.Everypost-secondaryarchaeologyeducationprogramshouldprovidecoursesontopicssuchasarchaeologyandthelaw,archaeologicalresearchandconservation,archaeologicalprojectfiscalandpersonneladministration,andethicsandarchaeology.DiscussionsoflawsandprogramsaffectingnonculturalpaleoenvironmentalHoloceneandLatePleistocenedatacriticaltoFirstAmericansresearchshouldbeincluded.

4.Everygraduatearchaeologyprogramshouldincludeaminimumcourserequirementinheritageresourcemanagementandrelevantlocal,state,provincial,tribal,national,andinternationallegislation,andingeneralenvironmentalmanagement.Environmentalmanagementeducationshouldaddressspecializedprogramssuchasair,water,endangeredspecies,andwetlandsconservation,wheretheyexist,becauseofthepotentialeffectsofthosemanagementprogramsonmultidisciplinaryFirstAmericansresources.

5.PublicresourcemanagementagenciesandresourcedevelopmentorganizationsthatencounterFirstAmericansresourcesshouldsupportscholarlyresearchrelatedtothoseresources,notjustminimalidentification,evaluation,andavoidance.CompletionofresearchonrareandnonrenewableFirstAmericansarchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalresourcesisinthepublicinterest(e.g.,inrelation

tounderstandingglobalclimaticchange),providinginformationforpubliceducationandrecreationaswellasformorereliableevaluationsofthemanagementneedsofotherFirstAmericansresourcesencounteredinthefuture.

6.OrganizationsdevelopingbroadbibliographicorresourcedescriptiondatabasesshouldincludekeywordsorotherinformationidentifiersthatrelatetoFirstAmericansresearch.ThisisparticularlyimportantintheU.S.NationalParkService'sdevelopmentofNADB-Reportskeywords,sincethatprogramcouldbecomeaninternationalmodel.

7.Professionalandavocationalarchaeologicalorganizationsshouldbeencouragedtoestablishandmaintainforumsforthetwo-wayexchangeofinformationbetweenacademicandpublicarchaeologists,andfromtheseshouldcomeprogramstooverseeandadvisegovernmentarchaeologicalresourcemanagementprograms.Thisshouldinvolvemoreactiveparticipationinthedevelopmentoflaws,regulations,policies,andguidelines,ateverygovernmentallevel.

8.FirstAmericansscholarsshouldencouragetheprofessionalandpublicorganizationsofwhichtheyarememberstorewardpublicservantsforgoodmanagementofFirstAmericansresources.Suchrewardsshouldbefornon-archaeologistsaswellasarchaeologistswhoprotecttheculturalandpaleoenvironmentalinformationsocriticaltoFirstAmericansstudies.

9.FirstAmericansscholarsshouldparticipateinthedevelopmentofgeneralland/resourcemanagementplanningdocuments,andshouldbeinvolvedbyplanningagenciesfromtheearliestplanningstagesthroughprojectdecision-makingandimplementation.Agenciesshouldroutinelyinvolveprehistoryscholarswithpaleoenvironmentresearchexperience,usuallyfoundoutsidetheagency,atalocalcollegeormuseum,inallmajorplanningefforts.Suchexpertisecanoftenbecriticalinidentifyingprojectopportunitiesorconstraintsasearlyaspossibleintheplanningeffort.Forscholars,thisbeginswithfindingoutwhatplanningdocumentsarebeingwrittenorscheduledintheirhomeregionorregionofresearchinterest,andidentifying

criticalconcernstotheagency.Itinvolvesunderstandingthedecision-makingprocessandtheagency'smissionandresponsibilities,carefulreadingofthedraftplans,andprovidingusefulandtimelyreviewcommentstothemanagementagency.Ifindividualscholarsdonothave

thetimeorinterestinbeingsoinvolved,theyshouldensurethatsomeoneelsewithFirstAmericansresearchinterestsisinvolvedinsuchplanningefforts.

FirstAmericansStudiesinaPublicArena

Stewardshipofhumanity'spastconstitutesachallengeofimmenseproportions.Largelythroughtheeffortsofadedicatedfew,thescopeofthechallengeisbecomingmoreclearlydefined.Traditionallytheresponsibilityforpreservingandconservingourculturalheritagehasfallenonthearchaeologicalprofession.Itisnowapparentthat,forthoseprofessionalsaswellasforthenonprofessionalarchaeologicalpublic,responsiblestewardshiphasdiverseimplicationsthatincludesocial,political,legal,educational,economic(e.g.,landdevelopment,pollutioncontrol,tourism),andotherdimensions.

Thereisaneedforimmediatecollaborationamongcultural,natural,andgeophysicalscholars,economists,andconstitutionallawexpertstoformulatestrategiesandpoliciesfortheconservationandpreservationofFirstAmericansresourcesonprivateandpubliclandsinallcountries.Oneofthegreatestimperativesfacingindividualsandgroupsinterestedinourearliestculturalheritageistheneedtoidentifythekeyplayersinheritagepreservationandtolegitimizetheirrolesandresponsibilitieswithinavoluntaryassociationofdedicatedparticipantssharingcommonconcerns,goals,andobjectives.

Wealsoneedcoordinatingmechanismsatthelocal,national,andinternationallevels,greaterpublicawarenessandunderstandingofheritageissuesthroughmassmediaandpubliceducation,andtomoveheritageconservationfromtheperipherytothemainstreamofpubliclifeandconsciousness.Althoughstate,provincial,tribal,national,andUnitedNationsagenciesdoexistthathavebeenchargedwiththeresponsibilityofconservinghumanity'sculturalandbiological

heritage,coordinationofeffortsinthepastcanbecharacterizedasgenerallyadhocandcrisisoriented.Itisimperativethatprotocolsbeestablished,takingadvantageofbreakthroughsininfor-

mationtechnology,tofacilitatedisseminationofinformationrelatingtoFirstAmericansheritagepreservation.Inthiseraofinternationalcooperationamongonce-rivalnations,theopportunityexiststoforgelinksamonginstitutionsandindividualswhoshareaninterestandcommitmenttopreservinghumanity'spastandtherecordoftheFirstAmericans.

Publicoutreachandeducationhaveneverbeenmorevitalthanatpresenttoinculcateaconcernforheritagepreservationandconcern.CelebritiessuchasJeanAuel,authorofTheClanoftheCaveBearandseveralotherwell-researched''Paleolithicromances,"havehadanextraordinarilypositiveeffectonshapingpublicperceptionsofthehumanpast.Inturn,Auel(1991:125)hasnoted:"Ifthescientistwantsthecooperationofthepublic,itistheresponsibilityofthescientisttocommunicateinwaysthatareunderstandable."

SchooleducatorsandcurriculumplannersneedtoberecruitedintotheprocessofenhancingpublicawarenessofFirstAmericansheritageissuesandenvironmentalvalues,sothatAmericancitizensdonotcontinuetoregardthehemisphere'sculturalheritageasanexpendablecommoditythatrepresentsonlyanaliencultureandbenefitsonlyaprivilegedfew.

AnimportantelementinallFirstAmericansscholarshipshouldbetheinvolvementoftoday'sAmericanIndiansintheinvestigationoftheirownheritageanditsresources.InformationshouldbedevelopedforAmericanIndianheritageprograms,andAmericanIndiansshouldbetrained(withfinancialsupport)andemployedinFirstAmericansstudies.ThatispartoftheresponsibilityofusingaswellasconservingsuchanimportantelementofthepublicarchaeologicaltrustasFirstAmericansresources.

TheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericasaffordedanunparalleledopportunitytoconvenesomeoftheleading

playersinheritageconservationandtoprovideaforumfordiscussinggoalsinmanagingFirstAmericansresourcestosupportscholarlyresearchthatinturnsupportspublicunderstandingofthepast.IssuesraisedatSummit'89pointtotopicsseriouslyinneedofpublicdebate.Howcanthecurrentapproachtoheritageresearch,conservation,education,andrecreationbemodifiedtobenefitFirst

Americansresources?Howcanthepublic'sawareness,understanding,andappreciationofFirstAmericansheritageissuesbeachievedatallsociopoliticallevels?Whatstepscanbetakentoincreasecommunicationandcooperationamongthevariousculturalandnaturalresourceprivateandpublicsectororganizations,tobenefitFirstAmericansresources?WhatcanbedonetoachieveoptimaldivisionofheritagemanagementresponsibilitiesamongprivateandpublicindividualsandsectorstofosterglobalcooperationonFirstAmericansheritageissuesofmutualconcern?WhatmeasurescanbetakentoensureadequatefundingformeritoriousFirstAmericansresearch,conservation,andpubliceducationprojects?

Conclusion

ScientificresearchdriveswhatisknownaboutFirstAmericansstudiesandprovidesthebasicinformationonwhichconservationandeducationprogramsshouldbebased.WeneedtolocateFirstAmericansresources,andthentodevelophigh-qualitysitereportsusingthefullcomplementofmethodsandconceptsofferedbytheQuaternarysciencesandcontemporaryarchaeology.LocalsiteandenvironmentalinformationcanbeintegratedintoaninternationaldatabasefocusingonFirstAmericansstudies.Thisinformationisofinteresttotheresearchcommunityandthepublic,anditsvaluecanbecommunicatedtothoseresourcemanagerschargedwithstewardshipresponsibilities.ParticipationinthepublicforumsthataffecttheimplementationoftheFirstAmericanspublictrustisacriticalresponsibilityforthescholarlycommunity.

ConservationpolicyisincompleteandFirstAmericansculturalresourcesareinadequatelyprotected.Tofocusresearch,protectFirstAmericansresources,andeducatethepublicandschoolchildrenaboutAmerica'searliestculturalheritage,leadershipisneededtocoordinatetheeffortsofallnations,organizations,andindividuals

involvedinthisimportantpublicprogram.

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IVTHELEGALENVIRONMENTArchaeology,likemostotherhumanendeavors,iscontrolledtoonedegreeoranotherbylegalconstraints.Forexample,howandwherearchaeologicalexcavationstakeplacemaybecontrolledbypropertyrights,bothprivateandpublic.Allthingsbeingequal,anarchaeologist,unlessheorsheisthetitleholderpersonally,musthavetheconsentofalandownerbeforeconductingexcavations.Evenifthepropertyisownedbythearchaeologist,otherlegalrequirementsmayimpacttheconductofthework.IntheUnitedStates,iftheresourceisownedbythegovernment,permitsmustbeobtainedfromtheappropriateland-managingagency,beitlocal,state,orfederalpropertyortribaltrustland.IntheUnitedStatesandAustralia,archaeologistsmaybelegallyimpededbystateorhigherjurisdictionalrequirementsfromconductingexcavationsatsacredormortuarysites.

Inmanypartsoftheworldthelegalenvironmentofarchaeologyischanging,withincreasedoppositionfromnativepeoplestoarchaeologicalimpactsontheirreligiousrights,supportedbynationalaswellasinternationalpublics.Allarchaeologistsdecrythedestructionofarchaeologicalresourcesbyvandalism,butoftenfindthemselvesviewedasvandalsbynativepeople.Asagroupthatseesitselfconductingitsbusinessfortheenrichmentof

allcitizens,archaeologistsaredisturbedbytheoutcryofnativepeopleandareintheprocessofadjustingtheirprofessionalvaluesandcultureinresponse.

Archaeologistshavemadetremendousstridesinprotectingtheprehistoricandhistoricculturalheritagebylobbyingeffortswithlocal,state,national,andinternationallegislativebodies.Raisingpublicmoneyforarchaeologicaldatarecoveryandresourceinventorieshasbeensuccessfulinsomecountries.Thesesuccessfullegislativeeffortsmustcertainlybetheresultofpublicawarenessthattheculturalheritagemanifestedinthearchaeologicalrecordisavaluablenationalcommodity.Eachgovernmenthasaresponsibilitytoaffordsomecontroloveritsconsumption.

ThefollowingpapersexploresomeofthelegalenvironmentsinwhichFirstAmericansscholarsconducttheirwork.Asthepaperspointout,mostofthelawsdiscussedhereareprotectiveinintentandreactiveintheirimplementation.Mostofthecitedlawsseektoprotectnationalheritages,restrictaccesstoarchaeologicalproperties,controltheownershipofarchaeologicalspecimens,andgoverntheirexportfromthecountryoforigin.Additionally,legalsystemssuchasthoseinCanadaandtheUnitedStatesatleastrequirebureaucraticconsiderationoftheimpactofdevelopmentonpublicorprivatelyownedresourcesdirectlyorindirectlyaffectedbygovernmentalactions.Despitetheparticularperspectivefromwhichtheindividualnationsviewtheirarchaeologicalheritage,theirlegislativeeffortspresumethenationalimportanceofhumankind'spastanditsartsandmonuments.

BENNIEC.KEELRUTHANNKNUDSON

TheLegalStructurefortheProtectionofArchaeologicalResourcesintheUnitedStatesandCanadaJohnM.Fowler

TheEnglishcommon-lawtraditionisbasictomuchUnitedStatesandCanadianlaw,andoverthepastseveraldecadesbothnationshaverespondedtosimilarthreatstoprehistoricandhistoricresources.BothnationshavegivenattentiontotherightsandinterestsofNativeAmericansinthoseresources.TheNationalHistoricPreservationActasamendedisthekeystonetoU.S.federalhistoricpreservationlaw,whichreliesheavilyontheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesandthe''Section106"consultationprocesstodeterdamagetosignificanthistoricproperties.EachoftheU.S.statesandterritoriesandtheDistrictofColumbiahavetheirownpreservationlaw,andthesearecomplementedbymanylocalpreservationrequirements.Privatelawapproachestopreservation(e.g.,easements,zoningrestrictions)arebeingusedincreasinglyinboththeUnitedStatesandCanada.Canada'slackofastrongfederalpreservationmandatehasresultedinplacementofstrongerpreservationemphasisontheprovinciallevels.

ThelegalsystemsoftheUnitedStatesandCanadaarestronglyrootedintheEnglishcommon-lawtradition.Likewise,theysharethefederalformofgovernment,whichlodgescertainpowerswiththenationalgovernmentandreservesotherstostateorprovincialandlocalauthorities.Asaresult,whiletheU.S.andCanadianprogramsforprotectingandmanagingculturalresourcesarehardlyidentical,theydosharemanysimilarmechanismsandconcepts.ThispaperwillprovideanoverviewoftheU.S.legalstructureforprotectingarchaeologicalresourcesandthenbrieflycomparetheCanadian

experience.

Asthenationalpreservationprogramshaveevolvedoverthepastthreedecades,bothcountrieshaverespondedtosimilarthreatstohistoricproperties.Theexpansionofurbancenters,developmentoftransportationsystems,andexploitationofenergyresourceshavewreakedhavoconhistoricstructuresandarchaeologicalresourcesinbothcountries.Inturn,thishasledtotheenactmentofnewlawsatthenational,

tribal,state/provincial,andlocallevelsofgovernment,supplementingexistingauthoritiesthathadaffordedmorelimitedprotection.

Historically,thedevelopmentofpreservationlawsinbothcountrieshasbeenreactivetotheimmediatethreatsofthetime.Thus,intheUnitedStates,forexample,earlylegalresponsesfocusedonthelootingofprehistoricarchaeologicalsitesintheSouthwest.Laterrecognitionoftheimportanceofhistoricstructuresanddistrictsledtofurtherlegalenactments.TheCanadianexperiencehasnotbeendissimilar.Animportantconsequenceisthatadistinctbodyoflawhasevolvedinbothcountriesregardingtheprotectionofarchaeologicalresources,withprovisionsuniquelyapplicabletothosepropertiesandoftensomewhatapartfrombroaderhistoricpreservationlawsandprograms.

Likewise,thererecentlyhasbeenmuchattentiongiventotherightsandinterestsofNativeAmericansinthoseitemsandhumanremainsthatnotonlypossessarchaeologicalorhistoricvaluebutalsohaveimportantassociationswithculturaltraditionsandreligiousbeliefs.Thishasfosteredanongoingdebateregardingthetensionbetweenscientificinvestigationandthesanctityofhumanremainsandgravegoods.RecentU.S.lawonthisissuewillbediscussedbelow.

TheU.S.NationalHistoricPreservationProgram

ThestructureofpreservationlawintheUnitedStatesisdeterminedlargelybytheprinciplesoffederalismandthetraditionalallocationoflegalauthorityandpoliticalpowertothevariouslevelsofgovernment.Asaresult,whileacohesiveprogramofadministrativestructuresandlegalprotectionsexistsatthenationalgovernmentlevel,themoststringentprotectionsareprovidedforhistoricpropertiesatthelocallevel,thetraditionalrepositoryofauthorityoverlanduse.Indeed,itisimportanttonotethatnoprovisionoffederal

lawexiststoprohibitthedestructionofahistoricresource,unlessitisinfederalownership.

FederalProgramsandProtections

Attheoutset,adistinctionmustbedrawnbetweenfederallawsthatapplytofederalandtononfederallands.Notsurprisingly,themoststringentU.S.protectionsforarchaeologicalandhistoricpropertiesapplyonlytothosepropertiesingovernmentownership.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthebroadprovisionsoflawsconcerningallkindsofhistoricpropertiesareaugmentedbyseveralfederallawsthataredesignedspecificallyfortheprotectionofarchaeologicalresources.

TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969(42USC[U.S.Code]4321,4331,4332)declaredthatitwasnationalpolicyto"assureforallAmericans...culturallypleasingsurroundings"andto"preserveimportanthistoric,cultural...aspectsofournationalheritage."Thisbroadprovisionhasresultedinconsiderationofarchaeological(includingFirstAmericans)sitesthreatenedbydevelopmentactivitiesacrosstheUnitedStates,butoffersnolegalprotectionperse.

ThekeystoneoffederalhistoricpreservationlawistheNationalHistoricPreservationActof1966(NHPA;16USC470)asamended.Itestablishesthebasicelementsofthenationalhistoricpreservationprogramandstronglyinfluencestheshapeofstateandevenlocalpreservationlaws.TheNHPAcreatesacomprehensivesystemfortheidentification,evaluation,protection,andenhancementofhistoricresources.Italsoprovidesanadministrativestructuretocarryouttheseauthorities.

AtthecenteroftheprogramistheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces(hereafter"theRegister"),whichembracesthebuildings,sites,districts,structures,andobjectsthataresignificantinU.S.history,archaeology,architecture,culture,andengineeringatthenational,state,andlocallevel.ListingontheRegister,ormeetingthecriteriaof

eligibilityforit,isabasicprerequisiteforapropertytobenefitfromtheNHPA'sprotectionsandassistance.TheRegisterisadministeredbytheSecretaryoftheInterior,actingthroughtheNationalParkService(NPS).

TheRegistercapsanationwideinventoryprocessforidentifyingsignificanthistoricproperties.Conductedprimarilyat

thestatelevelthroughindividualstatehistoricpreservationofficers(SHPO)inaccordancewithfederalstandardsandcriteria,surveysareongoingtodevelopanationwidedatabaseforplanningandresourceallocationdecisionsaffectinghistoricproperties.

PropertiesmeetingthecriteriaoftheRegisterareaffordedprotectionthroughSection106oftheNHPA.Thisrequiresthatafederalagency"takeintoaccount"theeffectsonsuchpropertiesofactivitieswhichitcarriesout,fundsorotherwiseassistsorapproves.Whenahistoricpropertyisaffected,theagencymustobtainthecommentsofthecabinet-levelAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation(hereafter"theCouncil").

TheSection106process,setforthinregulationsat36CFR(CodeofFederalRegulations)800,isthebasicprotectioninU.S.federallawforhistoricproperties.ItappliestoallpropertiesonoreligiblefortheRegister,regardlessofownership,aslongasthereissomefederalinvolvementintheactionaffectingthem.Inpractice,thisisaconflict-resolutionprocess,bringingtogethertheprojectsponsor,preservationexperts(theCouncilandtheSHPO)andinterestedmembersofthepublic.Agreementissoughtonmeasuresthatwillpreservesignificantfeaturesofthehistoricresourcebutalsoallowtheprojecttogoforward.

Agreementisreachedinthevastmajorityofcases.Ifthereisnoagreement,theCouncilissuesformalcommentstotheheadofthefederalagencyproposingtheproject.Theagencyisobligatedtoconsiderthecommentsinreachingadecision,butisnotrequiredtofollowthem.Itisimportanttorecognizethatthissystemprovidesnofinalauthoritytovetoafederalactionthatmightdestroyahistoricproperty,regardlessoftheimportanceoftheresource.

Arelatedprogramprovidesfortherecoveryofhistoricandarchaeologicaldatathreatenedwithlossasaresultofaprojectwith

federalinvolvement.UndertheArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974(16USC460),anagencymustnotifytheSecretaryoftheInteriorwhensignificantdatawillbelost.TheagencyorSecretaryisauthorizedtoundertakerecoveryofthedata,inaccordancewithspecifiedstandards,andprojectfundsareallowedtobeusedforthispurpose.ThisprogramisadministeredbytheNPS.

ForarchaeologicalresourceslocatedonU.S.federalorIndianlands,substantiallygreaterprotectionsexist(Hutt1994,Huttetal.1992).TheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979(16USC470aa-mm)prohibitstheunauthorizedexcavationofarchaeologicalsitesandartifactsonthoselands,establishescivilandcriminalpenaltiesforviolations,andrequirestheestablishmentofpublicarchaeologicalawarenessprogramsonfederallands.Apermitsystemregulatestheconductoflegitimatescientificinvestigations.

AfinalprovisionofgeneralapplicationtoU.S.federalagenciesisSection110oftheNHPA.Thisobligatesfederalagenciestomanagehistoricresourcesundertheircontrolinaccordancewithprofessionalpreservationstandardsandpolicies.In1988,theNPSissued"GuidelinesforFederalAgencyResponsibilitiesunderSection110oftheNationalHistoricPreservationAct"(53FR[FederalRegister]4727).Thesecomplementthe"Secretary'sStandardsandGuidelinesforArcheologyandHistoricPreservation"(48FR44716),whichgenerallyapplytogovernmentalactivitiesaffectinghistoricproperties.Section110requirementswerestrengthenedintheNationalHistoricPreservationActAmendmentsof1992(PublicLaw102-575),whichrequirefederalagenciestoestablishpreservationprogramsfortheidentification,evaluation,Registernomination,andprotectionofhistoricproperties.ManyfirstAmericanssitesareonlandsownedorcontrolled(bylicense,permit,orfinancialsupport)bythefederalgovernment.

Asnotedearlier,particularprovisionsofU.S.federallawandregulationdealwiththeinterestsofNativeAmericansinhistoricresources.TheregulationsimplementingSection106makespecialprovisionfortheinvolvementofIndiantribesandotherNativeAmericansintheprojectreviewprocess.Likewise,theCouncilhasadoptedspecificpoliciesregardingthetreatmentofhumanremainsandgravegoodsinSection106cases.Morespecifically,theU.S.

NativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationActof1990(NAGPRA;26USC3001)legislatedtheownershiporcontrolofcertaintypesofNativeAmericanculturalitems(includinghumanremainsandassociatedfuneraryobjects,andunassociatedfuneraryobjects,sacredobjects,andobjectsofculturalpatrimony)excavated

ordiscoveredonfederalortriballands.ownershipoftheseculturalitemsisassignedtoNativelinealdescendantsortribesorNativeorganizationsinadesignatedpriorityorder,andownershavetherighttoclaimthoseitemsandrequesttheirreturn.FirstAmericanshumanremainsandassociatedfuneraryobjectsmaybesubjecttoNativerepatriationunderthislaw.

TheAmericanIndianReligiousFreedomAct(AIRFA;16USC1996)declaresittobethepolicyoftheUnitedstatestoprotectthefreeexerciseoftraditionalreligionsbyAmericanIndiansandtoprovideaccesstosacredsitesandtheuseofsacredobjects.Asecondprovisionrequiresfederalagenciestoevaluatetheirprogramstoaccommodatethispolicy.Whilethishasnotprovidedspecificlegalprotectiontotraditionalsitesandobjects,ithasinfluencedtheimplementationofotherfederalpreservationlaws,suchastheNHPA,andisoccasionallyreferredtoinregulationsandguidelinesrelatingtoarchaeologicalandhistoricpreservation.TheReligiousFreedomRestorationActof1993(42USC2000bb)saysthatthegovernmentshouldnot"substantiallyburdenreligiousexercisewithoutcompellingjustification."ThislawisexpectedtostrengthenagencyconsiderationoftheAIRFApolicystatementinagencyplanningandoperations.

Insummary,theU.S.federalprogramprovidesfortheidentificationofarchaeologicallyandhistoricallysignificantresourcesandensurestheircarefulconsiderationintheplanningoffederalandfederallysupportedprojects.Likewise,federallyownedarchaeologicalresourcesaregivenstringentprotectionagainstvandalismandlooting.However,thereachoffederallawtoprivatelyheldresourcesislimitedanditsstricturesonlyapplytotheactionsoffederalagenciesthatmayharmsuchproperties.

StateHistoricPreservationLaws

Theroleofthestategovernmentisessentiallythreefold:itisapartnerwiththefederalgovernmentincarryingoutthepro-

visionsoffederallaw;animplementerofstatepreservationlaws;andanauthorizerfortheconductofpreservationregulationatthelocalgovernmentlevel.Thefirstroleisembodiedinthestatehistoricpreservationprogram,throughwhichtheSHPOparticipatesinthesurveyandinventoryingactivitiesrelatedtotheexpansionoftheRegisterandplaysanactiveroleintheconflict-resolutionprocessofSection106.

Thesecondrolevariesgreatlyfromstatetostate.AnumberofstateshaveprojectreviewprocessessimilartoSection106oftheNHPA,coveringactivitiesinvolvingstateagencies.Theseareoftentiedtostateinventoriesofhistoricproperties,similartotheRegisterbutusuallyembracingalargernumberofpropertiesthanthestatehasnominatedtothefederallist.Onlyafewstates,though,extendtheseprotectionstoprivateactionswithnogovernmentalinvolvement.

Closelyrelatedarestateenvironmentalpolicyacts,requiringconsiderationoftheimpactsofstateandlocalgovernment-sponsoredprojectsontheculturalandnaturalenvironments.Theselawscustomarilymandateenvironmentalimpactstatementsandoftenprovideamechanismforrejectingprojectsthathaveunacceptableimpacts.Theyareoftenusedtoprotecthistoricandarchaeologicalresources.

Moststateshaveenactedspeciallawsfortheprotectionofarchaeologicalsites.Mostcommonarelawsthatparalleltheprotectionsforfederallyownedlands.Theyestablishapermitsystemforexcavationonstate-ownedlandsandoftenplacetheadministrationofthesystemunderadesignatedstatearchaeologist.Afewstateshaveextendedprotectiontoprivatelands,requiringtheconsentoftheownerbeforeanyonedisturbsanarchaeologicalsite.

Arelatedareaofstateactivitytoprotectarchaeologicalresourcesextendstothoseresourceslocatedunderwater.Withauthorityfrom

thefederalAbandonedShipwreckActof1987(43USC2101),statesnowhavetitletohistoricshipwreckswithintheirjurisdictionandcanissuepermitstoregulatesalvage.The1987lawclarifiedstateauthorityandisexpectedtogenerateanumberofneworrevisedstatelaws.

Anothersomewhatarcaneareaoflawisalsousedforarchaeologicalprotectionlegislationenactedtoprotect

cemeteries.Whilenotalwaysspecificallydirectedathistoriccemeteriesandburials,prohibitionsonthedisturbanceofgravesofferalegaltoolthatcanbequiteeffective.Cemeteryandunmarkedburiallawsarealsofoundatthestate(Price1991)andlocallevel.

Finally,undertheU.S.Constitutionthosepowersnotgiventothefederalgovernmentarereservedtothestates.Asaresult,theexerciseofsuchauthoritiesasthepolicepowerbylocalgovernments,whicharecreaturesofthestate,mustbebasedondelegationsofauthorityfromthestategovernment.Accordingly,thebasisforlocalgovernmentregulationmustbefoundinstateconstitutionsorlegislativeenactments.Thusthestateplaysanimportantroleinshapingtheprotectionofhistoricresourcesatthelocallevel.

LocalRegulationofHistoricProperties

ItisatthelocallevelofU.S.governmentthatdirectregulationofprivateactivityaffectinghistoricresourcesoccurs.Consistentwithstateenablinglegislation,generalzoningauthority,orconstitutionalprovision,alocalgovernmentmayenactasystemthatrequiresapprovalfromagovernmentalbodybeforeaprivateactionisallowedtomodifyordestroyahistoricproperty.ThishasbeendoneinhundredsofcommunitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates.

Essentially,theprotectiveprocessrequiresformaldesignationofapropertyasalocallandmarkandthenestablishesagovernmentalcommissiontoreviewandapproveproposedalterationsordemolition.Whilethisprocesscanbeusedforindividuallylistedproperties,itismostoftenappliedtohistoricdistricts.Theextentofcontrolmayvaryfromsimplydelayingtheproposedactionforaperiodoftimetoallownegotiationtooutrightprohibition.

Whilethesetechniqueshavebeenprimarilyusedtoprotecthistoricstructuresandneighborhoods,theyhavealsobeenemployedinsome

jurisdictionstoprotectarchaeologicalresources.Whensoused,asimilarpublicagencyreviewoccurs

ofproposedprivateactionwhichmaydisturbarecognizedarchaeologicalsite,leadingtoapprovalordisapproval.

APrivateLawApproachtoPreservation

Theforegoingdiscussionhasfocusedonpublicregulationtoprotecthistoricproperties.Oneofthemosteffectivetoolsforlong-termpreservationofhistoricandarchaeologicalresourcescomesfromconsensualarrangementsamongprivatepartiesandgovernmentagencies(seeHenry1993).Throughtheuseofeasementsorpreservationrestrictions,privatepropertiesarevoluntarilyremovedfromthethreatofdevelopment.

Aneasementessentiallyisthesurrenderofcertaindevelopmentrightsbytheownerofaproperty,usuallyinexchangeformoneyorsometaxbenefit.Aholdingorganization,eitheragovernmentalbodyornonprofitorganization,isgiventhelegalrighttoreviewproposedchangestoahistoricpropertyoralterationsareprohibitedaltogether.

Theserestrictions"runwiththeland,"bindingsuccessivepurchasersinaccordancewiththetermsoftheeasement.Astheyarenotimposedonanunwillingownerbyagovernmentalbody,theytendtobemoresuccessfulinachievingtheirpreservationobjective.Easementsarewidelyusedtoprotectopenspaceandarchaeologicallysignificantproperties.

Summary:TheU.S.ProtectiveSystem

ProtectinghistoricresourcesintheUnitedStatesreliesupontheinterplayofthreelevelsofgovernment.Whilethestandardsfordecidingwhatissignificantarelargelyderivedfromthefederalgovernment,theirapplicationandthemosteffectiveimpositionofcontrolsoccursatthestateandlocallevels.Onlyatthelocalleveldoestheauthorityexisttoabsolutelyprohibitthedestructionofa

privatelyownedhistoricproperty.However,theintegrationofhistoricpreservationconcerns

intotheplanningofpublicprojectsishighlydevelopedandachievessubstantialsuccessinaccommodatingdevelopmentandpreservationgoals.

TheCanadianExperience:ABriefComparison

WhileCanadahasafederalstructureinmanywayssimilartothatoftheU.S.,therearesubstantialdifferencesinthegovernmentalapproachtopreservation(seeMagne,thisvolume).Thisstemsfromtheconstitutionalassignmentofallmatterspertainingprimarilyto"propertyandcivilrights"toprovincialjurisdiction.Theprotectionofhistoricpropertiesissuchamatter.Asaresultthenationalgovernment'sinvolvementwithhistoricresourcesislimitedtopropertieswhichitowns,propertiesintheterritories,propertyofficiallydeclaredtobe"forthegeneraladvantageofCanada,"andpropertyinvolvedinanundertakingoverwhichthefederalgovernmenthasjurisdiction.

Thenationalgovernmenthastakenstepstoprotectthosehistoricpropertiesoverwhichithassomejurisdiction.Forexample,inCanadatheFederalHeritageBuildingPolicyof1982establishesapreservationagencytooverseeactivitiesaffecting"heritageproperties"overfortyyearsold.ItsfunctionsareakintothoseoftheUnitedStates'NPSwithregardtothedevelopmentofaregisterofhistoricproperties,promotionofconservationatprovincialandterritoriallevels,andmanagementofhistoricproperties.LiketheU.S.AdvisoryCouncil,theCanadianFederalHeritageBuildingReviewOfficeischargedwithestablishingcriteriaandprocedurestoevaluateplansforalterationsanddemolitionofheritageproperties.

AgainasintheU.S.,CanadahasspecialprotectionsforresourceslocatedonIndianreserves.UndertheIndianAct,governmentapprovalisrequiredfortheacquisitionofcertainhistoricand

archaeologicalresourcesassociatedwithIndianculture,graves,andart.

WhiletheroleofthenationalgovernmentinprotectinghistoricpropertiesissubstantiallylessthanintheUnitedStates,

substantialstepshavebeentakenattheprovinciallevel.OftentheseparalleltheactivitiesofstatesintheU.S.,withsomeadditionalactionstakentocompensatefortheabsenceofnationalgovernmentauthority.ProvincialprogramsaresimilartothoseintheU.S.states:effectivepreservationprogramsarebasedonaninventoryofsignificantproperties,evaluatedagainstprofessionalcriteria,andthenaffordedprotectionsinplanningandthrougharegulatoryprocess.Theprotectiveprocessesvary,butsomeprovincesrequirethataspecifiedamountoftimeelapsebeforeaheritageresourcecanbealteredandothersextendmorestringentformsofpriorapproval.

Archaeologicalresourcesareoftengivenspecialprotection,againinamannersimilartothatintheUnitedStates.Protectedsitesmayrequiregovernmentpermits,andsometimestheconsentoftheowner,forexcavation.Removalofartifactsfromaprovincemaybeprohibitedwithoutprovincialgovernmentapproval.

Finally,manyprovincesrecognizetheimportanceofmunicipalcontroloverhistoricproperties.Provinciallegislationmayenablelocalgovernmentstoestablishconservationadvisorycommittees,which,liketheirU.S.counterparts,overseetheprotectionofheritageconservationdistricts.

Insum,theCanadianlegalenvironmentfavorstheapplicationofpreservationprotectionsattheprovincialandlocallevel.TheparallelswiththeU.S.experiencearemany,buttheconstitutionallimitationsonnationalgovernmentactionresultinimportantdifferences.

Conclusion:TheNorthAmericanLegalLandscape

ThetraditionsofEnglishcommonlawhavejoinedwithadistinctlyNorthAmericanapproachtotheprotectionofprivatepropertyrightsandthedecentralizationofgovernmenttoplaceadistinctivestamponhistoricpreservationlaw.Whilethenationalgovernmentmayset

generalstandardsandcriteriaandtaketheleadershipinanationwidepreservationprogram,effectiveregulationandprotectionofhistoricpropertiesoc-

cursatalevelofgovernmentclosertotheregulatedpropertyowner.

Thisdoesnotnecessarilyresultinalowerlevelofprotectionforhistoricproperties,butdoeschangethepoliticaldynamicsofestablishingandadministeringprotectiveprograms.Recognitionofwheretheeffectivelegislativeandadministrativedecisionmakingoccursisessentialtotheeffectivecreationanduseoflegaltoolstoprotecthistoricresources.

ReferencesCited

Henry,SusanL.

1993ProtectingArcheologicalSitesonPrivateLand.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,InteragencyResourcesDivision,PreservationPlanningBranch,Washington.

Hutt,Sherry

1994TheCivilProsecutionProcessoftheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceTechnicalBriefNo.16.

Hutt,Sherry,ElwoodW.Jones,andMartinE.McAllister

1992ArcheologicalResourceProtection.ThePreservationPress,Washington.

Price,H.Marcus,III

1991DisputingtheDead.U.S.LawonAboriginalRemainsandGraveGoods.UniversityofMissouriPress,Columbia.

Archaeology'sWorld:TheLegalEnvironmentinAsiaandLatinAmericaCharlesR.McGimseyIII

Legalsystemsare,ultimately,statementsofpoliticalphilosophy,andnoonepoliticalphilosophyisheldworldwide.NearlyallcountriesinAsiaandLatinAmericaexpress,throughlegislation,aconcernforculturalresources.Inmostinstancesacountryassertslegalstandingwithrespecttoculturalresourcesbecauseitrecognizesthatitsarchaeologicalandhistoricalheritageisakeyelementinthedelineationofitsmodernnationalidentity.MostcountriesinAsia,butfewerinLatinAmerica,assertoutrightownershipandnearlyallendeavortoexertsomemeasureofcontrolthroughregistrationofsites,permits,orcontrolofexportationofartifactstoforeignlands.LawswithinternationalramificationssuchasthatoftheUnitedStatesonImportationofpre-ColombianMonumentalandArchitecturalSculptureorMuralsandUNESCOconventionswhich,whenadoptedbyacountry,havetheforceoflawareplayinganincreasingroleasareparalegaldocumentssuchasUNESCORecommendationsandICOMOSCharters.

Indiscussingthelegalenvironmentofarchaeologyitmustberecognizedattheoutsetthatlawsandlegalsystemsarefirst,foremost,andforeverpoliticalstatements.Politics,inturn,istheartofthepossible.Legalstructuresdohave(fortunately)acertaininertiaagainsttheebbandflowofpopularopinionbuttheyare,andintheendmustbe,areflectionandanexpressionofthestrongestcurrentculturalforce.Sometimesthatstrengthisexpressedbyrawpower.Moreoftenitisanexpressionoracontinuationofculturaltraditionas

adjustedbywidespread,deeplyfelt,currentgoals.Itmaybethat,''Weholdthesetruthstobeselfevident,"butifsucceedinggenerationsdonot,theprinciplessetforthintheU.S.DeclarationofIndependenceandreflectedinU.S.lawswillbechangedorabandoned.

Thesecondimportantimplicationofthefactthatlawsareastatementofapubliclyacceptedphilosophyisthatnoonephilosophyisacceptedworldwideandthereforelegalprincipleswilltendtodifferasphilosophiesandculturalhistoriesdiffer.(However,attemptsarecontinuingtodevelop,andhaveadopted,broadlyacceptedprinciples[seebelow]).Thereap-

peartobe,worldwide,threemajorlegalphilosophiesorapproaches:

CommonLawsystemsarethosebased,likeEnglishlaw,onjudicialdecisionssupplementedbyoftenverydetailedstatutesonvarioustopics.MostEnglish-speakingnations,andthosecountrieswithlegalhistoriescloselyassociatedwithEnglish-speakingnations,havesuchsystems.

CivilLaworCodeLawsystems,basedonRomanlaw,aregenerallycodifiedinstatuteswhichsetforthgeneralprinciples.Thesearethenappliedbyjudgestoallareasoflaw.

LegalsystemsbasedonMarxist/LeninistsocialtheoryaresomewhatsimilarintechniquetoCivilLawbuttheirconceptofpropertyisdistinctfromCommonLaw.

Allthreeoftheselegalphilosophiesareoperativeinthegeographicareasunderconsiderationhere.

WhilenearlyallcountriesinAsiaandinLatinAmericaexpress,throughlegislation,aconcernabouttheirculturalresources,thespecificsvarywidelyanddefyconcisesummarization.Inmostinstancesacountryassertslegalstandingwithrespecttoitsculturalresourcesbecauseitrecognizesthatitsarchaeologicalandhistoricalheritageisakeyelementinthedelineationofitsmodernnationalidentity.Onlyaveryfewcountries(e.g.,Paraguay)havemadealmostnorealisticattempttoassertlegalstandingwithrespecttotheirarchaeologicalresources.Others(e.g.,China,Japan,Mexico,andPeru)devoteconsiderablelegislativeattentiontosuchresources.Thereisenormousvariationinbetween.

NationalLegalApproaches

MostcountriesinAsiadeclaretoonedegreeorinonemanneroranotheroutrightstateownershipofculturalresources(e.g.,China

assumesnationalownershipofallculturalobjectsundergroundorunderwater)and/ortheyexertahighlevelofcontroloverarchaeologicalresearch(e.g.,inMongoliaallresearchissubjecttoapprovalbytheAcademy).Chinaand

Japan,inparticular,emphasizeplanning(e.g.,Japanrequiresadvancenotice,planning,andconsultationwheneverconstructionworkwillinvolvetheexcavationofanysitewellknowntocontainburiedculturalproperty).

AlmostallAsiancountriestrytorestricttheoutflowofculturalpropertiesandmanyattempttocontrolexcavationbyvarioustechniquessuchaspermits,bytheregistrationofsites,orbyrequiringthereportingoffinds.

AnumberofAsiancountriesareparticularlynotedfortheirlong-standingaffirmativeapproach,ascontrastedwithrestrictivelegislation,inidentifyingandprotectingtheirculturalresources.IndiaandPakistanhavehadanArchaeologicalSurveysinceitwasestablishedbytheBritishin1861.China,Japan,andIndonesiaalsohaveactivenationalprogramsofresearchandprotection.

LatinAmerica,despitealonghistoryofwholesalelootingofitsculturalresources,byforeignersandcompatriots,fromconquistadorstohuaqueros,hasnothadauniformattituderegardingtheprotectionofthearchaeologicalheritage.Insomecountriesthereisanemphasisonthearchaeologicalheritageasapartofthenationalidentity.Inothers,privateinterestshavebeenabletorestrictlegislationaffectingprivatepropertyorpreventingthedestructionofarchaeologicalresourcesbyconstructionprojects.Onlyafewcountriesappeartohavereallyactivepositiveprograms.TheprogramsinMexicoandPeruareperhapsmostnotable,buttherearesomeotherssuchasinGuatemalaandEcuador.

Overall,MexicoandPeruhavedevotedthegreatestattentiontotheirculturalresources.Mexico,likemostCentralAmericancountries,assumesnationalownershipofallculturalmonuments,butPanamahasnosuchlegislation,andCostaRicaconcentratesonartifacts.

Peruassumesnationalownershipofallsites,butprivatelandownersmayretainpropertyrightsifthesiteisregistered.Clandestineexcavationsareoutlawed.Honduras"takesproperty[assumesnationalownership]inallregisteredhistoricmonumentsandtheircontentsandprovidesspecialprotectionofotheritems'irrespectiveoftheirownership'"(O'KeefeandPrott1984:58),andinEcuadorandArgentinasitesare

declaredtobestateproperty.Elsewhere,ownership,orevencontrol,isextremelyvariedandlessclearlyenunciated.Forexample,Brazilprovidesforregisteredsites,ChilerequirespermitsforexcavationatallNationalMonuments,andanumberofcountriesassumenationalownershipofallartifactsdiscoveredafterspecificestablisheddates.

Controlsoverexcavationbyforeignersand/orovertheexportofartifactsareextremelywidespreadinLatinAmericawith,again,MexicoandPeruhavingthemostdetailedregulations.InPeruitisstipulatedthatworkmayonlybedonebyscientificorganizations,thatallartifactsarestatepropertyandmustremaininthecountry,andthatallresearchprogramsmustincorporatelocalscientistsandstudents.

The1972U.S.lawontheImportationofpre-ColumbianMonumentalorArchitecturalSculptureorMuralsmakesitillegaltoimportintotheUnitedStatesculturalitemswhoseexportisforbiddenbyMexico,andCentralandSouthAmericanstates.WithrespecttoAsia,theUNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization)conventiononillicitimport,notedbelow,canhaveasomewhatsimilareffect.

InternationalApproaches

Legalapproachesareuniquetoeachcountrytoamarkeddegree,but,particularlysinceWorldWarII,therehavebeenincreasingefforts,throughUNESCOand,morerecently,throughtheInternationalCouncilonMonumentsandSites(ICOMOS),todesignandhaveadoptedmoreuniversallyaccepteddocumentsandguidelines.

ThreeUNESCOconventionshaveparticularrelevancetotheprotectionofthearchaeologicalheritage:

ConventionfortheProtectionofCulturalPropertyintheEventofArmedConflict,1954

ConventionontheMeansofProhibitingandPreventingtheIllicitImport,ExportandTransferofOwnershipofCulturalProperty,1970

ConventionfortheProtectionoftheWorldCulturalandNaturalHeritage,1972

Conventions,bytraditionalinternationallaw,are"immediatelybindingonthestatespartytothem,thoughtheyoftencannotbeinvokedbyindividualsorgroupswithinthosestatesuntiltheyhavebeenincorporatedinnationallaw"(O'KeefeandPrott1984:75).

TherearealsofourteenUNESCOrecommendationsonculturalheritage,severalofwhichhavesubsequentlybecomeconventions.RecommendationsarenotlawbuttheInternationalCourtofJusticerecognizesthat"theteachingsofthemosthighlyqualifiedpublicistsofthevariousnations[are]subsidiarymeansforthedeterminationofrulesoflaw"(StatuteoftheInternationalCourtofJustice,Art.38(c)and(d)).UNESCOrecommendationswouldcertainlyseemtoqualifyunderthiscriteriaandthusbecomepartofthegeneralprinciplesoflawrecognizedbynations.

Finally,thereisanothersetofdocumentswhich,liketheUNESCOrecommendations,constitutepowerfulconsensusstatementswithdirectrelevancetotheprotectionoftheworld'sarchaeologicalandhistoricalheritage.ThesearetheICOMOScharters.OfgeneralinterestistheCharterfortheConservationofHistoricTownsandUrbanAreas,theso-called"VeniceCharter,"whichhasonlyrecentlybeenadopted.OfmuchgreaterpotentialrelevancetoarchaeologyistheCharterfortheProtectionoftheArchaeologicalHeritageunderdevelopmentbytheICOMOSInternationalCommitteeonArchaeologicalHeritageManagementandadoptedbytheNinthICOMOSGeneralAssembly,Lausanne,1990.Thisdocumentendeavorstosetforthinternationallyacceptableguidelineswithrespecttolegislation,inventories,research,curation,professionalqualifications,andinternationalcooperationwhichwillbeessentialtousallasweworkwithinalegalenvironmenttocarryoutthemost

effectivearchaeologicalresearch,management,andconservation.

Acknowledgment

IamdeeplyindebtedtoP.J.O'KeefeandL.V.Prott(1984)forthemajorityofthespecificlegaldetailsandmanyofthethoughtsreportedinthispaper,buttheycannotbeheldresponsibleformyinterpretations.

Reference

O'Keefe,P.J.,andL.V.Prott

1984LawandtheCulturalHeritage,Volume1,DiscoveryandExcavation.ProfessionalBooksLtd.,Abingdon,Oxon.

GovernmentSupportofArchaeologyinCanadaMartinP.R.Magne

Whenthispaperwaspresented,Canadadidnothavefederalarchaeologicalresourcemanagementlegislation.However,theCanadianDepartmentofCommunicationsisinprocessofcompletinganationalreviewofarchaeologicallegislationandpolicy,hopefullyleadingtodraftlegislation.ProfessionalactivityinCanadaleadingtothepolicyreviewisdiscussed,asarethekeypointswhichthefederalpolicymakersareconsidering.Theprovincialexperience,inparticularthatofAlberta,ispresentedascontrastandexample.InternationalrecognitionofCanadiansitesandinterpretivedevelopmentshavecreatedanenvironmentofpublicappreciationforthevalueofproperarchaeologicalresourcemanagementonwhichtheCanadiangovernmentwouldbewisetocapitalize.

ThetopicofgovernmentsupportforarchaeologyinCanadaistimely,becausetheCanadiangovernmentiscompletingafullandlong-awaitedreviewofitsarchaeologicalheritagepolicy.Asofthetimethisarticlewenttopress,Canadahasnooverridingarchaeologicalprotectionandmanagementlegislation,buttheCanadianDepartmentofCommunicationsstaffhavepreparedlegislative"draftinginstructions"fortheirministertobringtocabinet.

Thisarticleaddressesthissituationatsomelength,becausethereisacommonperceptionthatCanadahashadawelldevelopedpublictrust,atrustmadepublicbythoroughlegislation,competentresourcemanagement,andintelligentandtastefulculturaltourism.Inshort,thereisaperceptionthatCanadaisquiteactiveinrepayingitspublic

trust.Attheriskofseemingsomewhatbiased,IwillcontrastthefederalsituationwiththeAlbertaexperience,sinceIbelieveitinstructivetoillustratewhatcanbedonewitharchaeologywhenasolidpublictrustdoesexist.

FederalStateofAffairsinCanada

Atpresent,Canada'sarchaeologicalsitesonfederallandsarenot:

Protectedasarchaeologicalsites,unlesstheyareoffiveparticulartypesonIndianReserves1(DepartmentofIndianandNorthernAffairsDevelopmentAct1967).Thereisnoexplicitprotectionofferedforarchaeologicalsites.PenaltiesforcontraventionoftheIndianActamounttoamaximumfineof$200ornotmorethanthreemonthsinjail.Intheory,onecouldremoveatotempolefromareserve,sellittoanynumberofdealersforasmallfortune,andbefined$200.

Necessarilysubjecttoimpactassessmentormitigationineventofdevelopmentimpacts.

UnderCrowntrusteeshipasaparticularresource.

Registeredormanagedbyacentralsystem.Canadaatthemomenthasnocentralregistryofarchaeologicalsitesonfederallands,nocentrallistofarchaeologicalresearchpermits,andnocentralrepositoryofarchaeologicalreports(seeCAA1986:1)

Itwould,however,bemisleadingtosaythatCanadahasnomeanswhatsoeverofmanagingitsarchaeologicalresources.ManagementofarchaeologicalresearchandresourcesinCanadaoccursatfederal,provincialandmunicipallevels.Sufficeitheretopointoutthattheprovinces,whilenotallequal,haveledthewayinarchaeologicalprotection,andhavegenerallystringentandeffectivearchaeologicallegislationandresourcemanagementagencies.Federalarchaeologyfallsprincipallyundertwoagencies:theCanadianMuseumofCivilization(CMC)andtheCanadianParksService(CPS).Withnoarchaeologicallegislation,theseagenciesoperateundermuseumandparkslaws.TheCPS,however,doeshaveseveralpoliciesconcerningarchaeologicalresources,includingmanagementguidelinesand

ministerialdirectivesapplyingto

1.Theseinclude(a)Indiangravehouses,(b)carvedgravepoles,(c)totempoles,(d)carvedhouseposts,and(e)rocks"embellishedwithpaintingsorcarvings."

collectionsandhumanremains.ArchaeologicalresourcesintheCPSaretreatedassignificantresourcesintheenvironmentalassessmentandreviewprocess.2

Canadaisnowcompletingalargemuseumcomplex,theCanadianMuseumofCivilization,whichwilllikelycostover$300millionbythetimeitiscomplete.TheCMChousestheArchaeologicalSurveyofCanada(ASC)which,despiteitsname,isnotmandatedtomanageallofthearchaeologicalresourcesonfederallands.Rather,itstaskisoneofresearch,collection,andexhibition;itisprimarilymuseum-andeducation-oriented,althoughitalsoplaysaroleinmanagementthroughitsRescueArchaeologyProgram.Thenorthernterritories,theYukonandtheNorthwestTerritories,whilewithoutarchaeologicallegislation,operateregulatoryandresearchbureausunderregulationspursuanttotheactswhichbroughttheterritoriesintoexistence.Theseterritorieswouldliketoobtainprovincialstatus,andinturndeveloptheirownantiquitiesorheritagelegislations(seeforexample,YukonHeritageBranch1989)butwillnotbeabletodosountiltheyhavetruelegislativebodies.

RoleoftheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation

TheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation(CAA),themainprofessionalarchaeologicalorganizationinCanada,withamembershipofaboutfourhundredindividuals,suggestedin1986thatthefederalgovernmentinstituteaCanadianAntiquitiesActwiththefollowingrecommendations(CAA1986:7;seealsoByrne1988):

1.IncorporatethespiritandintentoftheUNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization)conventionsof1956,1970,and1972;

2.Since1989,anewCanadianEnvironmentalAssessmentAct(CEAA)hasbeendraftedandcontainsprovisionsforarchaeologicalandtraditional

aboriginalresources.CEAAregulations,aswellasinclusionandexclusionlists,arebeingpreparedinanticipationofproclamationoftheactin1994.

2.Includeallcategoriesandaspectsofinsituheritageresources;

3.Supersedeallotherfederallegislationandregulationswhichrelatetothedevelopmentoffederallandsandprojects;

4.Clearlyindicatethatarchaeologicalobjectsandthe"archaeologicalsubsoil"arethepropertyoftheCrown;

5.Provideforthemanagementofnationalheritageresources;

6.Setoutguidelinesandproceduresforheritageimpactassessmentandmitigationstudiesandprovidebasicstandardsforarchaeologicalinvestigations;and

7.EstablishanationaladvisoryboardwithrepresentationfromheritagegroupsandthenativepeoplesofCanada.

TheCAA(1985)hasalsobeenactiveincallingforamendmentstotheCulturalPropertyExportandImportAct,theprincipalconcernbeingthattheactcannotactuallypreventtheexportofarchaeologicalitems.TheCAAalsobelievesthatsincetheprocessmandatedbytheactassignsmonetaryvaluetoitemsforwhichexportisbeingsought,itencouragesillicitacquisitionofarchaeologicalartifacts.In1985thefederalgovernmentrepliedthatitdidnotseeanyneedtoamendthatact,butinsteadrecognizedaneedtoinstitutepolicy"toinspireenactmentoflegislation."Intruth,itisnotknowntowhatextentCanada'sarchaeologicalresourcesareendangeredbyU.S.orotherforeignmarkets,buttheU.S.experiencetodateisfrightening.AgeneralfeelingamongCanadianarchaeologistsisthatincreasingpopulationpressurescanonlybringmoreofthehorrorstoourownbackyard.

CurrentPolicyReview

TheCAA'slobbyingeffortsappeartohavebeensuccessful.The

federalarchaeologicalpolicyreview(CanadaDepartmentofCommunications1988)hasengagedtheeffortsoffourfederaldepartments,arareeventindeed:Communications(principalpolicydevelopment;CMC,ASC),Environment(CPS,archaeologyunits),Transport(culturalpropertyexportandimport,harbors,railways)andIndianandNorthernAffairs(YukonandNorthwestTerritories,IndianReserves,treatyconsiderations).

Thetotalnumberofinterventionssubmittedwas,foranationallydistributeddiscussionpaper,moderate:morethanonehundredwrittenbriefs,mostofwhichwereverysubstantive,withgeneralagreementatpolicylevel.Nativepeopleshaveexpressedgreatinterestintheproject,inparticularShuswap,GrandTreaty3,andDene.Again,thereisgeneralagreement,butNativegroupshavequestionsaboutcomprehensiveclaimsnowinprocess,andaboutownership(McGhee1989c).

Thecommunicationsdepartmentisactingswiftly.MarcelMasse,amemberofParliament,begananarchaeologicalpolicyreviewwhenhewascommunicationsminister(seeMasse1986).Inhisabsence,theprocesslaggedconsiderably.Massereturnedasministerinthelate1980sandbeganworkonthelegislationdraftingprocessimmediately.His1986remarkstotheCAAledmanytobelievethathewillchampionthiscause.OneofMasse'sseniorofficialsatthe1989FrederictonCAAmeetingsassuredtheCAAofMasse'spersonalcommitmentbyexpressingthedesiretodraftlegislationwhichwill(McGee1989):

Resolvethequestionofownershipofarchaeologicalresourcesinareasoffederaljurisdiction;

Assuretheinclusionofarchaeologicalconsiderationsinimpactassessmentproceduresatthefederallevel(seefootnote2);

RecognizethespecialimportanceofmuchofourarchaeologicalheritageforCanada'saboriginalpeoplesandfacilitatetheiractiveinvolvementinitsprotection,management,andinterpretation;

Enhanceourcapabilitytoprotectanarchaeologicallysignificantwreckbyenablingthegovernmenttodealwithitinaheritagecontext;

Introducefurthercontrolsonthepermanentexportofarchaeological

objectsfromCanada;

Developmechanismsforarchaeologists,aswellasaboriginalpeoplesandotherinterestgroups,tohaveinputintofederalarchaeologicalresourcemanagementonanongoingbasis;

Enhancepublicappreciationofandawarenessaboutourarchaeologicalheritage,throughdisseminationofinformationandpubliceducation;and

Developtheorganizationalstructureforthefederalgovernmenttocarryoutitsresponsibilitiesrespectingarchaeologicalheritage.

TheAlbertaExampleandtheRoleofthePublic

Whilethefederalgovernmentisonlynowpreparingarchaeologicallegislation,severalCanadianprovinceshavehadfirmlegislationinplaceforsometime.Furthermore,theactivityatthefederallevelappearstobeaddressingtheprofessionalviewpoint,butisitactuallyintunewiththewishesofthegeneralpublic?TheAlbertaHistoricalResourcesAct(AHRA;ADCM1987)addressesthosepointswhichMcGee(1989)hadindicatedwerebeingconsideredforthefederalact.TheAlbertaactspecifiesCrownownership,requires''userpays"impactassessments,providesapublicadvisoryboard,explicitlyrecognizesapubliceducationrole,andallowsfortheestablishmentofappropriateagencies.TheAHRAwasmadepossiblebyaseriesofpublichearingsandapublicopinionsurveyorganizedbytheEnvironmentConservationAuthority(ECA)ofAlbertain1972(ECA1972).Some74submissionsbyindividualsandorganizationswereinstrumentalindetailingwhatwasperceivedtobelackingandwhatwereperceivedtoberealneedsforlegislationinAlberta.Thepublicopinionpollshowed,forexample,thatonly4percentofrespondentswerenotconcernedwiththematter.Forty-sevenpercentthoughtthatthegovernmentshouldowntheresourcesratherthanthefinderandfamilyorfinderonlyuntildeath.Theneedtoinstituteformaleducationwashighlightedby85percentofrespondentsindicatingthatsucheducationshouldstartingrades1and2.Thesefindingswouldnodoubtbeevenmorestronglyreflectedinthesentimentsoftoday.

Alberta'slegislationandmanagementstructurewereformedwithforesight.TheAHRAprotectspaleontologicalandnaturalhistoricresourcesaswellasarchaeologicalandhistoricperiodresources.

Albertarecognizedthatthefieldofarchaeologywasemergingintheprovinceinthelate1980s

whentheAHRAbecamelaw;thustheArchaeologicalSurveyofAlberta(ASA)wascreatedwithbothresearchandresourcemanagementsections.Otherprovincialgovernmentagenciesmaintainaresourcemanagementroleonly,leavinggovernment-basedresearchtomuseums.Ithasbecomecleartousthatpartofdevelopingapublictrustisjustifyingtheneedforarchaeology,andresourcemanagementagenciesalonecannotdothat.Athoroughmasterplanhasallowedforthematicplanning,leadingtotheopeningofHead-Smashed-InBuffaloJumpin1987,withvisitationreaching250,000inayearandahalf.Othermajorthemesarecurrentlyundergoingcapitaldevelopment,forexamplethefurtradeisbeingtreatedatFortDunveganandFortGeorge/BuckinghamHouse.OneaspectofHead-Smashed-InwhichisofparticularnoteistheveryintegralroleofNativesinexhibitdesign,ongoinginterpretation,andfieldarchaeology.TheStrathconaArchaeologicalCentreinEdmonton,alsowithastrongNativecomponent,wasthefirstofitstypeinCanada:acenterwherethegeneralpubliccouldvisitandvolunteerinanarchaeologicalprogram,yearafteryear.ResearchundertakenbytheASAhasapubliccomponentaswell.Forexample,theFirstAlbertansProject,aseriesofinvestigationsintotheinitialpeoplingoftheprovince,ismakinggreatuseofprivateartifactcollectionseverywherefromthesoutheasternpartsoftheprovincetothenorthwest.

EffectsofLegislationonPrivateCitizens

LegislationmandatingCrowncontrolofhistoricalresourcesaffectsprivatecitizens,groups,organizations,companies,andgovernmentdepartments.Inmostprovinces,thisappliestobothprivateandCrownlands.Federallegislationshouldalsorequireprivateintereststoundertakearchaeologicalimpactassessmentsattheirownexpenseinsituationswhereresourcesareknowntobeorevensuspectedof

beingendangered.InAlberta,thereisverylittleresistancetothiscondition,andthereisevidencethatthecostsofarchaeologicalimpactassessmentareamarginalexpense.Forexample,astudyin1980(Donahue

1987)showedthattheaveragecostofintensivearchaeologicalexcavationsinsubdivisionareasofCalgarywasabout$8perhouse,orabout.01percentofthecostofan$80,000house,atatimewhenbuildingprofitshadreached17percent.Somecompaniesregularlydomoreresearchthantheyarerequiredtodobylegislation,oftenoutofinterestasmuchastoensurethattherewillbenoimpacts.

Inshort,weneedtoconsidertheeffectsofsuchlegislationonthegeneralpublicaswellasontheresourceitself,oronprofessionalinterests.Whatwillanewlawsayaboutownershipofarchaeologicalspecimens?Whatshouldhappentochancediscoveries?Willsurfacecollectionbeexplicitlyforbidden,partiallycontrolled,orignored?Willavocationalistshaveaclearrole?WillNativegroups?TheCanadiangovernmentisundoubtedlythinkingcarefullyabouthowtoinstitutemechanismstodealwithprivateandgovernmentdevelopers,toefficientlyprocessreviews,issueassessmentrequirements,overseefieldwork,receivereports,andallowdevelopment,orrequiremitigation,andclosefiles.Itishopefullyalsoawarethatthesemechanismswillrequiretheirownartifactandrecordscurationsystems.Itmustalsorealizethattheprivatebusinesscommunity,particularlyarchaeologicalconsulantsandthetravelindustry,wouldbenefitfromafirmlegislativebase.

ProspectsfortheCanadianHeritageFuture

ProvincialgovernmentsbyandlargearedoingtheirjobinsupportingarchaeologyinCanada,andthefederalgovernmentismakingmovestoshowthatitistryingtocatchup.IfonelooksaroundatthemajorplayersinCanadianarchaeology,though,theuniversitiescouldsurelybedoingmoretoeducatetheirstudentsaboutresourcemanagement.HowmanyCanadiananthropologyorarchaeologydepartmentsteachtheessentialsofculturalresourcemanagement,eventograduatestudents,thosewhowillneedsuchknowledgethemost?Howmany

studentsareevenawareofthefederalpolicyreviewnowinprocess,orevenhavethefaintestideaofwhyfederallegis-

lationisnecessary?Itisobviousthatresourcemanagementarchaeologyisstillperceivedwidelyintheuniversitiesasastigmabestignored,orseensolelyasasourceofsummerincomeamongfacultyandstudentsalike.

ThefederalgovernmentofCanadaappearstobeovercominginertiaandgettingthelegislativeballrollingandonecanhopethatCanadahaslearnedmuchfromtheexperiencesofitsownprovincesandothercountries.AppropriatelegislationforCanadawouldcombineelementsoftheU.S.Moss-Bennettbill3,NationalHistoricPreservationAct4,ArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct5andAbandoned

3.TheArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974(PublicLaw[P.L.]93-291,16U.S.Code[U.S.C.]469)amendedtheReservoirSalvageActof1960andrequiresfederalagenciestonotifytheSecretaryoftheInterioriftheythinkanagency-authorizedconstructionprojectwillaffectarchaeologicalresources;toconservethoseresources,eitherthemselvesorwiththeassistanceofthesecretary;andtouseupto1percentperprojectofauthorizedprojectfundstoconductsuchconservationefforts.Subsequently,Sec.208oftheNationalHistoricReservationActAmendmentsof1980(P.L.96-515)authorizedamechanismforexceedingthat1percentlimit.Fundsforsecretarialassistancewereauthorizedinthe1974legislationbuthaveneverbeenappropriatedbytheU.S.Congress.4.TheNationalHistoricPreservationActof1966asamended(16U.S.C.470;seeFowler,thisvolume)authorizedaNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces(Register)andAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation(Council).ItrequiresthatU.S.federalagenciesinventorytheirlandsandnominatealleligiblepropertiestotheRegisterandexercisecautioninmanagingallpropertiesthatmightbeeligiblefortheRegister,andconsultwiththeCouncilaboutproposedagency-authorizedundertakingsthatmightimpactpropertiesontheRegisteroreligibleforinclusion."Historicproperties"aredefinedassignificantarchaeological,architectural,engineered,landscaped,ortraditionalculturalsitesthatareatleastfiftyyearsoldorareofexceptionalsignificance.

5.TheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979asamended(16U.S.C.470aa-mm)requirespermitsforremovalofarchaeologicalresourcesgreaterthanonehundredyearsoldfromU.S.federalortriballands,authorizescriminalandcivilpenaltiesforunpermittedremovalofsuchmaterial,andrequiresU.S.federalland-managingagenciestoestablisharchaeologicalpublicawarenessprograms.

ShipwreckAct6,withasimilarbutstrongerabsoluteabilitytocompelCanadianfederalandfederallyfundedagenciestoundertakeresourcemanagementstudiesandconservationefforts.Canada'sexperiencewithNativeinterestsandpastcooperationwithNativesinarchaeologyhavebeengood,thoughithasbeenpointedoutrecentlythatPan-NativismmayresultinacallforNativeownershipofallNorthAmericanarchaeologicalartifactsofaboriginalorigin7.Thisperspective,onethatisnotuniversaltoNativepeoples,failstorecognizethatmostarchaeologistsdonotwanttoowntheartifacts,butsimplytohaveaccesstothem.Professionalarchaeologistsvaluenottheobjectsthemselves,buttheknowledgewhichisgainedfromtheirstudy,theircontext,theirmeaning.Archaeologistscertainlydonotwishtopreventtheexistenceofotherpointsofview,butdowantthefreedomtoexpresstheirownperspectives.

IhavebeentoldthattheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAct(NAFTA),whichwasrecentlyenactedinthespiritofgreatcooperationbetweenourtwocountries,didnotoccasionanyamendmentstotheCulturalPropertyExportandImportAct.Thatisperceived,IbelievegenerallyamongCanadianarchaeologists,asanerrorwithpotentialdetrimenttoCanadian,aswellasAmerican,heritage.EchoingRobertMcGhee'srequesttotheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology(McGhee1989a),Isupportafirmpositionagainstarchaeologicalfreetrade.

CanadahassucceededinhavingafairshareofUNESCOWorldHeritageSitesdesignated,threeofwhicharearchaeological:Head-Smashed-InBuffaloJumpinAlberta,NinstintsontheQueenCharlotteIslands,andL'AnseAuxMeadowsinNewfoundland.Alberta'ssuccessfuldevelopmentofHead-

6.TheAbandonedShipwreckActof1987(43U.S.C.2101-2106)definesthelegalstatusofabandonedshipwrecksashistoricpropertiesownedbytheU.S.federalorstatelegalentityonwhosesubmergedlandsthewreck

isembedded.7.IntheUnitedStates,theNativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationActof1990(25U.S.C.3001-3013,18U.S.C.1170)assignsownershipofU.S.Indian,NativeAlaskan,andNativeHawaiianhumanremains,associatedfuneraryobjects,anditemsofculturalpatrimonyfrompublicandIndianlandstorelatedNatives.

Smashed-InandtheTyrrellMuseumofPalaeontologyandtheQueen'sdedicationofWanuskewinParkinSaskatoon,alongwiththeopeningoftheCanadianMuseumofCivilization,createawideawarenessofhistoric,heritage,andarchaeologicalissues.TheCanadiangovernmentmustsurelyrealizethatitcannotaffordnottoenactpowerfularchaeologicallegislation,forthisistheonlywayitcandeveloptheeconomicpotentialthatculturaltourismisknowntohave.ThefutureofaCanadiannationalarchaeologicalpublictrustisherenow(Brucketal.1986),andthemoodshouldbecapitalizedupon,sinceapubliclogicmaynotbecreatedagainsoeasily,norperhapssowell.

Postscript,March1994

InterventionsbyandconsultationswithCanadianAboriginalpeoplesledtoreexaminationoftheproposedfederalarchaeologylegislation,particularlysectionsdealingwithownership(forexample,seeDunn1991).WiththesupportoftheArchaeologicalResourceManagementBranch,thenoftheCanadianDepartmentofCommunications,nowwiththeDepartmentofCanadianHeritage,theCanadianArchaeologicalAssociationformedtheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociationAboriginalHeritageCommitteewithathree-yearmandate(1992/931994/95)toundertakenationwideconsultationwithFirstNationsPeoples.ThestatusoftheproposedfederalCanadianarchaeologicallegislationasof1992issummarizedinByrne(1992).

Acknowledgments

MythankstoBillByrneandJackIvesforcomments,althoughtheideasexpressedhereinareentirelymyresponsibility.RuthannKnudsongratefullyprovideddetailsconcerningU.S.legislation.

ReferencesCited

AlbertaDepartmentofCultureandMulticulturalism.(ADCM)

1987HistoricalResourcesAct.Queen'sPrinter,Edmonton.

Bruck,P.A.,I.Taylor,V.Blundell,R.Phillips,andothers.

1986ArchaeologyandtheCanadianPublics.TheCentreforCommunication,CultureandSociety.CarletonUniversity,Ottawa.

Byrne,W.J.

1988LettertoCharlesMcGee,DirectorGeneral,HeritagePolicyandProgrammes,DepartmentofCommunications,Ottawa.CAANewsletter8(2):16-19.

1992StatusofFederalArchaeologyLegislation.CAANewsletter12(1)7-8.

CanadianArchaeologicalAssociation(CAA)

1985TheCulturalPropertyExportandImportActandCanadianArchaeology:ADiscussionPaper.Ms.distributedtoCAAmembership.CAAArchives,ArchaeologicalSurvey,ProvincialMuseumofAlberta,Edmonton.

1986TheNeedforCanadianLegislationtoProtectandManageHeritageResourcesonFederalLands.CAANewsletter6(1):1-8.

DepartmentofCommunications

1988FederalArchaeologicalHeritage.ProtectionandManagement,ADiscussionPaper.GovernmentofCanada,Ottawa.

DepartmentofIndianandNorthernAffairs

1967DepartmentofIndianandNorthernAffairsDevelopmentAct.GovernmentofCanada,Ottawa.

Donahue,P.

1987Comments.InRescueArchaeology,editedbyR.L.Wilson,pp.165-166.SouthernMethodistUniversityPress,Dallas.

Dunn,M.

1991ANationalOverviewoftheDepartmentofCommunicationsConsultationwithAboriginalPeoplesonCanadianArchaeologicalHeritage.CanadianDepartmentofCommunications,Ottawa.

EnvironmentConservationAuthority(ECA)

1972TheConservationofHistoricalandArchaeologicalResourcesinAlberta.EnvironmentConservationAuthority,Edmonton,Alberta.

Masse,M.

1986TheSpeechbytheHonourableMarcelMasse,M.P.forFrontenac,MinisterofCommunications,attheAnnualConferenceoftheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation,Toronto,April26,1986.CAANewsletter6(2):19-22.

McGee,C.

1989NotesforaSpeechbyCharlesMcGee,DirectorGeneral,MuseumsandHeritage,DepartmentofCommunications,tothe22ndAnnualConferenceoftheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation(CAA),May13,1989,Fredericton,NewBrunswick.Ms.,InformationServices,CanadianDepartmentofCommunications,Ottawa,distributedtoCAAmembership.

McGhee,R.

1989aLettertoDenaDincauze,President,SocietyforAmericanArchaeology.CanadianArchaeologicalAssociationArchives,ArchaeologicalSurvey,ProvincialMuseumofAlberta,Edmonton.

1989bWhoOwnsBeringia?Paperpresentedtothe22ndAnnualMeetingoftheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation,Fredericton,NewBrunswick.CanadianJournalofArchaeology.13:13-20.

YukonHeritageBranch

1989ManagingtheYukon'sArchaeologicalResources:TowardsanArchaeologyPolicyfortheNorth.Aresponseto"FederalArchaeologicalHeritageProtectionandManagement:ADiscussionPaper."HeritageBranch,DepartmentofTourism,GovernmentoftheYukon,Whitehorse.

AnEnvironmentOutofBalanceDennisC.LeMaster

Publicpolicyforarchaeologicalresourcesisconsideredusingamosaicanalogy.Subsequently,fiveprocessesinwhichpublicpolicyisformulatedinthefederalgovernmentareidentifiedanddescribed.UsebytheReaganadministrationoftheappropriationsprocessinformulatingpublicpolicyisfeatured.ApessimisticviewofthepossibleapplicationofthePublicTrustDoctrineinresolvingconflictsoverarchaeologicalresourcesisofferedinclosing.

NaturalresourcemanagementatthefederallevelintheUnitedStatesismainlydeterminedbythepoliciesunderwhichitoperates,andtheyarethesumoftheprinciples,bothimpliedandexpressed,containedinahostofnaturalresourcelaws,administrativerules,courtdecisions,presidentialbudgetrequests,andcongressionalappropriationsacts.

Naturalresourcepolicyiscontinuallyevolving,usuallyincrementally,throughacomplexinteractionofeconomic,political,andothersocialforces,inthecontextofexistingscientificknowledgeandtechnology.Conflictisafrequentfeatureofchangeinnaturalresourcepolicy,andasaresult,changesinpolicytendtobeacceptedinstagesbythepeopleandgroupstheyaffect.

Afterreviewinglaws,administrativerules,courtdecisions,presidentialbudgetrequests,andcongressionalappropriationsactsdealingwitharchaeologicalresources,Iamconfidenttheforegoingdescriptivestatementsonnaturalresourcepolicyalsoapplytoarchaeologicalresourcepolicy,andinthesamewaythatnaturalresourcepolicyaffectsnaturalresourcemanagement,archaeological

resourcepolicyaffectsarchaeologicalresourcemanagement.

Soconsiderpublicpolicyforarchaeologicalresourcesasamosaicofpolicystatementscontainedinlaws,administrativerules,courtdecisions,recentpresidentialbudgetrequests,andcongressionalappropriationsacts,withthedifferenthuesindicatingtherelativeimportanceofthestatements.Oncethat

isdone,considerthemosaicevolvingsometimesslowly,sometimesrapidly,likeachild'skaleidoscope.Havingcompletedthisexercise,onemayhaveabetterappreciationofthecontextandcomplexity,themetesandbounds,ofpublicpolicyasitconcernsarchaeologicalresources.

PublicPolicyProcesses

Inarepresentativedemocracycharacterizedbyseparationofpowersandfederalism,publicpolicyisformulatedinseveralestablished,formalprocesses.TherearefivesuchprocessesintheUnitedStates,atleastoneineachofthethreebranchesofgovernment.Mostfamiliaristheauthorizingprocesstheprocessbywhichlawsaremadeandfederalprogramsestablishedlocatedinthelegislativebranch,Congress.Thereisnoequivocationhere.ArticleIoftheConstitutionisclear:AlllegislativepowersarevestedintheCongress.Publicpolicyisalsoformulatedinthelegalprocessthroughcourtdecisions.Ofcourse,theorganizationalsitusofthisprocessisthejudicialbranch.Lessfamiliar,however,arethethreeremainingprocessesinwhichpublicpolicyisformulated,namely:therule-makingprocess,theprocessbywhichthepresident'sannualbudgetrequestisdevelopedandprepared,andthecongressionalappropriationsprocess.Thefirsttwoarelocatedintheexecutivebranchandthelatterinthelegislativebranch.Rulescanbedefinedasexecutivebranchagencystatementsdesignedtoimplement,interpret,orprescribelawortodescribetheorganization,procedure,orpracticerequirementsoftheagency.

Allfiveprocesseshavemultipledecisionpoints.Citizenscanparticipateinatleastthreeofthemtheauthorizingprocess,therule-makingprocess,andtheappropriationsprocess.Andtheyoftendo,sometimesalone,moreofteninorthroughgroups.Theywritelettersandstatementsfortherecordandappearaswitnessesduringpublic

hearingsintheauthorizingandappropriationsprocesses.Moreactivelyengagedcitizensmayevenparticipateinsomeofthebargainingandcoalition

buildingthatoftenaccompaniescongressionalconsiderationoflegislation.Intherule-makingprocess,interestedcitizenscansubmitwrittenviewsonarulewithinastipulatedtimeperiod,andtheymayhavetheopportunitytopresentanoralargument.Citizensalsohaveaccesstothelegalprocess.Theycansue,butusuallytodosotheymusthave''standing,"asufficientstakeinajusticiablecontroversytoobtainjudicialresolution.Forexample,tosuethefederalgovernmentforsomeactiononitspart,onehastoshowinjury,economicorotherwise,forthecourttobewillingtoconsiderthesuit.Theprocessusedindevelopingandpreparingthepresident'sannualbudgetrequesttoCongressistheonlyprocessofthefivewhichisinaccessibletothepublic.Actually,"inaccessible"isprobablytoostrongacharacterization.Afterall,presidentialcandidatesandtheirpoliciesaresubjecttopublicscrutinyandvotingeveryfouryears.

TheenvironmentinwhichpublicpolicyisformulatedintheUnitedStatesisincrediblyopenandaccessible,andIwouldencourageyoutoparticipate.Therearesofewwhofeelstronglyaboutarchaeologicalresources.Thereisalargeandgrowingthreatofhugeenvironmentaldisastersoccurringonourplanet,dueinlargeparttoexcessivehumanpopulationgrowth,andIthinkarchaeologistshavesomeimportantscientificevidencetoofferpolicymakersonwhathappenswhenahumanpopulationgrowsbeyondthatwhichitsenvironmentandtechnologiescansustain.

Havingencouragedparticipation,Ishouldalsocautionthatappearancesandrealityaresometimesverydifferentinpublicpolicy.Forexample,oneofthemosteffectivestrategiesoftheReaganadministrationwastoformulatepolicyinthedevelopmentandpreparationofthepresident'sbudgetrequestandthecongressionalappropriationsprocessandtoavoidtheauthorizingprocess.WhenhewasdirectoroftheOfficeofManagementandBudget,DavidStockmanfrequentlyspokeof"zeroingoutaprogram,"understanding

verywellthataprogramwithoutfundingiseffectivelynoprogramatallandthatthistechniquewasaneasywaybywhichanadministrationcanriditselfofaprogramatoddswithadministrationpolicy.

PolicyFormulationintheBudgetingProcess

DuringtheU.S.presidentialcampaignof1980,RonaldReaganpromisedtocutbothtaxesandnon-defensespending,increasedefensespending,andbalancethebudget.TaxeswerecutsubstantiallybytheKemp-RothTaxBill(moreaccurately,theEconomicRecoveryTaxActof1981).Sowasnon-defensespending.Butgiventhesizeofthetaxcutandtheincreaseindefensespending,aswellasthemagnitudeofoutlaysassociatedwithentitlementprograms,thefederalbudgetcouldnotbebroughtintobalance,evenwithrepeatedmajorcutsinvariousareasofnon-defensespending.Theresultwasunprecedenteddeficits,ahuge(2.5times)increaseinthefederaldebt,andarelativedoublingofinterestpaymentsbythefederalgovernmenttoserviceitsdebt.

ThesechangesaresummarizedinTable1,whichcontainsdataonthepercentagedistributionofbudgetoutlayswithrespecttothefourlargestbudgetsuperfunctionsofthefederalgovernmentforfiscalyears1977through1988.Twomajortrendsareevidentbeginninginfiscalyear1980.First,bothnationaldefenseandnetinterestpaymentsincreaseasapercentageoftotaloutlays.Second,bothhumanresourcesandphysicalresourcesdecreaseuntilfiscalyear1987,inthecaseoftheformer,andfiscalyear1988inthecaseofthelatter.

Theeffectsofthesepolicieswereadversetofederalnaturalresourceandenvironmentalprograms."Naturalresourcesandenvironment"isoneofthe21functionalcategoriesofthefederalbudget,aswellasoneoffivecomponentsofthe"physicalresources"superfunction.DataonthenaturalresourcesandenvironmentfunctionarecontainedinTable2forfiscalyears1977through1988.Thetrendisobvious.Outlaysfornaturalresourcesandtheenvironmentdeclinedasapercentageofthetotal.Theyevendeclinedinnominaldollarsforfiscalyears1981and1984.Theeffectswereadverseto

archaeologicalresources,formostoftheprogramstoprotectthemareincludedinthenaturalresourcesandenvironmentfunction.

Thesameconclusioncanbereachedbyexaminingbudgetauthoritycongressionalauthoritygivenafederalagencytoenterintocommitmentsthatresultinspendingandoutlays

Table1.OutlaysbySuperfunctionsasaPercentageofTotalOutlays,FY1977-1988.Year National

DefenseHuman

ResourcesPhysicalResources

NetInterest

1977 23.8 54.2 10.0 7.31978 22.8 52.8 11.5 7.71979 23.1 53.1 10.7 8.51980 22.7 53.0 11.2 8.91981 23.2 53.4 10.5 10.11982 24.9 52.1 8.3 11.41983 26.0 52.7 7.1 11.11984 26.7 50.7 6.8 13.01985 26.7 49.9 6.0 13.71986 27.6 48.6 5.9 13.71987 28.1 50.0 5.5 13.81988 27.3 50.1 6.4 14.3Source:OfficeofManagementandBudget.1986HistoricalTables:BudgetoftheUnitedStatesGovernment.FY1987,Table3.2.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington.

1.Thesuperfunctions"nationaldefense"and"netinterest"arethesameasthefunctionsofthesametitles.Thesuperfunction"humanresources"isthesumofthefollowingfunctions:education,training,employment,andsocialservices;health;socialsecurityandmedicare;incomesecurity;veteransbenefitsandservices.Thesuperfunction"physicalresources"isthesumofthefollowingfunctions:energy,naturalresourcesandenvironment,commerceandhousingcredit,transportation,andcommunityandregionaldevelopment.

fortheDepartmentoftheInteriorforfiscalyears1977through1988,ascontainedinTable3.Bothbudgetauthorityandoutlaysdeclinedasapercentageoftotalbudgetauthorityandoutlays.TheDepartmenthashadrelativelylessmoneythanitdidinthe1970stocarryoutits

responsibilities,anditsconsiderableresponsibilitieswithregardtoarchaeologicalresourcesareamongthem.

Littlechangeislikelyintheforeseeablefutureforaturnaroundoffundingforthenaturalresourcesandenvironmentfunctionuntilthesizeofthedebtisreducedandthereismore"slack"inthebudget,"slack"inthesensethattherelativesizeofinterestpaymentshasdeclinedandhighpriorityprogramshavereceivedsignificantfundingincreases.

Table2.OutlaysoftheNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentalFunction,FY1977-1988.Year MillionsofDollars PercentofTotalOutlays1977 10,032 2.51978 10,983 2.41979 12,135 2.41980 13,858 2.41981 13,568 2.01982 12,998 1.71983 12,672 1.61984 12,593 1.51985 13,357 1.41986 13,639 1.21987 13,363 1.31988 14,606 1.4

Source:OfficeofManagementandBudget.1986Tables:BudgetoftheUnitedStatesGovernment,FY1987,Table3.1.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington.

Table3.BudgetAuthorityandOutlaysfortheDepartmentoftheInterior,FY1977-1988.FiscalYear

BudgetAuthority1

PercentofTotalBudgetAuthority

TotalOutlays1

PercentofOutlays

1977 3,741 .8 3,216 .81978 4,643 .9 3,878 .81979 4,770 .8 4,174 .81980 4,678 .7 4,477 .81981 4,408 .6 4,461 .71982 3,810 .5 3,948 .51983 4,956 .6 4,552 .61984 4,917 .5 4,947 .61985 5,016 .5 4,825 .51986 4,589 .4 4,789 .5

1987 5,279 .5 5,050 .51988 5,246 .4 5,147 .5Source:OfficeofManagementandBudget.1989HistoricalTables:BudgetoftheUnitedStatesGovernment.FY1990,Tables4.1,4.2,5.2,5.3.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington.

1.Millionsofdollars.

PublicTrustDoctrine

Havingofferedthisrathergloomyprediction,ImightaswellofferanotheroneontheapplicationofthePublicTrustDoctrineasasolutiontoconflictsbetweenpublicandprivateuseofnaturalresourcesandinfederalpubliclandlaw.

ProfessorJosephL.Sax(1970)proposedinaseminallawreviewarticlethatthedoctrinebeappliedtonaturalresources.Hisintentwastoencouragegreateruseofthelegalprocessinformulatingpublicpolicyonnaturalresources,andheenvisionedthePublicTrustDoctrineasameanstodoso.Thisdoctrineisbasedontheideathatpublicaccesstooruseofsomeresourcesissufficientlyfundamentalandimportantthatthecourtsmustusegovernmentalactiontoprotectagainsttheirexpropriationbyaprivateindividualorgroup.Apublictrustproblemtypicallyariseswhentheinterestsofadiffusemajorityaremadesubservienttotheinterestsofaconcertedminorityasaresultofadecisionbyalegislativeoradministrativebodyofgovernment.Threeelementsneedtobepresent:(1)theinterestsofadiffusemajority;(2)theinterestsofaconcertedminority;and(3)someformofgovernmentalaction.Inotherwords,thePublicTrustDoctrineisverymuchamatterofcauseandeffectwiththeagentofthecausebeinggovernmentandtheeffectbeingoneinwhicharecognizedpublicinterestismadesubservienttoaprivateinterest.

Somemembersoftheconservationcommunitybelievethedoctrineiscapableofamuchbroaderapplication,including,attheextreme,addressingtraditionalconflictsbetweenpublicandprivateuseofnaturalresources.Suchabeliefseemstobemisguided.ApplicationofthePublicTrustDoctrinehasbeennarrowhistorically.Grantedthatithasbeenmorebroadlyusedinrecentyears,itstillremainsaverymeasuredandcarefullydelineateddoctrine.Thedoctrinedoesnot,asProfessorCharlesF.Wilkinsonputsit,"allowjudgestoactasroving

ambassadorsonbehalfofa`public'consistingmainlyofenvironmentalists"(Wilkinson1980).Nor,ifthedoctrinewereappliedtoarchaeologicalresources,woulditextendsuchpermissiontoarchaeologists.Iftheprincipalproblemconcerningarchaeologicalresourcesistheirprotectiononprivatelands,

thePublicTrustDoctrinewouldprovidelittlesuccor.For,if,asWilkinsonwrote,"Thefederalpubliclandsareattheouterreachesofthepublictrustdoctrine,"thenprivatelandshavetobebeyondit.

Conclusion

Nevertheless,theissueoftheapplicabilityofthePublicTrustDoctrineseemsirrelevanttothelargerone,whichistheprotectionandconservationofarchaeologicalresources.Certainly,thereisanoverridingpublicinterestintheseresources;certainly,governmentasanagentofthepublichasanimportantresponsibilityfortheseresources.Giventhelevelofhumandevelopmentactivitiesintheworld,whichwillcontinuetogrowashumanpopulationgrows,theneedsinarchaeologicalresourcemanagementoverwhelmthemeansavailableforimplementingexistingpoliciesiftheydonotoverwhelmtheverypoliciesthemselves.Thisisthelegalenvironment,anditisclearlyoutofbalancewiththeneed.Thechallengeofcorrectingthisisbothimmediateandawesome.

ReferencesCited

Sax,J.L.

1970ThePublicTrustDoctrineinNaturalResourcesLaw:EffectiveJudicialIntervention.MichiganLawReview68:471-566.

Wilkinson,C.F.

1980ThePublicTrustDoctrineinPublicLandLaw.U.C.DavisLawReview14:269-316.

VPUBLICEDUCATIONThefollowingpapersdealwitheducatingvarioussegmentsofthepublicaboutarchaeology.Thecollectivemessagecontainedinthesearticlesisthatthereareconstituenciesorpotentialconstituenciesthatneedtobewonovertoseethatourcommonhumanheritageisprotectedandusedwiselybythearchaeologicalcommunityforourmutualbenefit.McManamonandKnudsondescribethesourcesofwidelydistributedarchaeologicalinformationavailablefromU.S.governmentsources,andGallantdescribespublicmediainvolvementwitharchaeologicalinformationintheUnitedStates.Devinediscussespublicschoolcurriculathatdealwitharchaeology,andBensediscussespublic-privatepartnershipsdevelopedinFloridatoconserveprehistoricandhistoricarchaeology.

FirstAmericansresourcesaresometimesspectacular,suchasthe9-inch-longClovisbifacesfromtheRicheycacheinWashingtonState,buttheyareoftenundistinguishedpaleoenvironmentalresourcessuchaspollencoresfrompeatbogsandlakebeds,paleosols,orinsects.AveragecitizensinNorthandSouthAmericaandnortheasternAsiahaveamajorpartinprotectingalloftheseresources,throughtheirsupportoflaws,governmentprograms,museums,andfieldandlaboratoryresearch,andtheirinvolvementinlanduseplansandprograms.Theyneedtounderstandwhatarchae-

ologyandpaleoenvironmentalresourcesare,andtheconservationneedsofthoseresources.ThesepapersdiscusswaysofeducatingthatpublicaboutFirstAmericansandotherarchaeologicalresources.Educationisacriticalelementinwisestewardshipofapublictrust.


PublicArchaeologicalInformationfromU.S.GovernmentSourcesFrancisP.McManamon&RuthannKnudson

InformationaboutpublicarchaeologyintheUnitedStatesisavailablefromvariousgovernmentsources,andmuchofthisisrelevanttoFirstAmericansresearch.Actualfieldsurveyorexcavationreports,laboratoryanalyticaldata,andevenoccasionalsyntheses,whensupportedbyfederalland-managingagencies,areoftenavailableatnocost.Inaddition,thereareseveralnationalarchaeologicalinformationexchangeeffortsinplaceorbeingdeveloped,includingspecialpublications,clearinghouses,technicalinformationseries,trainingprograms,andonlinedatabases.

NationalArchaeologyProgramInformationExchange

IntheUnitedStates,theSecretaryoftheInteriorisresponsibleforprovidingleadershipandcoordinationforallfederalarchaeologicalactivities.Over25federalagenciesparticipateinthefederalarcheologyprogram,butfewproducepublicinformationabouthowtomanagearchaeologicalresourcesandwhatspecificarchaeologicalinformationisavailablefromwhichagencies.Tofulfilltheseservices,theSecretaryoftheInteriorhasdelegatedfederalarchaeologicalleadershipandcoordinationresponsibilitytotheNationalParkService(NPS)throughtheDepartmentalConsultingArchaeologist(DCA).TheNPSArcheologicalAssistanceDivision(AAD),inWashington,D.C.,providesstaffsupportfortheDCAandarchaeologistsinfiveNPSregionalofficesalsotakepartintheseactivities.TogethertheseelementsformtheNPSArcheologi-

Thispaperisadaptedfromapaperentitled"PublicInformationforArcheologyfromGovernmentSources,"presentedbyGeorgeS.Smith,FrancisP.McManamon,andRichardC.WaldbauerattheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas,1989.

calAssistanceProgram(AAP).TheAAPprovidesarchaeologicalcoordinationandleadershiponbehalfoftheSecretaryandimplementsnationalarchaeologicalgoalsandobjectiveswithotherinternational,federal,tribal,state,andlocalagenciesandtheprivatesector.Becausetheeffectivesharingofinformationissuchanimportantaspectofefficientarchaeologicalresourceprotection,interpretation,andmanagement,theAAPhasimplementedanumberofinformationexchangeeffortsincludingspecialpublications,clearinghouses,technicalinformationseries,trainingprograms,anddatabases(McManamonetal.1990).

Aspecial36-pageissueoftheNPS'sCRMBulletin(nowsimplytitledCRM)on"ArcheologyandtheFederalGovernment"waspublishedinJuly1988andupdatedin1994(DeCarloetal.1994).Itprovidesthemostcomprehensivesummaryavailableofarchaeologicalprogramsinvariousfederalagencies,alongwithasummaryofthefederalstatutesthataffectarchaeologicalpreservationandthumbnailsketchesofseveralfederalarchaeologicalprojects.ThispublicationdescribesthebasisforanddiversityofU.S.federalarchaeologyandprovidessummariesofpositivehighlights.

TheListingofEducationinArcheologicalPrograms(LEAP)clearinghouseisacomputerizeddatabaseidentifyingarchaeologicalpubliceducationeffortsaroundtheUnitedStates.InformationissolicitedbyAADfromfederalagencies,butalsofromtribal,state,local,andprivateorganizations.LEAPcontainsinformationaboutprojectsorprogramstoprotectarchaeologicalresourcesandeducatethepublicaboutthoseresources,includingavocationalfieldandlaboratorywork,museumdisplaysandexhibits;andbrochures,posters,radioandtelevisioncoverage,andfilms/video/audiosaboutarchaeology.Reportsonclearinghouseinformationreceivedin1987through1989(Knoll1990),and1990through1992(Knoll1993)havebeenpublished.

Tofostercommunicationamongarchaeologistsinfederalregional,tribal,state,orlocalagencyofficesandwiththeacademicandinternationalcommunities,theFederalArcheologyReport(FAR)wasdevelopedbytheAAPin1988.Thisisaquarterlypublication,andin1994itwasdistributedatno

chargetonearlyeightthousandindividuals,includinginternationalindividualsandagencies.InformationrelatedtoFirstAmericansresearchisoccasionallymentioned,butprobablyofgreaterimportancetoFirstAmericansscholarsisitsinformationaboutpublicarchaeologicalprogramsthataffectFirstAmericansresources.

In1986,theAADinitiatedtheArchaeologicalAssistanceStudieswithareportonmethodsandresultsofcostanalysisforarchaeologicalinvestigations.Asecondstudy,thisoneonarchaeologicaleducationprograms,waspublishedin1991.Since1988,theAADhasproducedaseriesofArchaeologicalAssistanceTechnicalBriefsonavarietyoftopics:sitestabilizationwithfilterfabricorrevegetation,statearchaeologyweeks,archaeologyintheNationalHistoricLandmarksprogram,siteprotectionbyburial,astatearchaeologicalregistryprograminvolvingprivatelandowners,thefederalcontractingprocess,archaeologicalvolunteers,anationalsurveyofstatearchaeologicalprotectionlaws,theDCApeerreviewprocess,andthecivilprosecutionprocessundertheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct(ARPA).

TheAADalsodistributeswithoutchargefederalU.S.archaeologicallaws,regulations,andguidelines.

In1984,theU.S.CongressprovidedfundstotheNPStoimprovethecoordinationoffederalarchaeologicalactivities.OneofthemaineffortstoaccomplishthisledtothedevelopmentoftheNationalArcheologicalDatabase(NADB)-Network(Canouts1991,1992),inlargemeasureinresponsetoanearlierCongressionalreport(U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice1981)citingthecriticalneedforincreasedefficiencyinfederalarchaeologicalactivities.NADBisa''databaseofdatabases,"aninterrelatedsetofpubliclyavailabledatamodules.In1994NADB-ReportsandNADB-NAGPRAwereonline,andNADB-PermitsandNADB-Mapswereplannedforadditionin1995-96.

NADB-Reportsisexpectedby1995toincludeover250,000citationsofreportsofU.S.archaeologicalwork,mostofthoseinvestigationshavingbeendoneonfederallandsoraspartoffederallyassistedlanddevelopment.Almostallofthesereportsarepartofthe"greyliterature"ofminimallydistributedreportsthatoftenincludesubstantivedataaboutFirstAmeri-

cansaswellasotherarchaeologicalresources.Occasionallythereferenceisforareportofwhichonlyasinglecopywasfiledwiththeland-managingagency.NADB-Reportscontainsthefollowinginformation:bibliographicreference(author,year,titleofpublication),locationwherethereportisonfile,summaryofthereportcontent(geographicallocationoftheworkreported,typeofworkperformed,federalagencyinvolved,andkeywordsaboutvariousaspectsofthereport).ArchaeologistsinAAPregionaloffices(Philadelphia,Denver,Atlanta,SanFrancisco,andAnchorage)serveascoordinatorstoestablishpartnershipsforcontinueddataentryandrecordsmaintenance.NADB-Reportsbecameanationallyaggregatedreportsdatabaseaccessiblein1992,withonlinesupportfromtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACOE).ThisisacriticalsourceofinformationaboutFirstAmericansresources.Providingaccesstothedatabasethrougharead-onlysubscriptionbyusersisbeingevaluated,andinternationaltechnologytransferopportunitiesarebeinginvestigated.InformationaboutonlineaccesstotheNADB-NetworkisavailablefromAAD,NationalNADBCoordinator.

TheAADmaintainsaclearinghouseoncasesofarchaeologicallootingintheUnitedStates(LOOT:ListingofOutlawTreachery),withsummaryinformationaboutprosecutionsofindividualswhohavelootedorvandalizedarchaeologicalsites.Prosecutionsmaybecarriedoutunderavarietyoffederal,tribal,state,andlocalstatutes.Instancesofongoinginvestigations,trials,orappealsarenotincludedintheLOOTrecorduntilcasesarelegallyresolvedandinformationispubliclyavailable.Approximately75casesarelistedinLOOTatpresent,andunfortunatelynewcasesarecontinuallybeingaddedtothedatabase.AtpresentLOOTrecordscanbeaccessedonlywiththeassistanceofanAADarchaeologist.

FederalArcheology:TheCurrentProgram(Keeletal.1989)isthefirstpublicationtoprovideusefulquantitativesummaryinformation

aboutfederalarchaeologicalactivities.Itusesinformationfrom1985and1986surveysoffederalagenciestodescribethekindsofarchaeologicalactivitiesundertakenaspartofthenationalprogram,thereasonsthoseactivitieshavebeenundertaken,theresultsofthoseactivities(atleastinterms

ofsitesidentifiedandevaluatedandareasinvestigated),andavarietyofothertopics.Itbegantheefforttosummarizeinformationaboutthearchaeologicalresourcebaseonfederallands.Informationonthe1987federalarchaeologyprogramwaspublishedin1993(McManamonetal.1993),anddataandcomparativeanalysesfrom1988through1990activities(Knudsonetal.forthcoming)areinadraftreportcurrentlyunderreview.The1991-92U.S.federalarchaeologicalprogramisalsounderreviewandexpectedtobepublishedinthenearfuture.EachoftheseisavailablethroughtheAAD.WhilethesereportsdonothavemuchinformationspecifictoFirstAmericansresources,theydoprovideoverviewsoftheU.S.federalprograminwhichmuchFirstAmericansresearchisconducted(seeBonnichsenetal.,thisvolume).

FederalArchaeologyFieldandLaboratoryReports

IntheUnitedStates,millionsofdollarsofarchaeologicalexcavation,analysis,andreportingisdoneonfederallands,oronlandsaffectedbyfederallyfunded,authorized,orlicenseddevelopmentprojects.Reportsofthisworkgenerallyareproducedinrelativelylimitedquantities,butoftenareavailablefromthesponsoringagency,e.g.,USACOE,BureauofLandManagement,BureauofReclamation,NPS,ForestService,FishandWildlifeService,TennesseeValleyAuthority,DepartmentofTransportation.Withsuchalimiteddistribution,thesereportsarepartofthe"greyliterature"forwhichNADB-Reports(describedabove)wasdeveloped.

OtherSourcesofPublicInformation

TheNPSCulturalResourcesManagementBibliography(CRBIB)consistsprimarilyofresearchreportsincludingtechnologyandtechniquesthataddressculturalresourceswithinunitsoftheNationalParkSysteminthefieldsofhistory,historicarchitecture,ethnology,

archaeology,andcuration.Inaddition,it

includesNPSplanningdocuments(GeneralManagementPlans,DevelopmentConceptPlans,InterpretativeProspectuses,etc.)aswellasjournalarticles,theses,anddissertationswhentheydealspecificallywiththeculturalresourcesofaparticularpark.TheCRBIBdoesnotcontainnewspaperclippings,populararticles,orunpublishedarchivalsources(diaries,fieldnotes,correspondence,etc).Certaininformationmayberestrictedinordertoprotectculturalresources.PlansaretolinkthiswithNADB-Reports.CRBIBprobablyisofusetoFirstAmericansscholars,particularlythoseinterestedinareasencompassedbyNationalParkunits.

TheNPSisdevelopingacomputerizedCulturalSitesInventory(CSI),aninventoryofprehistoricandhistoricarchaeologicalresourcesinNPSunits.Theinventorywillcontainstandardizedresourcesinformationforuseinpark,regional,andWashingtonofficeNPSplanningandmanagement.TheCSIisfirstandforemostamanagementdatabaseforimprovingtheNPS'spreservation,protection,andinterpretationofparkarchaeologicalresources.BecauseinformationcontainedinthedatabaseisgenerallyrestrictedfrompublicdisclosureundertheprovisionsoftheNationalHistoricPreservationActandARPA,itwouldbeavailableonlythroughNPSarchaeologists.ItcouldcontaininformationaboutFirstAmericansresources.

TheUSACOEWaterwaysExperimentStation(WES)hasdevelopedanArchaeologicalSitesProtectionandPreservationNotebook(ASPPN)undertheauspicesoftheCorpsEnvironmentalImpactResearchProgram(EIRP).TechnicalNotesonvariousimpacts,siteburial,structuralstabilization,soilandrockstabilization,vegetativestabilization,camouflageanddiversionarytactics,sitesurveillance,stabilizationofexistingstructures,faunalandfloralcontrol,signs,andinundationhavebeenintermittentlypublishedsince1988forinclusionintheASPPN.Since1987theEIRPhasalsopublishedaseriesof

TechnicalReportsonarchaeologicalsitepreservationtechniques,includingsiteburial,preservationofrockart,sitepreservationplanning,andcontrolofvandalism.Foralistofavailablepublicationsortechnicalassistance,contacttheWESCenterforCulturalSitePreservationTechnology,Vicksburg,Mississippi.

TheNationalTechnicalInformationService(NTIS)withintheU.S.DepartmentofCommerceisarepositoryforsomeofthe"greyliterature"listedinNADB-Reports,andforafeeitreproducesreportsinitsfiles.Forinstance,almostallofthearchaeologicalprojectsfundedbytheUSACOEarefiledwiththeNTIS,aswellaswiththeDefenseTechnicalInformationService(DTIS).Manyfederalagencyarchaeologyreportscompletedsince1975areavailablethroughNTIS.TheDTISismaintainedbytheDepartmentofDefense(DoD)and,likeNTIS,includesculturalresourceandarcheologicalmanagementreports,specificallyincludingrecordsoftheDoDanditsmemberservices(U.S.Army[includingtheUSACOE],U.S.AirForce,NationalGuardBureau,U.S.Navy,andU.S.MarineCorps).

TheSmithsonianInstitution,NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory(NMNH)inWashington,DC,maintainstheNationalAnthropologicalArchives(NAA).ThesearchivescontainanthropologicalandarchaeologicalreportsandotherpapersandgraphicmaterialsrelatedtoSmithsonianendeavors,orthingsdonatedbyorrelatedtoU.S.anthropologicalscientists.InformationaboutSmithsonianinvolvementinFirstAmericansresearchbyno-longer-activeNMNHstaffmembersislocatedthere.

Training

Traininginarchaeologicalpreservationandmanagementtheory,methods,andtechniquesisavailableforpublicoracademicarchaeologistsorfornon-archaeologistswhomanageprogramsorresourcesandthuscanaffectarchaeologicalproperties(includingthoseoftheFirstAmericans).Adirectoryofthetrainingopportunitiesforculturalresourcemanagementthroughfederalandstateagencies,universitiesandcolleges,andotherorganizations,ispublishedannuallybytheNPSinCRM.

TheAADcoordinatestrainingcoursesinarchaeologicalcurationandcollectionsmanagement,archaeologyforman-

agers,conservationinfieldarchaeology,andanoverviewofarchaeologicalprotectionprograms.Thesearegenerally40-hourcourseswithatuitionfee,andareheldinvariouspartsofthecountry.In1991,NPSregionalofficessponsoredafreeworkshoponsitestabilization,afor-fee3-dayworkshopongeophysicstechniquesinarchaeology,afor-fee2-dayworkshoponissuesinpublicinterpretationofarchaeologicalmaterialsandsites,andafree2-dayclassonissuesintheprotectionandinterpretationofarchaeologicalandculturalmaterials.TheFederalLawEnforcementTrainingCenterregularlyteachesa40-hourfor-feecourseonarchaeologicalresourceprotection.TheMuseumofFloridaHistoryin1992offeredafree20-hourcourseinarchaeologyforpublicschoolteachers,andSouthCarolinaheldaminimal-fee9-dayworkshoponpublicschoolclassroomarchaeology.TheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology'sPublicEducationCommitteenowroutinelyoffersteacherstraininginarcheologyinassociationwithitsannualmeeting.

TheHistoricPreservationprogramintheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversityofNevadahasaseriesoffor-fee5-or10-daycoursesincludingarchaeologyformanagers;anoverviewofcurrentarchaeologymethods,andtechniques;geomorphologyinarchaeologicalanalysis;anintroductiontoarchives;lithics;presentingthepasttothepublic;andtheoryincontemporaryarchaeology.TheNationalPreservationInstituteoftenoffersafor-fee1-daycourseoncharitabledonationofeasementsforlandconservationandhistoricpreservation,includingarchaeology.ManyofthesehavedirectrelevancetoFirstAmericansstudies.

TheArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974requiredthatfederalagenciesreportonarchaeologicalsalvageprojects,andthesearegenerallypublishedinrelativelylimitednumbers(the"greyliterature"listedinNADB).However,severalhundredcopiesofmostreportsareroutinelyprintedanddistributedtothepublicatnocharge

byagenciessuchastheBureauofLandManagement,BureauofReclamation,USACOE,NPS,andU.S.ForestService.

InformationAccessTheFuture

AnimportantU.S.federalarchaeologygoalispreservationofthearchaeologicalrecordforthefuture.Alinkedgoalispreparationanddisseminationofaccurateinterpretationsofarchaeologicaltopicsunderstandabletothegeneralpublic.Theseshouldbeamongthehighestprioritiesforallarchaeologists,nomatterwheretheyareorwhattheirprincipaljob,subjectmatter,orresearchconcerns.ItisacriticalfactorforfutureconservationofFirstAmericansresources.

ReferencesCited

Canouts,V.

1991ComputerizedInformationExchangeontheLocalandNationalLevels.Sites&Monuments:NationalArchaeologicalRecords,editedbyC.U.Larsen,pp.231-247.TheNationalMuseumofDenmark,Copenhagen.

1992NADB--TheNationalArcheologicalDatabase.FederalArcheologyReport5(3):1,6-9.

DeCarlo,V.,R.Knudson,J.Osborn,andK.Schamel(editors)

1994ArcheologyandtheFederalGovernment.CRM17(6).

Keel,B.C.,F.P.McManamon,andG.S.Smith(compilers)

1989FederalArcheology:TheCurrentProgram.AnnualReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologicalProgramFY1985andFY1986.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.

Knoll,P.C.(editor)

1990ListingofEducationinArcheologicalPrograms:TheLEAPClearinghouse.1987-1989SummaryReport.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.


Knudson,R.,F.P.McManamon,andJ.E.Myers(compilers)

forthcomingTheFederalArcheologyProgram.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,Washington.

McManamon,F.P.,P.C.Knoll,R.Knudson,G.S.Smith,andR.C.Waldbauer(compilers)

1993FederalArcheologicalProgramsandActivities.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,Washington.

McManamon,F.P.,G.S.Smith,andR.C.Waldbauer

1990ThePresentandFutureArchaeologicalAssistanceProgram.AmericanSocietyforConservationArchaeology,Proceedings1989,editedbyP.S.Miller,D.E.Gelburd,andG.E.Alderton,pp.49-62.AmericanSocietyforConservationArchaeology,Portales,NewMexico.

U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice

1981AreAgenciesDoingEnoughorTooMuchForArcheologicalPreservation?GuidanceNeeded.CED-81-61.U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice,Washington.

SchoolCurriculumandArchaeologyHeatherDevine

Isthestudyofarchaeologyrelevantinahigh-technologyworld?Althoughmanycurriculumdevelopersmightrespondnegatively,othereducatorshaverecognizedtheusefulnessofarchaeologyasavehicleforcognitivedevelopment.Therolearchaeologicalresearchplaysinthestudyofnativecultureandinenvironmentalprotectionhasalsobeenacknowledged.However,thefutureofarchaeologyintheschoolprogramhingesupontheabilityofarchaeologiststoaddresstheconcernsofbotheducatorsandnativepeoplesvis-à-viseducationalgoals,instructionalplanning,andeducationalmaterialsdevelopment.

Thetopicofarchaeologyineducationisextremelybroadinscope.Thispaperisfocusedonthefollowingaspectsofschoolcurriculumandarchaeology:

Theinfluenceofcurriculumpolicy;

Currenttrendsincurriculumdevelopment;

Theroleofthearchaeologistinarchaeologyeducation;and

Instructionalmediaandarchaeology.

CurriculumPolicy

Curriculumdevelopment,implementation,andrevisionisanongoingprocess,whichisgovernedbyworld-widetrendsgoverningday-to-daylife.Inresponsetothesetrendscurriculumpolicymakersseteducationalgoalsthatreflectwhatsocietydeterminesitschildren

needtobecomeproductivecitizens.Overthelastthirtyyearstheeducationalsystemhasexperiencedmajorshiftsincurriculumphilosophyinresponsetopivotalpolitical,social,andeconomicevents(KantrowitzandWingert1989:51-53).Themostrecentshiftincurriculumdirectionhasoccurredlargelyasaresponsetoworld-wideeconomicfactors.Thethreatofglobalcompetitionandashrink-

ingjobmarketathomehavehadaprofoundinfluenceoncurriculumpolicyinNorthAmerica.Thelong-termhealthofnationsisdirectlytiedtoawell-educatedworkforceabletoadapttothedemandsofaneconomybasedonhightechnology.Schoolprogramming,therefore,mustproducestudentswhoarescientificallyandtechnologicallyliterate(Keen1988).

Howdoesthisshifttoatechnicalandeconomicorientationaffectarchaeologycurricula?Asonemightexpect,theeffectissomewhatnegative.Despitethehighlytechnicalnatureofmodernarchaeology,itisnotviewedasa"hard"scienceinthesensethatphysicsandchemistryare"hard"sciences,butasasocialscience.Itisconsideredpartofthehumanities,andhencehasalowstatusintheeyesofcurriculumbuilderswithatechnologicalorientation.

CurrentTrendsinCurriculumDevelopment

Therecontinuetobeampleopportunities,however,topromotearchaeologyinthecurriculum.Thefollowingareasofschoolprogrammingwherearchaeologycontentcouldconceivablystageacomebackincludeenvironmentaleducation;curriculathatpromotecognitivedevelopment;andinterculturaleducation,particularlyNativeeducation.

EnvironmentalEducation

Thestewardshipoftheenvironmentisoneareaattractingagreatdealofattentiontoday.Ontheonehand,thedepressedeconomicclimateofthe1980splacedextraordinarypressureonpolicymakerstoloosenenvironmentalrestrictionsonindustryasameansofpromotingeconomicactivity.Ontheotherhand,thereisincreasedpublicpressuretoeliminatethekindsofindustrialpracticeswhichhaveresultedinenvironmentaldisasterssuchastheExxonValdezincident.

Curriculumdevelopmentinenvironmentaleducationwillhavedirectimplicationsforarchaeologycurricula.AlreadysomeNorthAmericanprovincialandstatedepartmentsofeducationareimplementingenvironmentaleducationprograms

(CalgaryBoardofEducation1989).Environmentaleducationprogramsprovidearchaeologyprofessionalswiththeopportunitytoincorporatecontentonhistoricalresourceslegislationandtheprinciplesofculturalresourcemanagementasitpertainstonaturalresourcedevelopment.

CurriculumandCognitiveDevelopment

Thefieldofarchaeologyhasalwaysheldanattractionforteachersandstudentsbecauseofthetreasure-huntingmystiquesooftenassociatedwithit.Butnoweducatorshavealsocometorecognizethepotentialofarchaeologyasavehicleforteachingresearchmethods,groupproblemsolving,andhypothesisformationandtesting(Abell1985,Dyche1985,Dyer1983,Hartman1985Risinger1973,WittichandSchuller1979:78-82,87,101).

Archaeologyisafascinatingtopicformostpupils,andthemethodsemployedinarchaeologicalresearchrequirethekindsofhigher-levelthinkingskillsthatinstructorswishtoencourageinstudents.Archaeologyisalsoahands-ondisciplinethatincorporatesanumberofdiverseareasandcaninvolvegroupproblemsolving.Thesecharacteristicsofarchaeologymakeitidealforallstudentgroups,thoughthetimeandbudgetconstraintsoftheregularschoolprogramoftenpreventteachersfromintroducingtopicssuchasarchaeology.

Itispossiblethatpromotionofarchaeologyasameanstodevelopthinkingskillsmayprovideyetanotheravenueforarchaeologyprofessionalswhowishtomakeinroadsintomorestandardizedschoolprograms.ThoseeagertoraisetheprofileofarchaeologyattheK-12levelmightconsiderofferingassistancetolocalcurriculumdevelopersintheplanningofprojectsincorporatingarchaeologicalmethods.

Intercultural/NativeEducation

Asourworldgrowssmallerthroughincreasedtravelandmoresophisticatedcommunications,countrieswhichhavehadrelativelyhomogeneouspopulationsarediscoveringthattheyareillequippedtomeettheneedsofraciallydiverseimmigrantpopulationswithdifferentlanguagesandvaluesystems.Asaresultschoolsystems,governments,and,toalesserextent,

privateindustry,haverespondedbyinstitutingpoliciesandprogramswhichrecognizethisnewmulticulturalreality.

InCanada,thissurgeinmulticulturalawarenesshasbroughtwithitabelatedrecognitionoftheuniqueculturalidentityoftheindigenouspeoplesofthecountry.SincethefirstarrivalofEuropeans,theNativepeoplesofCanada,likeaboriginalgroupselsewhere,havehadtheirculturalheritageseverelyimpactedbytheimpositionofforeignvaluesystemsandsubsistencemethods.Itisonlyinveryrecentyearsthatthelargersocietyhasrecognizedaslegitimatethedesireofindigenouspeoplestoretaintheirancestrallanguagesandtraditions.IndoingsoithasalsorecognizedthatneocolonialapproachestoschoolingandtrainingNativepeopleshavebeenineffectiveatbestanddestructiveatworst.

Asameansofremedyingthesituation,oneimportantsteptakenhasbeentoplacepowerandcontrolovertheeducationofNativechildrenbackintothehandsofNativepeople(AlbertaEducation,NativeEducationProject1985,NativeLearningResourcesProject1985).ThisensuresthatcurriculumcontentnotonlyincludesconcernsrelevanttoNativepeople,butalsoensuresthatNativecultureandhistoryispresentedfromaNativepointofview.

Theinformationderivedfromarchaeologicalresearchcanmakeameaningfulcontributiontoourunderstandingofindigenouscultures,particularlyintherealmofprehistory.Regrettably,manyNativepeopleinNorthAmerica,particularlythoseintheUnitedStates,aregenerallyambivalentabouttheusefulnessofarchaeologicalresearchandindeedcanbequitehostiletotheapproachesusedbyarchaeologists.Unfortunately,archaeologistshavelargelyfailedtosuccessfullycommunicatethebenefitsofarchaeologicalresearchtotheNativecommunity.TheyhavenotonlybeenreluctanttoprovideNativesameaningfulroleinarchaeologicalresearch,buthaveoften

ignoredtheconcernsofNativepeoplesinthecourseofconductingresearchintosensitiveareasofculturallife(Adams1984,CheekandKeel1984,Ford1984,Meighan1984).Furthermore,archaeologistshavefailedtoconvincelegislatorstoamendantiquitieslawsthatplacetherightsofindividual

collectorsandpropertyownersoverthecollectiverightsofNativepeoplesandothercitizenswhowishtoseetheirarchaeologicalheritageprotectedinasubstantiveway.

TheinfluenceoftheNativelobbyoverarchaeologyineducationshouldnotbeignored.InCanada,manyprovincialschoolsystemsarenowensuringthatNativepeoplehavethefinalsayoveranycurriculumcontentdealingwithNativepeoplesincludingcontentpertainingtoNativeprehistory.Ifarchaeologistswishtohaveanyinfluenceovertheinclusionofprehistoricarchaeologycontentinschoolcurriculaanditstreatment,theywouldbewisetoensurethattheyhavethesupportofNativepolicymakers.UntilNativeconcernsareaddressed,archaeologistscanexpecttoseethearchaeologyofindigenouspeoplesgivenshortshriftinstateorprovincialcurriculawhereNativepeoplecontrolcurriculumcontentdealingwithNativeheritage.Theresultwillbetheexclusionofprehistoryandthecontinuedemphasisonthearchaeologyofancientcivilizations,perpetuatingthedestructive,treasure-huntingstereotypessocommonlyassociatedwiththisarchaeologicalspecialty.

TheRoleoftheArchaeologistinArchaeologyEducation

Despitethevalidityofmanyoftheargumentssupportingarchaeologycontentinthecurriculum,thevastmajorityofeducatorsremainunconvinced.Thereasonsforthislackofsuccesslieintheunwillingnessofarchaeologiststosponsorthekindsofprogramswhichreflectthepedagogicalgoalsandconcernsofteachers,andtheirinabilitytocommunicatearchaeologicalresearchinamanneraccessibletothelaypublic.

Inordertotakeadvantageofcurriculumopeningsthatdoexist,archaeologistsmustbepreparedtomakesignificantchangesinhowtheytraditionallyinteractwiththeschoolsystem,andalsointheway

theyviewthepromotionoftheirdisciplinetothepublic.

TheNeedsoftheSchoolVersustheNeedsoftheArchaeologist

Forthemostpart,archaeologists'foraysintothefieldofK-12educationareadhocatbestanoccasionalclassroomvisit,sporadicinputintoeducationalbooksandfilms,andinfrequentprovisionofassistancetoteachersplanningarchaeologyprojects.Whilemanyoftheseinitiativesaresuccessfulintheirownlimitedway,theyarelargelyunsuccessfulinamoresubstantive,long-termsense.Theydonotreinforcethenotionofarchaeologyasasubjectthatisimportanttobestudied,nordotheyendeavortousearchaeologyasavehicletoexplorecorecurricula(thoughseeMessengerandSmith1994forSocietyforAmericanArchaeologyPublicEducationCommitteeactivities).

Thissituationexistsbecausemostarchaeologistsdonotsharethesameinstructionalgoalsaseducators.Archaeologiststendtoviewschool-basedarchaeologyeducationsolelyasameansofachievinganarrowlydefined,intrinsicallyself-serving,setofgoals.Thearchaeologists'instructionalagendaisprimarilydesignedtoperpetuateandprotectarchaeologicalresearchbyensuringaminimalamountofoutsideinterferenceandamaximumamountofpublicsupport.Thearchaeologicalcommunityisrarelyinterestedinpromotingthekindsofarchaeologyactivitiesthatsatisfythegoalsofeducationandreflectanunderstandingofeducationaltheoryandmethod.OtherwisewewouldhaveanabundanceoffieldprojectsrequiringstudentparticipationandavastarrayofoutreachmaterialsfromarchaeologicalresourceagenciesdetailingactivitiesandresourcessuitablefortheK-12audience.Insteadeducatorsgetadelugeofpamphletsandtechnicalreportsthatconfuseratherthanenlighten,frustrateratherthanhelp.

StudentFieldworkandArchaeology

Thestrengthofarchaeologyasaschoolsubjectliesintheintellectual,

social,andphysicaldemandsitmakesoftheparticipants.Teachershavelongrecognizedthestrengthsofarchaeologicalexcavation,forexample,asavehicleforteachingresearchskills,butcontinuallyencounterroadblockswhen

theyattempttofindarchaeologicalexcavationswhichwillaccepttheirstudentsasfieldworkers.

Archaeologiststrundleoutthesametiredargumentsagainststudentparticipationinfieldwork.Theseincludeconcernsabouthealthandsafetyhazards,lackofcareandprecisioninexcavation,andlackoffundingandtime.Manyoftheseargumentsaresimplyasmokescreentoavoidtheinconvenienceofdealingwithstudents.

TheprogramsofferedbyfacilitiessuchastheNorthwesternFieldSchoolatKampsville,Illinois(Holm1985),andtheTorontoBoardofEducationArchaeologyUnit(Smardz1989)aretheexceptionratherthantherule.Ifarchaeologistsweretrulycommittedtoarchaeologyineducationtheywouldmakethepolicychangesnecessarytofosterstudentparticipationinarchaeologicalfieldwork.Anarchaeologicalagencywouldmorethanfulfillitspublicrelationsrequirementsfortheyearifitdevotedonecontractexcavationeachyeartostudentparticipation,andassignedanarchaeologisttosupervisethatdig.Mediasupportandcorporatedonationsfollowhardontheheelsofinnovativeeducationalprojectsofthisnature.Thepubliceducationbenefitsareenormous.

InstructionalMediaandArchaeology

Onemajorroadblockinthepathofprehistoricarchaeologyintheschoolsistheperceived''dryness"ofthetopic.ItisanunfortunatefactthatteachersandstudentsareexcitedbyClassicalandMesoamericanarchaeologyandarelargelydisinterestedinprehistory.Whythissituationexistsisdebatable.Onereasonmustsurelybethe"glitzfactor"thenaturalattractionpeoplehaveforthe"goodies"ofClassicalandMesoamericanarchaeology:theruinedtemples,thegold,silver,andjadeobjects,sacredwells,andskeletalremainsentombedinlava.Asonejuniorhighstudentbluntlyinformedme,"Afewoldbuffalo

bonesaren'ttheArkoftheCovenant."Rightlyorwrongly,teachersandstudentslikehearingaboutmummiesanddoubloonsandhumansacrificesatoppyramids.

Publishers,inturn,havepanderedtothepublicdesirefor"glitz"byproducingcoffee-tablepublicationsandeducationaltextbookswhichemphasizeancientcivilizations.Thistrend,unfortunately,haspersistedlargelyattheexpenseofprehistory.Curriculumwritersdiscoverthatfewsuitableresourcesarelistedforprehistory,butanabundanceofpublicationsdealingwithancientcivilizationisavailable.Asaconsequencethescopeandsequenceofanyresultingcurriculumwillreflectanemphasisoncivilization.Whenpublisherssubsequentlydiscoverthatancientcivilizationislistedinanewcurriculum,theyrespondbyproducingmorebooksonancientcivilization.

Thisunpleasantrealityisnotlikelytochangeinthenearfuture.Ifthearchaeologycommunitywantstoensurethatprehistoryistaughtinschools,itmustbepreparedtoaccepttheresponsibilityofproducingeducationalmaterialsthemselves.Thistaskisnotasdauntingasitmayappear.Theadvancesincomputertechnologyhavemadedesktoppublishingareality,andhaveconsequentlyputsmall-scalepublishingwithinthereachofagencieswithmodestbudgets.Archaeologicalagenciescanhireeducatorsonapart-timeorfree-lancebasisspecificallytoproducearchaeology/prehistorymaterialsforschools(astheU.S.BureauofLandManagementdidindevelopingthe"IntrigueofthePast"teacher'sguide[Smithetal.1993]).Infact,thisalternativemayprovetobethemostsuitablelong-termsolutiontotheproblemoflackofprehistorymaterials.

In-housepublishing,however,willnotsolvetheimageproblemofprehistory.Thepublic'spreoccupationwith"glitz"willsubsideonlyifarchaeologistsmaketheefforttopresentprehistorydatainamanneraccessibletothegeneralpublic.Thewaytoaccomplishthisistoproducematerialsspecificallyforthelaymarketwhichdeemphasizestatisticaldataandinsteadendeavortorecreateprehistoriclife.

Itisunderstandablethatprofessionalarchaeologistsarereluctanttosensationalizeprehistoryinordertoputitonanequalfootingwithancientcivilization.Archaeologistsarenaturallysqueamishaboutintroducinganyelementtoarchaeologicalinterpretationwhichmightunderminethe

scientificaspectsofarchaeologicalresearch.Archaeologistsalsoappeartodislikehypothesizingabouthumanbehaviorinthedistantpastbecausehumanemotionandaestheticsensibilitiesdonotoftenmanifestthemselvesinthearchaeologicalrecord.Butitispreciselythehumanelementthatdrawspeopletoarchaeologyandthehumanelementthatismissingfrommostarchaeologicalportrayalsofprehistory,withthepossibleexceptionofmaterialsproducedbytheNationalGeographicSociety.Surelytheremustbeawaytomakearchaeologyandprehistorymoreaccessibletothelayaudience,andinparticulartheschoolaudience.

Dry-as-dusttechnicalreportsaresimplynottheanswer,noraregeneralizedbrochuresthatfailtointerpretanyarchaeologicaltopicinanin-depthway.Whilethesepublicationsmayfulfilthearchaeologist'sscientificobligations,theydonotsatisfytheinformationneedsofthegeneralpublicortheschoolsystems.Youngaudiencesshouldalsobeconsideredwhenarchaeologistsparticipateinthedevelopmentofmuseumgalleriesorinterpretivecentersdealingwitharchaeologyandprehistory,whichareoftenconstructedwithlittlethoughtgiventothekindsofeducationalandinterpretiveprogrammingmostsuitedtoarchaeologyandprehistoryconcepts.Suitableinstructionalapproachesincludenarrativeandroleplayforyoungerstudents,andexperimentalarchaeology,simulatedexcavation,andlaboratoryactivityforolderstudents.Tooofteneducationofficersarehiredforafacilityafterconstructionandequipmentpurchaseiscompleted,onlytodiscoverthatthespacessetasideforeducationalpurposesareinappropriateforthemostusefulkindsofactivities.Itisraretohaveaneducationspecialistactuallyinvolvedinthearchitecturalplanningofafacility,butperhapsthisisanideaworthconsidering.

Itistimeforarchaeologiststocollaboratewitheducators,mediaspecialists,andwriterstoproduceprogramsandmaterialsthatwill

attractthepublic.Iamconvincedthatthiscanbeachievedwithoutcompromisingthearchaeologicaldatabase.

Conclusion

Archaeologistsmustrecognizethatthesurvivalofarchaeologyasaschooltopicliesinthewillingnessofthearchaeologicalcommunitytorespondtotheneedsofthelaycommunity.Asprofessionalslargelysubsidizedbypublicfunds,archaeologistsareaccountabletothetaxpayer,andarethereforenotonlyresponsibleforinvestigatingandprotectingthearchaeologicalresourcebase,butalsoforcommunicatingeffectivelytothegeneralpublic.Forthemostpart,regulationsandfineswillnotprotectarchaeologicalresources;aneducatedcitizenrywill.Thereisgeneralagreementamongeducatorsandlegislatorsthatacomprehensiveprogramofpubliceducationwilloftensucceedinpromotingpositivesocialbehaviorswherepunitivemeasureshavefailed.Inordertogetarchaeologyintoschools,archaeologistsmustbepreparedtorespecttheagendaofeducators.Todoso,theymustbecomefamiliarwiththecurrenttheoreticalworkbeingdoneintheeducationalspecialtiese.g.,environmentaleducation,socialstudies,history,anthropology,Nativestudies,interculturaleducation,giftededucationwhichhaveasignificantroletoplayinthefutureofarchaeologyeducation.Theymustalsobecomefamiliarwithinstructionaltheoryandmethod,andapplytheprinciplesofinstructionaldesigntothedeliveryofarchaeologycontent.

Archaeologistsshouldalsoencouragepubliceducatorstodevelopwithintheranksofgraduateschoolsofarchaeologyandanthropology.Toaccomplishthisgoal,studentsmustbepermittedtodeveloptheoreticalfoundationsoutsideofanthropology.Theymustbeencouragedtoproducescholarlyworkwhichmaynotalwaysreflectthetechnicalstyleofscholarlywritinginarchaeology(Fagan1984:183).Mostimportantly,professionalarchaeologistsmustseethisorientationasbeingassignificantasaspecialtyinlithics,orfaunalanalysis,oranyotherareaofarchaeologicalwork.

Archaeologydepartmentsproducemanygraduates.Althoughthemajoritypursuecareersinarchaeology,someeventuallyfunctionineducationalcapacitiesasmuseumcurators,historicsitesinterpreters,andclassroomteachers.

ReferencesCited

Abell,R.P.

1985InferenceMakingandTestinginaHighSchoolArchaeologyCourse.InArchaeologyandEducation:ASuccessfulCombinationforPrecollegiateStudents,editedbyK.A.HolmandP.J.Higgins,pp.45-49.AnthropologyCurriculumProject,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens.

Adams,E.C.

1984ArchaeologyandtheNativeAmerican:ACaseatHopi.InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.Green,pp.236-242.TheFreePress,Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.

AlbertaEducation,NativeEducationProject

1985NativeEducationinAlberta'sSchools.AlbertaEducation,Edmonton.

CalgaryBoardofEducation

1989EnvironmentalandOutdoorEducation-ProgramofStudiesandTeacherResourceManual(draft).PreparedforAlbertaEducationbytheCalgaryBoardofEducation.CopiesavailablefromtheAlbertaDepartmentofEducation,Edmonton.

Cheek,A.L.,andB.C.Keel

1984ValueConflictsinOsteo-Archaeology.InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.L.Green,pp.194-207.TheFreePress,

Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.

Dyche,B.

1985WhyArchaeologyWhenYourCurriculumisThinkingSkills?DevelopingaSequentialArchaeologicalCurriculumforGrades6Through12.InArchaeologyandEducation:ASuccessfulCombinationforPrecollegiateStudents,editedbyK.A.HolmandP.J.Higgins,pp.31-35.AnthropologyCurriculumProject,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens.

Dyer,J.

1983TeachingArchaeologyinSchools.ShirePublicationsLtd,Aylesbury.

Fagan,B.

1984ArchaeologyandtheWiderAudience.InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.L.Green,pp.175-183.TheFreePress,Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.

Ford,R.I.

1984EthicsandtheMuseumArchaeologist.InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.L.Green,pp.133-142.TheFreePress,Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.

Hartman,D.W.

1985UnderstandingScienceThroughAnthropologicalEnquiry:TwoCases.InArchaeologyandEducation:ASuccessfulCombinationforPrecollegiateStudents,editedbyK.A.HolmandP.J.Higgins,pp.51-66.AnthropologyCurriculumProject,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens,Georgia.

Holm,K.A.

1985PreparingTeacherstoIntroduceArchaeologyIntotheCurriculum.InArchaeologyandEducation:ASuccessfulCombinationforPrecollegiateStudents,editedbyK.A.HolmandP.J.Higgins,pp.51-66.AnthropologyCurriculumProject,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens.

Kantrowitz,B.,andP.Wingert

1989HowKidsLearn.Newsweek,April17:50-57.

Keen,M.J.

1988ChildrenShouldLearntoAppreciateScience,Mathematics,andTechnologyinSchool.Shouldn'tScientists,MathematiciansandTechnologistsAllHelp?GeoscienceCanada15:281-282.

Meighan,C.W.

1984Archaeology:ScienceorSacrilege?InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.L.Green,pp.208-223.TheFreePress,Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.

Messenger,P.,andKCSmith(editors)

1994ArchaeologyandPublicEducationvols.4(3,4)5(1).

NativeLearningResourcesProject

1985GuidelinesfortheDevelopmentofLearningResources.NativeEducationProject,AlbertaDepartmentofEducation,Edmonton.

Risinger,C.F.

1973TheDig:AStudyinArchaeology.SubmittedtoSocialScienceEducationConsortiumInc.,Boulder,CO.CopiesavailablefromERICDocumentReproductionService(No.ED080399).

Smardz,K.E.

1989TorontoStudentsDigIntoTheirPast!TheArchaeologicalResourceCentre.TeachingAnthropologyNewsletter,No.14(Spring):2-8.

Smith,S.J.,J.M.Moe,K.A.Letts,andD.M.Patterson

1993IntrigueofthePast:ATeacher'sActivityGuideforFourththroughSeventhGrades.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,BureauofLandManagement,AnasaziHeritageCenter,Dolores,Colorado.

Wittich,W.A.,andC.F.Schuller

1979InstructionalTechnology:ItsNatureandUse.6threv.ed.Harper&Row,NewYork.

PublicEducationthroughPublicMediaRoyA.Gallant

ThePublicTrustDoctrineprovidesaunifyingconceptforthestewardshipofarchaeologicalresources.Sellingtheconcepttothegeneralpubliccanbestbeachievedthroughthemassmedia.PositiveapproachestoworkingwiththemediaarediscussedandthepublicinformationcomponentoftheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericansisbrieflydescribed.

AnIndian,withfistraisedtotheheavens,sprinklesanofferingoftobaccoovertheburialsofhisancestors.HeisnotaPaleoindianbutalivingNativeAmericannamedRobertThomas.And,whilehisfistisraisedinceremonialoffering,itisalsoraisedinoutrageoverthewantonplunderingofAmericanIndianartifactsbycommercialrelichunterswhosystematicallydestroypotentialarchaeologicalsitesandfurtherdepletethestoreoftheseobjects.Anestimated70percentofartifactsrecoveredtodatefromallIndiansitesinNorthAmericaareinthehandsofprivatecollectorsandvirtuallyuselesstoscholarsbecausetheylackdocumentation.

ThescenejustmentionedoccurredatSlackFarminwesternKentucky,wherein1987tenreliccollectors,treasureseekers,looters,graverobberswhateveryouchoosetocallthemleftsome450cratersintheirdesecrationofatleast650gravesitesofa40-acreIndianburialground.Thesitedatesfromabout200B.C.toA.D.1650.Thediggershadpaidthelandowner$10,000fortheprivilegeofexcavatingoverafewmonths.A500-year-oldhumaneffigypipefromthesitebrought$4,500.

Whenlawofficersinvestigatingthedigdiscoveredcountlesshumanjawbones,legbones,fingerbones,andhumanteethstrewnamongthecraters,theystoppedthediggingandchargedthetenwith"desecrationofaveneratedobject,"amisdemeanorpunishablebyamaximumfineof$500anduptooneyearinjail.FourofthetenlooterslivedinIllinoisorIndianaandcouldnotbeextraditedforamisdemeanor.In

March1988,theKentuckyLegislatureupgradedthecrimetoafelony,whichdoespermitextradition.However,Indianafailedtopasssuchlegislation,sogravelootersinthatstatecontinuetobeprosecutedonlyfortrespassing,amisdemeanorcarryingafineaslowasonedollar.AdetailedreportoftheSlackFarmincidentappearedinNationalGeographicmagazine(Arden1989:376-393).

Thequestionallofthisraisesis"Whoshouldownourpast?"

Atpresent,intheabsenceoffederalregulationofarchaeologicalresourcesnotsubjecttofederallandmanagement,"mostarchaeologicalsitesonprivatelandhavenolegalprotectionfromdestruction,[whichmeansthatabout]two-thirdsoftheUnitedStatesisopentounregulatedcollecting,sitedestruction,orboth,"accordingtoarchaeologistRuthannKnudson(1989:72)writingintheJanuary/FebruaryissueofArchaeologymagazine.

Asotherpresentershavemadeclear,"Archaeologyisnotjustforarchaeologists...archaeologicalresourcesarepartofapublictrust"(Knudson,thisvolume).Thatnotionmaybenewtoatleastsomearchaeologistsandsomemaynotbeentirelycomfortablewithit.Itisvirtuallyunknowntomostoutsidethearchaeologicalcommunity,includingmanyjournalistsandeducators.

WritingintheMichiganLawReview,JosephL.Saxsaidthat"therearecertainintereststhatareintrinsicallysoimportanttoeverycitizenthattheirfreeavailabilitytendstomarkthesocietyasoneofcitizensratherthanserfs;toprotectthese,itisnecessarytobeespeciallywarysonoindividualorgroupacquirespowertocontrolthem"(Sax1970).Knudson(thisvolume)amplifiesthatthoughtwhenshesays,"eachgovernmentorprivateindividualwithlegaljurisdictionoverthephysicalcontextofarchaeologicaldepositshasatrustresponsibilitytoprotectthejointownershiprightsoftheentirehumancommunity."

ReachingthePublic

Thoseofusinvolvedinprofessionalarchaeology,eitherdirectlyasinvestigatorsorindirectlythroughaffiliationwitharchaeologicalorganizationssuchastheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans(CSFA)oraseducatorsintheclassroom,beartheresponsibilitytocommunicatetothepublicthesignificanceofourworkanditsrelevancetotheacquisitionofknowledgeofourcollectiveheritage.Educatingthepublicthroughmuseumsandthemediaisourbesthopeofachievingthatgoal.Howthendowereachthepublicthroughthemassmediaofcommunication,andwhenwedo,whatdowesay?

Inthepaperswewriteandlectureswegive,andininterviewswithjournalistsofprintandelectronicmedia,thereareseveralattitudesandmessageswecanandshouldconveytopresentaunitedfrontforthecommongoodofarchaeology.ThereispublicinterestinarchaeologyandmostjournalistswhosebeatisthescientificcommunityareeagertofindfreshaccountsandviewpointsaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericas.ThosewhomaydoubtsuchapublicinterestneedonlyreadtheNaturalHistorymagazineseriesofmorethanadozenarticlespublishedin1986,1987,and1988,writtenbyStanford,Guidon,Haynes,Turner,Adovasio,andothers.Inalargercontext,NationalGeographicmagazine,Newsweek,Omni,Discover,Times,andotherpublicationsroutinelyprintmajorarticlesprobingourhumanoriginsandhominidevolution,nottomentionanumberofpopularbooksbyCoe,Kopper,ReadersDigest,Pfeiffer,andoneofmyown.

Articlesinallsuchpublicationsnearlyalwaysarebasedoninterviewsofexperts,andthereisouropportunitytojoinasonevoiceandbroadcasttheimportanceofallarchaeologicalresearchthatbearsonthepeoplingoftheAmericas.Whenyouareinterviewedbyalocaltelevisionstationorbyasciencejournalistfromtheprintmedia,takethatopportunitytostressthatarchaeologicalresourcesarepartofa

publictrustownedbythemembersofthehumanworldcommunity.Whilesomemayconsiderthatconceptprematureinthecontextofcurrentdomesticandinternationalpolitics,itis,nevertheless,ano-

tionthatallofusgatheredatthisWorldSummitshareandshouldbeadvocatingateveryopportunity.

Todate,suchviewshavenotalwaysbeencharacterizedbycoherencyamongus.AnimmovablelatearrivalistonewhofavorsthefirstmigrationstotheAmericasasoccurringnotmuchbefore13,000yearsbeforethepresentshouldnotbeexpectedtobeatthedrumofanearlyarrivalistonewhofavorsadateof40,000ormoreyearsbeforethepresent.Butifyouwanttotakeacolleaguetotask,doitinaprofessionaljournalwhereyourreadersareknowledgeableenoughtofollowyourargument.Whenappearingbeforethepublicamorecautiousandgentlerstanceisadvisable,suchasthattakenbylatearrivalistPaulMartininhisNaturalHistorymagazinearticleinwhichhechallengedinthepubliceyethedatesofseveralsites,includingtheKochmastodonsite,pointsfromSandiaCave,theHollyOakpendant,andSmithCreekCave.''Lettheinevitableburstofhypedissipate,"headvised,"whiletheevidenceisreviewedcalmly,preferablyinplaceandideallybyskeptics(Martin1987:13)."

TakeaPositiveApproach

Theimageofanopen-mindedinvestigatorwhoisnotabouttoskinanyonewhodisagreeswithhimisthesurestandquickestwaytowintherespectofthesciencewriterchroniclingyourstory,andtheconfidenceofthosereadingthestoryorwatchingyoubeinginterviewedontelevision.

Thisisnottosaythatthereshouldnotbedisagreementamonginvestigators.Disagreementisinevitable,anditsvaluetoscienceshouldbemadeknowntothepublic.Disagreementoverthepresumedvalidityorinterpretationofdataiswhatprovidessciencewithitsvigorandhelpscharacterizescienceasaviablesearchfortruth.Butmaliceandacrimonyarethesurestmeanstoarousethepublic's

suspicionanddistasteforscienceandscientists.WiththedeplorablestateofscientificliteracyintheUnitedStatestodaywemustdowhateverwe

cantohelpgeneraterespectandadmirationforourworkratherthansuspicionandhostility.

Perhapsmorethananyotherinstitution,theCSFAhasasoneofitsmajorpurposestobringtotheacademiccommunity,aswellasthepublic,currentfindingsandideasaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericas.OneofourgoalsistobetheresourcecenterforeducationalandmassmarketpublisherswhowantinformationaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericas.ThisWorldSummitisboundtoprovideuswithsignificantthrusttowardthatgoal.Forexample,manyofyouhaveagreedtolettheCenterphotographartifactsfromyourcollectionsandtomakethosephotographspartoftheCenter'sphotographiclibrarywhichwillsoonbeinapositiontosupplythetechnicalandpopularpresswiththousandsofphotographsofarchaeologicalsites,investigatorsinthefield,andnumerousartifactsthatotherwisewouldlieinsecretinspecimendrawers.Soweencourageyoutomakeuseofourabilitiesascommunicatorsandeducators,andtomakeitknownduringyourassociationswiththemediathatweexistandareeagertoofferourservices.

ReferencesCited

Arden,H.

1989WhoOwnsthePast?NationalGeographic175:376-392.

Knudson,R.

1989NorthAmerica'sThreatenedHeritage.Archaeology42:71-73,106.

Martin.P.S.

1987

TheFirstAmericans:ClovisiatheBeautiful.NaturalHistory96:10-13.

Sax,J.L.

1970ThePublicTrustDoctrineinNaturalResourcesLaw:EffectiveJudicialIntervention.MichiganLawReview68:471-566.

Public-PrivatePartnershipsinArchaeologyJudithA.Bense

Ourgenerationfacesthefactthatarchaeologicalresourcesarebeingdestroyedatanalarmingrateandcouldwellbelargelyeliminatedinthespanofourcareers.Weareinthesamepositionastheenvironmentalistsofthirtyyearsagowhorealizedthattheentirecountry'swater,soil,andairwerebeingpollutedatanalarmingrate.Theredflagsareupforarchaeologyandwemustdevelopmethodsthataffecttherootsoftheproblem:economicjustificationofarchaeology,publiceducation,andnewfundingsources.

MarketStrategy

Afewprofessionals,especiallyMcGimseyandDavis(1974),realizedtwentyyearsagothatsitedestructionwasgettingoutofcontrolandwereinstrumentalindevelopinglawstoprotectarchaeologicalsitesonfederalpropertyandareastobeimpactedbyfederallyfundedprojectsintheUnitedStates.Thoselawsandregulationsarestillbeingrefinedand,despiteproblemswithenforcement,hundredofthousandsofsitesarenowbeingprotected.However,wearequicklyrealizingthatthisisonlythebeginningofthesolution.Two-thirdsofthelandintheUnitedStatesisnotfederallybutprivatelyownedandmostoftheprojectswhichimpactarchaeologicalsitesarenotfederallyfunded.ThisisespeciallytrueforthemajorgrowthareasintheUnitedStates,particularlyinthenorthandsoutheast.

Floridaisthefastest-growingstateinthenationwith30,000immigrantsmonthly.Becauseofthisgrowth,allformsofdevelopmenthavebeenimpactingthearchaeologicalsitesinFlorida.

Thevastmajorityofsitesfallthroughthefederalandstatesafetynets,sincemostdevelopmentisfundedprivatelyorwithbondmoneyandmostdevelopmentprojectsareon

privateproperty.Littlecanbedoneundercurrentlawtoprotectmostarchaeologicalsitesinthewayofdevelopment.NewmethodsofarchaeologicalresourcemanagementarebeingdevelopedinFloridainresponsetothisonslaught.Someoftheseprogramshavebeenverysuccessfulandareservingasmodelsforotherdevelopingareas.

Presently,northwestFloridaisnotasoverdevelopedasaremanyplacesincentralandsouthFlorida.ThearchaeologicalresourceswestofTallahasseearewellpreserved,butarethreatenedasdevelopmentencroachesataever-increasingrate.Inordertodealwiththisdeterioratingsituation,weinnorthwestFloridahavetakenanapproachwhichemphasizesmarketinganddevelopingarchaeologyintheprivatesector.Wehaveapproachedtheprotectionandconservationofarchaeologicalresourceslocatedonprivatepropertyinanewlight,emphasizingtheirvalueforthepeopleandcommunitywhoownthem.Throughmarketinganddevelopingarchaeology,webuildpartnershipstodevelop,save,andsharearchaeologicalsitesinnorthwestFlorida.Thisapproachhasgeneratedsupportforandinterestinarchaeologybytheprivatesector,municipalities,andthestate.Thispaperwillpresentabriefoverviewofsomeofthesepartnerships.

HarnessingPower

ThefirstexampleofsuchapartnershipinvolvedtheelectricutilityfornorthwestFlorida,theGulfPowerCompany.In1984,thiscompanywasplanningtobuilda$25millioncorporateheadquartersonthePensacolabayfront.TheproposedlocationwasarchaeologicallysensitiveasithadbeenaCreoleneighborhoodfor150years,itwasinthevicinityofacolonialgovernor'svilla,andafewprehistoricsherdshadbeenrecoveredthereovertheyears.Acheckwiththestatedeterminedthattherewasnofederalorstatearchaeologicalcompliancerequiredfortheproject.Consequently,asmalldelegation

ofconcernedprofessionalsapproachedtheutilitycompanywithanunsolicitedproposaltotestthe11-acreparceltodetermine

iftherewereanysignificantarchaeologicaldepositspresent.Testing,whichcostapproximately$17,000,identifiedtwosignificantarchaeologicaldeposits:asealedsinglecomponentEarlyWoodlandvillagewithscoresofrefusepits,andtheundisturbeddepositsoftheentire150yearsoftheCreoleresidentialneighborhood.

ThesearchaeologicalresourceswereevaluatedfirstintermsoftheirpotentialtomeetGulfPower'sneeds.Thevalueofthesitestosciencewasofprimaryimportancetoarchaeologists,butnottotheutilitycompany.butGulfPowerhadbothshort-andlong-termpublicrelationsproblems.Thecompanyhadbeenreceivingnegativepublicityabouttheconstructionofthecorporateheadquartersduetothebuilding'sexcessivecost,customers'perceivedlackofneedforthenewfacility,andthenecessaryrelocationofanentireAfrican-Americanneighborhoodfromthebuildingsite.Thecompanyalsohadchronicpublicrelationsproblemsbecauseofacid-rainpollutionanditsmonopolyonelectricityrates.Consequently,aproposalwasdevelopedthatfocusedonhowthecompanycoulddevelopthearchaeologicalresourcesonitspropertyintoahigh-profilepositivepublicrelationsprojectwhichmadeasignificantcontributiontothecommunityatlarge.Thiscontributionconsistedofseveraleducationalproducts,includingabookforgeneralreadersandanarchaeologyteachingunitforthepublicschoolscomprisingavideotapedocumentary,slide-tapedocumentary,bulletinboard,replicatedartifacts,andacoloringbook.Anaccessiblepublicexhibitofthearchaeologywasproposedforthelobbyofthenewbuilding.Theproposedprojectincludedaground-breakingceremony,ribboncutting,andaVIPtouroftheexhibit.Astylishlogowasproposedfortheprojectwhichcouldbeusedoncoffeecups,shirts,powerbillinserts,andthelike.Theprojectwasgiventhecatchyname"Hawkshaw"aftertheAfrican-Americanneighborhoodwhichwouldbevirtuallyremovedbytheproject.

TheproposalwasimmediatelyapprovedbyGulfPowerCompanyandwassuccessful.ThecompanysubsequentlywasawardedthefirstDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalPublicServiceAwardforarchaeologygiventoaprivateenergycompany,aswellasthetopstatepublicrelations"GoldenImage"

award.Archaeologywasabletogivethecompanywhatnothingelsecould:reamsofpositivenewspapercoverage,TVspots,andeditorialsallovertheSoutheast.Througharchaeology,GulfPowercoulddosomethinggoodforthecommunityandforscienceandbeproudoftheextentofitscommitment.Today,HawkshawsymbolizesthelivingpastwhichwouldhavebeenforgottenanddestroyedifGulfPowerhadnotpreservedthepastasitbuiltforthefuture.Thissuccessfulprojectsetthestageformarketingarchaeologytotheprivatesector.

CapturingtheCityFathers(andMothers)

ThenextpartnershiptobedevelopedinthePensacolaareawaswiththecity.Pensacolawasoriginallyacolonialtown;itisthesiteoftheoldestEuropeansettlementattemptintheUnitedStates(AD1559)andhasbeencontinuouslyoccupiedsince1690.Manyofthesignificantcolonialarchaeologicaldepositshavebeendestroyedbynonfederallyfundedredevelopmentprojectsaswellasbyavidbottlecollectingandamateurdigging.Inordertocontrolthedestructionofarchaeologicalsitesinthecity,acompliancesystemwasdevelopedthatisalocalversionofthefederalrequirementsforcompliancewithSection106oftheNationalHistoricPreservationAct.Alargeandvocalpoliticalactioncommitteewasformedwhichproposedtothecitycouncilthatitinitiateanarchaeologicalreviewprocedureoncity-ownedproperty.Thiswouldputcouncilmembersinaleadershiproleandassurethatlargecity-sponsoredprojectswouldnolongerdestroythecity'sarchaeologicalresources.(FormoredetailedinformationonthedevelopmentandcontentsofthisarchaeologicalreviewresolutioninPensacolaseeBense[1987].)

Theproposalwaspassedunanimouslyin1985,andsincethenaseriesofarchaeologicalprojectshasbeenconductedincompliancewithit.Themostfrequenttypeofprojectisstreetandutilityrenovationinthehistoricdistrict.Theresolutionwasstrengthenedwithintwoyearsof

passagetoincludeprivatecompaniesthatconductsubsurfaceworkincity

rights-of-way.Theexpandedcoverageresultedinmonitoringofextensivetrenchingforfiber-opticcableinstallationsthroughoutthearchaeologicallysensitiveareasofthecity.Inaddition,anarchaeologicalsurveyofcity-ownedlandswasperformedthatservedasabasisfordevelopinganarchaeologicalmanagementplanforthecity.

WhilethearchaeologicalreviewresolutionisanimportantelementintheconservationofPensacola'sarchaeologicalresources,wehavediscoveredthatitisnothighonthelistofprioritiesofthecitystafftargetedtoimplementit.However,thepublicisnowmuchmoreawareofthelocationofthearchaeologicallysensitiveareasinthecity,andwehavefoundthatthe"watchdogs"inthelocalarchaeologicalsocietyandaneducatedpublicarethetrueenforcersoftheresolution.

HowthePartnershipWorks:TheFortofPensacolaExample

Amongtheseeminglyconstantstreamofmunicipalconstructionprojectsinthehistoricoldcityarea,alargeutilityandstreetscapeimprovementprojectcoveringseveralblockswasdesignedinthelate1980s.ThisparticularprojectcrossedthroughthecolonialfortareaofPensacola.Planscalledformassivenewutilities,streetsurfaces,streetlights,sidewalks,andtheplantingofscoresoflargetrees.Inaddition,manyoftheexistingburiedutilitiesweretoberemovedandreplacedbynewlinesindeeptrenches.Inlatefall1989,acomplianceplan(Bense1989a)wasdevelopedinaccordancewiththecityarchaeologicalreviewpolicy.Itbeganwithamodestbudgettocovertestingofseveralsidewalkareasandtheevaluationofseveralareasofsignificantdepositstobeimpactedbyconstruction.Subsequentlyamodestbudgetproposalwasdevelopedformitigationoftheproject.Mitigationwastobeaccomplishedprimarilybyrecordingdataandrecoveringmaterialduringarchaeologicalmonitoringofutility-trench

excavationandconstruction.

Ontheseconddayofconstructionin1990,astheasphaltwasbeingremovedinanareathoughttohavebeendisturbed

byearlierutilitytrenches,aneighteenth-centuryBritishfieldcannonwasdiscovered.Membersofthepresshadbeennotifiedandwerepresentasthecannonwashoistedfromthestreettotheneighboringstatemuseum.Withthecamerasrolling,workersinanadjacentarearemovingmorepavementexposedfoundationsfromacolonialperiodbuilding(1752-1821).Thisdiscoverycreatedasecondstoryforthepress:theFortofPensacola.ThisbecamethelargestarchaeologicaleventinPensacola'shistory.Asmoreandmoreofthefortwasexposedinthestreet,publicinterestgrew.Finally,remnantsofthesentryhouse,aswellasinteriorstructuresbuiltbytheBritishinthelate1760sinthemaingatearea,wereexposedanddocumented.Thisfortgateistheveryonethroughwhich,in1821,AndrewJacksonwalkedtoacceptU.S.possessionofFloridafromSpain.HereOldHickoryraisedthefirstofficialU.S.flagoverFlorida.

ThisprojectwasintheheartofPensacola,inthestreet,rightnexttoacityparkandatthefootofthelargestmuseuminthehistoricdistrict,wherepublicaccessibilitywasexcellent.Hundredsofpeoplecamedailytowatchthis200-year-oldpieceofU.S.historybroughtintothelatetwentiethcentury.Peoplewantedmapsthatwouldshowthemhowtheremnantsoftheoldfortfitintotoday'senvironment.Theywereexcitedandeagertosignpetitionstosavethefortanddevelopitintoafirst-classoutdoorarchaeologicalexhibit.

Themediatooktothestory,givingitextensivelocalcoveragewhichgrewintoanationalstorycoveredonABC'sGoodMorningAmericaandtwiceonCNNtelevision.A"fortwatch"washeldbyalargeregionalnewspaper,includingoneSundayfront-pagestorywithcolordrawingsandpicturesthatcoveredalmosttheentirepage.Inaddition,severaleditorialsappearedinthepaperduringtheproject.Wire-servicearticleswerealsopickedupbypapersthroughoutthestateandmostoftheSoutheastregion.ThismadetheColonialFortofPensacolaverywellknown.Regulartoursoftheareawere

incorporatedintothepublictoursofthehistoricarea.Areaschoolsmadefieldtripstothesitewithincreasingfrequency.Tourists,especiallyfromthenorthernUnitedStates,begantovisitthesiteandthetouristinformationcenterbegantopin-

pointthesiteas"the"spottovisit.MuseumsandcommercialestablishmentssurroundingthesitehadrecordvisitationandreceiptsinFebruary1990,andtheadjacentcityparkwasapopular"archaeologylunch"spot.

Thepublicandpresswereimmediatelyconcernedthatthecitywoulddestroythefortandthefoundationsofitsbuildingsbyputtingthelargeplannedstorm-watermainrightthroughitandpavingovertherestofit.ApetitionbythePensacolaArchaeologicalSocietycirculatedtoprotectthesite,excavate,anddevelopitintoanupscaleoutdoorarchaeologyexhibit.TheHistoricPensacolaPreservationBoardimmediatelyputthecannonondisplayonthestepsofthemuseumandpressedhardforclosingthestreet.

Thecity'sdilemmaendedwithatypicalnegotiationbetweenthemembersofthearchaeologypartnershipthathadbeendevelopedinPensacolabetweenuniversityarchaeologists,citystaff,avocationalsupportgroups,andthepublic.Eachpartnerhadarangeofprioritieswithinwhichaplancouldbeacceptable;however,forthefirsttimeinPensacola,themostpowerfulpartnerwasnowthepublic.Thecityknewthatifthesitewasdestroyedtherewouldbeapublicoutcry.Itfeltpressuretokeepthestreetopen,buthadtoavoidfurtherimpactingthesitebymovingparkingfacilitiestothefarsideoftheright-of-way.ThePreservationBoardandstaffrequestedadditionalbudgetfundsfromthestatefortheexcavationandexhibitofthesite.Thepresskeptthepressureon.

Thefactthatthefortwasdiscoveredinresponsetothecity'sarchaeologicalreviewpolicyputawhitehatsquarelyonthecitycouncil;however,italsoputtheresponsibilityofstewardshipontheirshoulders.Theinitialmitigationestimatehadjumpedandtheconstructionbudgetforthemunicipalbond-fundedprojecthadnofundsallocatedforarchaeology.Seizingtheopportunitytotakethe

lead,theuniversitypresidentmetwiththecitymanageraschiefexecutiveofficersoforganizationswithamutualinterestintheproblem,andwereabletodevelopaplanofaction.

FundswereallocatedbythecityforsitemitigationwithacommitmentfromtheuniversityandthePensacolaHistoricPreservationBoardtoraisethefundsneededforsiteexcava-

tionanddevelopment.Thecompromiseplanwasacity-fundedprogramtodocumentandrecoverasampleofthecolonialfeatures.Thestreetdesignwaschangedtoaserpentinepatternaroundtheintactarchaeologicaldeposits,andtheutilitytrenchwasplacedacrossthestreet.Thecityprovidedsturdyfilterclothtocoverthearchaeologicalsite,andtwofeetoffilltobufferthesitefromimpacts.

Thenowwell-organizedandpopularPensacolaArchaeologicalSocietyandexperienceduniversityarchaeologystudentsprovidedfreetrainedlabor;throughthisvolunteereffortthecity'smitigationcostswerereducedbyatleast65percent.Thearchaeologicalsocietyalsoprovidedapopularinformationtableforthepublic,whichgaveouthandoutsabouttheproject,soldcommemorativeT-shirts,andprovidedone-on-oneinformation.Asaresultofthevolunteersupport,theonlypaidstafffortheentirearchaeologicaltestingandmitigationeffortwerethreesupervisorsandapublictourguide.

Everyonecameoutawinneraswellasapayingpartnerinthisproject.Universityarchaeologistsrecoveredpricelessinformationandprotectednationallysignificantdeposits.Thecitylookedgoodbecauseithadtheleadershiptohavearchaeologistsonthejobwhentheconstructiontookplaceandbecauseitpaiditsway.Duringtheinitialdiscoveryphase,theHistoricPreservationBoardtooktheleadininitiatingthelargefundingrequest,providinghistoricalinformation,andexhibitingthemainartifact,thecannon.Thearchaeologicalsocietyprovidedlabor,telephonetrees,andaninformationtable,andgainedscoresofnewmembers.Themediahadafielddayandreportershadbylinesandfeaturestoriesforseveralweeks.ThisishowitworksinPensacola.Wehandleitoneprojectatatime,givingeachpartnerrespectyetdemandingthateachshouldersitsresponsibility.

Afterthedusthadsettled,withthemostsignificantarchaeological

areasinthestreetright-of-wayprotected,wedesignedapublicarchaeologyprojecttoliterally"develop"thecolonialmilitaryfeaturesthathadcaughtpublicattention.TheFortofPensacolaColonialArchaeologicalTrainwasdeveloped,aseriesoffiveoutdoorexhibitsandasignificantareainsidethe

museumwhichitselftodaysitsinsidetheformercolonialfort.Publicsupportwasgeneratedfortwostategrantsofalmostahalf-milliondollarstoconductintensivearchaeologicalresearchandexhibitdesignandinstallation.ThepublicwillbeabletoviewrealarchaeologicalfeaturesfromcolonialPensacolafromboardwalkselevatedoverbuildingfoundations,outdoorcookingovens,andrefusepits.Thediscoveryofthecannoninthestreetisrecreatedinamuseumroomwheretheactualcannonisembeddedinareconstructedstreetconstructionscene.

TheBottomLine

ArchaeologyisnowaliveandwellinPensacolabecauseconcernedresidentsrealizedthatitwasuptothemtofindawaytostoptheirreversibledestructionofourarchaeologicalresources.Pensacolaisnotanespeciallyrich,poor,big,orsmallcity.TheresidentshererepresentthefullspectrumofU.S.citizens.Apartnershipapproachcanbedevelopedamongthekeyplayersinanytown.Theessentialingredientisacceptanceofresponsibilitybythearchaeologicalcommunity,bothprofessionalandamateur,toensurethatsomethingbedonetostopthedestructionandneglectofnonrenewablearchaeologicalresources.Itispossibletomainstreamarchaeology.Thelongsuitinallthisisthatthepublicalreadyhasanaturalinterestinarchaeologyand,onceeducatedandinvolvedinit,hasthepowertomakechanges.ThisisthekeytothegrowingstrengthofPensacolaarchaeology.Nowalmostallofthe250,000peoplelivinghereknowthatthereisarchaeologyinPensacolaandthatitisavaluablecommunityresource.Itcanbemanagedjustlikeotherresources,suchaswater,runoff,orairquality.Nowisthetimetostartthiskindoflocalinvolvementacrossthenation.Withoutgrassrootssupport,toomanyarchaeologicalsiteswillbegoneandwewillleaveapoorerandneedlesslydepletedlegacyforfuturegenerations.

Theseconceptsofmarketinganddevelopingfunctionalpartnershipsworkbecauseofthepublicinterestandmedia

appealofarchaeology.Archaeologyhassomethingtosellandithastangibleproductsthatpeoplelike.Theprivatesectorandthebusinesspeoplethatoperatelocalgovernmentareusedtomarketingandrelatewelltothisstrategy.Themarketingapproachtoarchaeologyhascausedtheprogramatthemoderate-sized,regionalUniversityofWestFloridatogrowdramaticallyeversincewebeganemployingit.Archaeologyisgoodfortheuniversitybecausethroughitthemissionofcommunityserviceismetinadirectandhigh-profilemanner.Theuniversityispleasedattheconsistentlyincreasingpublicityarchaeologyhasbroughttotheinstitution,includingregularlocalandmediacoverage,exposureontheinternationalprogram,''CNNScience,"andarticlesinpopularpublicmagazinessuchasSouthernLiving.Sellingarchaeologytotheprivatesectorandlocalgovernmentisnotdifficult.Infact,itiseasierthansellingittothefederalgovernmentortheNationalScienceFoundation,thetraditionalsourceofarchaeologicalresearchfundingintheUnitedStates.

ThelatestadvancementinthePensacolapublic-privatepartnershipsinarchaeologyistheformationofacommitteeofmenandwomenfromthebusinesscommunity,civicleaders,andfundraisersdedicatedtoenhancingPensacolaarchaeology.Theseindividualsrealizetheimportanceoftheuniversity'sacademicarchaeologyprogramtothedevelopmentofcommunityarchaeologyforthelocalandtouringpublic.TheyrealizethatthepubliclikesarchaeologyandthatPensacolahasexcellentresourcesineasilyaccessibleareas.WhilemillionsofpeoplevisitthenorthernGulfCoasteachyear,Pensacola'stourismfiguresarerelativelylow.IncreasingtourismthroughthedevelopmentofPensacola'sarchaeologicalresourcesisanappealingconcepttothiscommittee,anditsmembersunderstandthatenhancingthelocalacademicprogramisoneofthekeystothatdeveloment.Theyalsounderstandthatdevelopmentofarchaeologywilltakemoneyandpoliticalsupport,andtheyareorganizedtoobtainboth.

ThiscommitteeisliterallymainstreamingarchaeologyinPensacola.Itisthroughgroupssuchasthisthatacademic-public-privatepartnershipsarefosteredandthatarchaeologicalsitesareconsideredavaluableresourcestobesavedmuch

likecleanbeaches,air,andwaterresources.Unrestricteddevelopmentcangetoutofcontrol,butthearchaeologypartnersindevelopmentprojectscananddopreservetheresources.

Althoughthereisalongwaytogo,Pensacola'sarchaeologicalresourcesaremuchbetterprotectedthantheywereadecadeago,andthishasonlybeenmadepossiblethroughthedevelopmentofpartnerships.Archaeologistscannotcontinuetoworkonlywithcolleaguesinquietscholarshipandexpecttheresourcetolast.Becausedestructionisconstant,wemusttakesomeofourtimetobegoodpartnerstotheresourcethatcannotspeakforitself:thesites.

ReferencesCited

Bense,J.A.

1987DevelopmentofaManagementSystemforArchaeologicalResourcesinPensacola,Florida.InLivinginCities:CurrentResearchinUrbanArchaeology.SpecialPublicationSeries,Number5.

1989aThePensacolaArchaeologicalPreservationCompliancePlan.ReportonfilewiththePensacolaCityCouncil.

1989bThePensacolaArchaeologicalSurvey,TechncalReport,VolumesIandII.PensacolaArchaeologicalSocietyPublicationNumber1.Pensacola,Florida.

McGimsey,C.R.,III,andH.A.Davis

1974TheManagementofArchaeologicalResources.AirlieHouse

Report.SpecialPublicationoftheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology,Washington.

VIFUNDINGFundingarchaeologicalendeavorsisacriticalmatter,perhapsevenmoreimportantthanthelegalconstraintswithwhichwemustabideandtheproceduralrequirementswemustsatisfy.Indeed,adequatefundingisoneofthecriteriatobesatisfiedinobtainingapermittoexcavateasiteforresearchpurposesonU.S.federalandstatelands.ThepaperscontainedinthissectionreviewfinancialsupportforFirstAmericansresearchbythemajorU.S.governmentgrantingagencies(Watson)andprovideguidanceonhowtotaptheprivatesector(Williams)andinformationhelpfulinapproachingthemajorU.S.land-managingagencies(Douglas).AllthreeofthesefundingsourcesarecriticaltostudyingandmanagingFirstAmericansarchaeologicalandpaleo-environmentalresources.

TheamountofmoneyspentbytheU.S.government,andtheexpensesincurredbytheprivatesectorbecauseofU.S.heritageprotectionrequirements,havebeenofgreatinterestoverthepastfewyears.Estimateshaverangedfromthetensofmillionsofdollarstoashighas$200millionormoreannually.Thepreciseamountspentinagivenyearisimpossibletoascertain,andevenanestimatedamountisdifficulttodeterminebecauseofthevariousrecord-keepingpracticesemployedbydifferentfederalagenciesandthelegalimpossibilityofrequiringtheprivatesectortoreporttheactualcostsofarchaeologicalre-

sourcemanagement.Theseoperationalcostsareproprietaryinformationcloselyguardedfromthecompetition.Consequently,archaeologicalexpendituresmayappeartobesignificant,orinsignificant,dependingonthecircumstances.

ItisevenmoredifficulttoascertaintheamountoffundsspentonFirstAmericansresourceresearchandconservation.Yetunderstandingwhatfundsareavailableforsuchresearchandconservation,andhowtheyareallocatedandreported,isessentialtoimplementFirstAmericans-relatedprograms.

IntheUnitedStates,theMoss-BennettActof1974(ArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationAct)andtheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct(ARPA)of1979requirethattheSecretaryoftheInteriorannuallyreporttoCongressthecostandeffectivenessofbothacts.Untilfiscalyear1985,acomprehensiveandaccurateaccountingoffederalagencyprogramsundertheselawswasimpossiblebecauseofbureaucraticinertiaand/oraccountingpractices.However,aseriesofeventscreatedanawarenessthatitwasinthebestinterestofU.S.federalarchaeologiststoassurethatmoreaccurateinformationwasavailabletotheCongress.AmongtheeventsthatcaughttheattentionoftheCongressandthefederaladministrationwereseveralauditsconductedbytheU.S.GeneralAccountingOfficethatwerecriticalofthefederalarchaeologyprogram.EspeciallyimportantwasthefindingthatagencieswerenotprovidinginformationontheprogramtotheSecretaryoftheInterior.Since1985,adatabasehasbeendevelopingthatquantifiesmostofthefederalarchaeologyprogramactivities,includingtherelatedcosts(Keeletal.1989,McManamonetal.1993).

DespitethecurrentperceptionintheUnitedStatesofashortageoffundsfordesirablearchaeologicalprojects,itisappropriatetolookbackatleastbrieflytotheperiodpriortotheenactmentofthe

NationalHistoricPreservationAct(1966),theMoss-BennettAct,andARPA.Between1956and1986,reportedfederalexpendituresforarchaeologyincreasedexponentially.In1956,allfederalrescuearchaeologywasconductedbytheRiverBasinSurveys(RBS),aunitoftheBureauofAmericanEthnologywithintheSmithsonianInstitution.AlthoughadministrativelyhousedintheSmithsonian,theRBSwasfundedbyannualtransfersoffundsappropriatedbyCon-

gresstotheNationalParkService.Duringfiscalyear1956,RBScooperativelyassistedcolleges,universities,andmuseumstocarryout25datarecoveryexpeditionsandfivesurveyprojectsforatotalofapproximately$123,000.TheseprojectswerecarriedoutinreservoirareasbytheU.S.CorpsofEngineersandtheBureauofReclamation.In1986,theCorpsreportedthat$21millionhasbeenspentbytheCorpsoritsland-useapplicantsforarchaeology,andtheBureaureportedthatover$7millionhadbeensimilarlyspent(Keeletal.1989).

Again,itisimpossibletoseparateoutFirstAmericans-relatedactivities,butprobablynomorethanfivepercent,andperhapsnotevenasmuchasonepercent,ofthefederalarchaeologyprogramaffectsFirstAmericansresources.However,evenonepercentofthefundsexpendedtosupporttheprogramequalsifnotexceedstheresearchfundsavailableforFirstAmericansresearchthroughthesourcesdescribedbyWatson.


ReferencesCited




1993

FederalArcheologicalProgramsandActivities.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistance,DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,Washington.

FederalU.S.Funding:FirstAmericansResearchPattyJoWatson

ThemajorityofU.S.federalfundingforFirstAmericansgrantresearchcomesfromtheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF).TheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,theNationalInstitutesofHealth,theU.S.PublicHealthService,andtheSmithsonianInstitutionarealsosourcesofresearchfunds.Inthe1980s,despitemodestappropriationincreasestoNSF,realavailabledollarswereslightlybelowthe1978level.Examplesofgrantsmadeoverthepast20yearsdemonstratethevarietyofresearchundertakenwithfederalfunds.

ThemajorityoffederalU.S.fundingforscientificresearchontopics,sites,andregionsrelevanttothepeoplingoftheAmericashascomefromtheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF).Alargearrayofgeneralenvironmental,paleoenvironmental,andbiologicalresearchpotentiallyrelevanttothattopicisnotaddressedhere;Ifocusonrelativelydirectresearchfunding.TheAnthropologyProgramofNSFawardsthemajorityofsuchfunds,althoughsupportforinterdisciplinaryprojectssometimescomesfromotherNSFprograms,suchasClimateDynamics,Geochemistry,orEnvironmentalGeosciences.TheAnthropologyProgramawards$5to$7millionperyearforbasicresearchinarchaeology,culturalanthropology,andphysicalanthropology.JohnYellen,programdirectorforarchaeology,kindlymadeavailabletometheannualgrantlistsoftheAnthropologyProgramfor1978to1987(NSF1987)and1990,1991,and1994(NSF1994).Theselistsarethesourceofmuchofthedetailincludedinthefollowingoverview.

TheAnthropologyProgrambudgetin1989was$7.2million,ofwhichapproximately$2.7millionwenttoarchaeology(38percent).Tojudgefromthe1978-87data,thatfigureisfairlyrepresentative;$2to$3millionperyeargodirectlytoarchaeologicalexcavationandanalysis(includingdating)andforcurationofarchaeologicalcollections.NSFarchaeologyexpendituresinthe1990swere$3.2millionin1992,$3.3millionin1993,and$3.5millionin1994.Researchontopicsrelevant

tothepeoplingoftheAmericasisapproximatelysixpercentofthetotalexpendedonarchaeology.Thesesumsrangefromdoctoraldissertationgrantsofafewthousanddollarstomultiyear,multidisciplinary,multi-tens-of-thousands-of-dollarsgrantstoseniorresearchers.

NSFmoneyforindividualorteam-directedprojectsonthepeoplingoftheAmericaspaysforbasicdatacollectioninthefield,foranalysisofallsorts,includingdating,andsometimesforprepublicationexpensesaswell.BesidesincreasingknowledgeofPleistocene-EarlyHolocenearchaeology,thesefundssubsidizegraduatetrainingandcareerdevelopmentofindividualscholarsdevotedtoPaleoindianandotherrelevantresearch.

Examplesof1980sand1990sU.S.doctoraldissertationprojectsrelevanttothepeoplingoftheAmericasinclude:

InterassemblagevariabilityintheElIngaregion,highlandEcuador;

AminoacidracemizationdatinginnorthernCalifornia;

BisonprocurementinNorthernPlainsprehistory;

Paleo-IndiantechnologicalorganizationandsettlementmobilityintheGreatLakes;

HaystackCave:AmethodologicalcasestudyforevaluatingLatePleistocenecavedeposits;

Paleo-Indianresearchinthealkalibasin,centralOregon;

Stableisotopeanalysisofpaleosols;

Archaeologicalanalysisofbone;

BonedensityandbonebedstructureatMillIron,Montana;and

AdynamicviewofPaleoindianassemblagesattheHellGapsite,

Wyoming:reconstructinglithictechnologicalsystems.

NSFdissertationgrantshadaceilingof$10,000untilthelimitwasraisedto$12,000in1989.Thegrantsjustlistedrangedfrom$5,635to$11,624.

ExamplesofseniorproposalsfundedbyNSFduringthe1980sforresearchrelevanttothepeoplingoftheAmericasare:

CulturaladaptationtoecologicalchangeontheLlanoEstacado($87,000);

AnalysisoftheAgateBasintypesitematerials($8,404);

ExcavationsatLittleSaltSpring,Florida($33,683);

MunsungunLakearchaeologicalresearchproject($152,275);

ArchaeologyoftheDietzClovissite,centralOregon($49;992);

MonteVerde:anearlysettlementinChile($69,401);

EarlyhumanadaptationtoAndeanSouthAmerica;

SettlementaroundaformerfreshwaterlakeatPuntaNegra($47,208);and

ArchaeologicalexcavationofDangerCave($68,625).

NSFhasothercategoriesofsupportbesidethatforpredoctoralandpostdoctoralarchaeologicalexcavationandanalysis.ThoseofmostconcernhereIhavelumpedundertheheadingofPaleoenvironmentandArchaeometry.Examplesofsuchresearchinclude:

LateQuaternaryGeochronology($20,000,plus$4,761fromtheEnvironmentalGeosciencesprogram);

TheAccuracyofRadiocarbonandAminoAcidRacemizationDatingofPleistoceneAgeBone($140,695);

RadiocarbonDatingofBoneApatiteaNewApproach($35,568);

WorkshoponCalibrationoftheRadiocarbonTimeScale($118,237);

ImprovementsinRadiocarbonDatingattheUCRLaboratory($155,835);

RadiocarbonDatingLaboratoriesCoreSupport($234,245);

SupportofaRadiocarbonDatingFacility($157,706);

RadiocarbonDatingofAminoAcidComponentsofBoneUsingAcceleratorMassSpectrometry($119,976);

AlaskaTephrochronologyProject($39,770);

SeasonalMortalityandLifeHistoryofPleistoceneMastodontsandMammoths($50,000fromAnthropologyand$49,000fromSystematicBiology);

NSFAcceleratorFacilityforRadioisotopeAnalysis($147,000fromAnthropology,$25,000eachfromChemicalOceanography,MarineGeologyandGeophysics,andOceanographicTechnology);

RadiocarbonDatingofIndividualAminoAcidsinFossilBonebyAcceleratorMassSpectrometry($27,820);

Phytolithanalysisinarchaeology($155,238);

Dietaryreconstructionwithstableisotopes($202,119);

Isotopiccompositionofpaleosolcarbonatesandorganicmatter($78,400);

HumaninteractionwithNorthAmericanPleistoceneProboscideans(>$28,126);

Clovis-Folsom-Plainviewgeochronology,climatechange,andthePleistocene-Holocenetransition(>$25,761);and

Bariuminboneasapaleodietaryindicator(>$97,353).

TheNSFsupportsArcticscience,engineering,andeducation,primarilythroughitsOfficeofPolarPrograms.Fiscalyear1993grantssupportingPaleoindianorPaleoindian-relatedstudiesinclude:

LateCenozoichistoryoftheBeringSea($142,263);

LateQuaternaryenvironmentsandclimatechangeintheeasternCanadianArcticreconstructedfromlakesedimentcores($15,088);

PaleoclimaticsignificanceofmajorhighlatitudepostglacialtephraeruptionsinAlaskaandSiberia($45,167);

ChronostratigraphyofPleistocenehigh-sea-levelandglacialdeposits,northeasternBristolBay,Alaska($44,644);

WorkshopontheroleoftheLaurentideicesheetintheclimatesystem($20,208);

PaleoenvironmentsoftheBeringlandbridgeattheendofthelastglaciation($63,846);

Humanperformanceandadaptationinpolarenvironments($45,069);

TheArcticLTERproject:Terrestrialandfreshwaterresearchon

ecologicalcontrols($1,204,098);

ThechronologyandecologyofpostglacialcolonizationoftheAmericas($24,964);

LateQuaternaryclimatechangeintheeasterninteriorofAlaska:Amultidisciplinarypilotstudy($113,509);and

AheirarchicGISforstudiesofprocess,pattern,andscaleinArcticecosystems($67,542).

TheNSFAnthropologyProgramalsoprovidesfundsforcuratinglargeand/orimportantcollectionsthroughitsSystematicResearchCollectionsAwards.Moreover,atleastonceinthepasttwentyyears,NSFAnthropologypaidthe

travelexpensesofU.S.scientiststoamajorconference,the11thCongressoftheInternationalAssociationforQuaternaryResearchthatmetinMoscowin1982.In1994,NSFsupportedcomputerizationoftheMesoAmericanandSouthAmericanArchaeologicalcollectionsofthePeabodyMuseumofNaturalHistory,Yale.

AlthoughNSFprovidesthelion'sshareofbasicfederalfundingforarchaeologicalfieldandlaboratoryresearchonpeoplingoftheAmericastopics,afewotherfederalagenciesorinstitutionsalsocontributesupport.AfewarchaeologicalsurveysthatidentifiedFirstAmericansresourceswerefundedbytheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanitiesfrom1966tothepresenttime(NEH1994),aswellaspublicationofdatafromtheAyacuchositeofPeru.Andnowthatsomekindsofgeneticstudiescanbecarriedoutonprehistoricmaterials,NationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)andtheU.S.PublicHealthService(PHS)provideoccasionalsupportaswell.

TheSmithsonianInstitution'slargeandfortheUnitedStatesvenerableanthropologicalandbiologicalcollectionsare,ofcourse,averyvaluablescholarlyresourceforpeoplingoftheAmericasandawidevarietyofotherresearchtopics.Furthermore,untilrecentlytheSmithsonianInstitution'sRadiationBiologyLaboratorysometimesprovidedradiocarbondatestoexcavatorsofsitescontainingearlymaterials.Forexample,mostofthedatesforMeadowcroft,andsomeofthoseforLautaroNunez'sPaleoindiansitesinnorthernChilecamefromtheSmithsonianlaboratory.ThemoveofthatlaboratoryafewyearsagofromtheSmithsoniantotheUniversityofPittsburghwaspartiallyfundedbya1987NSFgrant.

Summary

Thebulkoffederalfundingforarchaeological,archaeometric,andpaleoenvironmentalresearchspecificallydirectedtowardthepeopling

oftheAmericashascomefromtheAnthropologyProgramoftheNSF,andtotalsseveraltensofthousandstoafewhundredthousanddollarsperyear.Directfinancial

aidisalsoavailable,forsomeprojects,fromtwoothermajorfundingagencies:theNationalEndowmentfortheHumanitiesandtheNIH.TheSmithsonianInstitution,althoughnotafundingagencyliketheotherthree,playedavitalroleinlatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyresearchonthepeoplingoftheAmericas(Meltzer1994),andisanexcellentscholarlyresourceatpresentforallmannerofresearchonthepeoplesoftheAmericas.

Althoughtheimplicationispresentthroughoutthisaccount,IconcludebystatingexplicitlythatifyoupaytaxesintheUnitedStatesyouhaveapalpablefinancialstakeinthisresearch;youarequiteliterallyapatronofit.Ihopeandbelieveyoushouldderiveconsiderablesatisfactionandpridefromthatfact.

Astofederalfundinginthenearfuture,thatquestioncanbebestaddressedbysimplynotingthattheNSFAnthropologybudgethasincreasedrelativelylittlebetween1978,whenitwasabout$5.4million,to1989whenitwas$7.2million.Consideringnationalandinternationalratesofinflationduringthatperiod,a$1.8millionraiseintenyearsrepresentsanactuallossinresearchmoneybuyingpower.Hence,substantialincreasesintheNSFAnthropologybudgetarenecessaryifcutting-edgeresearchonpeoplingoftheAmericasistobeinitiatedandmaintainedatadequatelevelsoverthenextdecade.Therefore,wetaxpayerswhovaluemoderninterdisciplinaryarchaeologicalresearchingeneralandresearchonpeoplingoftheAmericasinparticularshouldtakesomeresponsibilityforincreasingfederalfundingforthatresearchbyengagingtheinterestofothertaxpayers,andbyadvocatingittoourlegislators.

ReferencesCited

Meltzer,D.J.

1994TheDiscoveryofDeepTime:AHistoryofViewsonthePeoplingoftheAmericas.InMethodandTheoryforInvestigatingthePeoplingoftheAmericas,editedbyR.BonnichsenandD.G.Steele.CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.

NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities

1994CompositeListofAwards,1966-1991,1992,1993,1994.InterpretiveResearch.NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,Washington.

NationalScienceFoundation(NSF)

1987GrantLists,FiscalYears1978to1987.NationalScienceFoundation,Washington.

1993ArcticScience,Engineering,andEducation.DirectoryofAwards,FiscalYear--1993.NationalScienceFoundation,Arlington,Virginia.

1994GrantLists,FiscalYears1990,1991,and1994.NationalScienceFoundation,Arlington,Virginia.

SeekingPrivateFundingforAmericanOriginsStephenWilliams

Thesuccessofraisingfundsfromprivatesectorsourcesdependsonacarefullyconsideredapproach.Keyelementsoftheprocessconsistofpreparingawellstructuredrequest,personalcontacts,knowingtheinterestsandlimitationsofpotentialsources,andstewardshipofgrantsources.Hintsforthesuccessfulquestforprivatefundingandcautionarytalesareprovidedfrompersonalexperiences.

ThesearchfortheoriginsofhumansettlementoftheNewWorldissurelynotaninconsequentialtopic.Ithasgreatage,deepmystery,andsomeveryexcitinganswers.Andwe,asNewWorldarchaeologists,haveapublictrusttoseethatthisexcitingenterpriseiscarriedoutdiligentlyandwiththebesteffortthattime,money,andrationalplanningcanprovide.PublicexcitementcertainlyisaverybigplusforthePaleoindianresearchprojectsthatneedtobecarriedoutinthenextdecade.Ofcoursethereismoretoraisingmoneythanjusthavinganappealingtopic,althoughthatisagoodstart.

IwilldiscussthetopicofseekingprivatefundingforFirstAmericansresearchtheinfourparts:(1)awell-structuredrequest;(2)theneedforpersonalcontact;(3)knownlimits;and(4)stewardship.

TheRequestforFinancialSupport

Westartwiththewell-structuredrequest.Thisisinmanywaysnotunlikeabasicacademicgrantproposal,buthoneddownanddejargonized.Itshouldcontainadetailedbudgetandsomeinterestinghighlightsofboththeresearchandthehoped-forresults.Awell-

wrappedproductsells.Youcan'tnormallywalkintoaprivatefoundationorapotentialdonor'sofficeandaskfor$10,000forPaleoindianresearchandexpecttowalkoutwiththefunds.Ifyoucan,thenyou'realreadyatsteptwo.

Moreover,evenifyoudoknowthedonorthatwell,itwillbemorecomfortableforbothofyouifyouhaveinhandaprogrammaticdocument,howevershort,andafairlydetailedbudget.TheI.R.S.(U.S.InternalRevenueService)likesitbetterthatwaytoo.

PersonalContacts

Thesecondstepistoknowyoursourcepersonally.Ofcoursethisisquiteobviousifyouareapproachinganindividualdonor.However,itisjustastruewhenyouaredealingwithaprivatefoundationoranonfederalgrantingagency;onewayoranotheryou'vegottohavea''hook."

I'msuresomeofyoucouldrepeatverbatimthestoryofmyownfailuretogetanyhelpatallfromsomefiftyprivatefoundationsthatIimportunednearlytwentyyearsago.Iresearchedthefoundationsverycarefully,sentoutheavyandwell-documentedprojectstatements,spellingoutchapterandverseofIanGraham'sexcitingMayahieroglyphicinscriptionproject,andgotzeroresponse.Manyneverevenacknowledgedreceiptofmyrequest.Wealreadyhadsomeverygoodsupportfromseveralfoundationsforthisproject,whichgaveusthehopethatotherswouldbesimilarlyinterested.Butthedifference,ofcourse,wasthatwherewehadbeensuccessfulwehadknownsomeone,atleastinthefrontoffice,ifnotthemajordonor.Oursampleoffiftynewfoundationswasderivedfromseveralfoundationdirectories;weknewnooneatanyofthemor,ifwedid,wedidn'tknowhowtotapthem.Soyouwillbewastingyourtimeshootingblind,evenifyouarequitewellinformedastothefoundation'sprogram;thepackagemayneverbelookedatseriouslyunlessyoucanwriteatrulypersonalcoveringletteror,betteryet,precedeitwithafriendlyphonecall.

Nowthiscanseemlikearatherdauntingtask:howtofindthathook.

However,ifyourowninstitutionhasanadvisoryboardofonesortorother,youshouldbeabletoquerythemembersforpossiblefoundationcontacts."Networking"they

callittodaytheOldBoynetworkofnotsolongago.Itisessential.Italsomeansgoingtoannualmeetingsandconferences,andshowingtheflag,andthensittinginsmoke-filledroomstoolateatnight,findingoutwhoknowswho,andwherespecialsourcesexist.

Personalcontactistheessentialingredient.Sittinginadonor'soffice,orevenbetterinhisorherhome,youcanachievealevelofunderstandingandcommunicationthatyouwouldabsolutelyneverattainanyotherway,evenwithafaxmachine.

IwellrememberahotFourthofJulyBar-B-QueonAveryIsland,Louisiana,justoutsideoneoftheoldTabascowarehouses,whereWalterMacIlhennygotmebackedintoacornerandtoldmeinnouncertaintermsthatitwashightimetodosomearchaeologyontheisland.Nowwehaddonenoarchaeologyontheislandatall,butIsaid,"Yes,sir,Mr.Walter,thatcertainlydoessoundreasonable."Afterallhewasanex-MarineCorpsgeneralandarealHemingwayesquecharacter.I'llalsohavetoadmitthatitwasn'tmyprojectstatementthatgotmestartedonathree-year,$75,000programonAveryIsland,buttheyallaren'tlikethat.

Nowprivatefundraisingisnotsomethingtaughtatanygraduateschool.Ihavetwomorepreceptstofollowafter(1)thesimplerequeststatementand(2)knowingsomeonepersonallywhohandlesthepursestrings,eithertheirownorthefoundation's.

WhatCantheSourceAfford?

Thethirdprecepthasastrongjudgmentalaspectandagainisimportantinallfundraisingrequests:knowhowmuchtoaskfor.Lookoverpreviouslistsofgrants,ormakeaballparkbutthoughtfulestimateofwhatsortofrequestsseemsfeasiblefromthisparticulardonor.Ifyoudon't,youruntheriskofgettingthestandardrefusal:"Wearetrulyinterestedinyourproject,butwehavealreadyallotted

alltheavailablefundsforthisyear."

Few,especiallyprivate,donorswillevertellyoudirectlythattheycan'taffordsuchalargegift.Don'tbefooledbyappearancesorevengeneroussouthernhospitality,forexample.Knowwhethertoaskfor$500,$5,000,or$50,000.Itisacrimetoaskfortoomuchandgetturneddown,butit'sjustasbadtoaskfor$500,andgetitquickly,whenyoucouldhavegot$5,000.Foundationsaswellasindividualshavein-houseguidelinesthatyoumustscopeout,andstickwith.Ifyouunderestimateandgetthegrant,remembertocheckthemoutmorecarefullybeforeyouaskagain;foryouwillbeaskingagain,won'tyou?

StewardshipofSources

Thatbringsmetomyfinalpieceofobviouswisdomonfundraising:say"thankyou."Domorethanjustsendofftherequiredletterofacknowledgementasyoubankthecheck.Later,writethedonortoletthemknowhowtheprojectisgoingandsendthemreports("deliverables"inbureaucratese).Givethemwell-constructedlettersofthanksthat'sjustasimportantasyourstartingrequest.Anddokeepintouchwiththemonaregularbasiswecallthistreatmentofdonorsstewardship.

Remember,youwillbeaskingagainmaybenotthisyear,orevenfiveyearsdowntheroad.Thereforedon'tlettheonlylettertheygetfromyou,ayearortwolater,bea"pleasesendmorecash"document;thatstrategymayhaveworkedwiththefolksbackhomewhenyouwereincollege,butnowyouhavetocultivatethisfieldcontinuallyandcarefullyhereIamthinkingprimarilyofprivatedonors,butfoundationpersonnelliketobetreatedassentientbeingstoo.Givethemaslideshow,aspecialtourofthelab,oranicelydonereplicaofamajorfind,agiftinreturnforagift.

Althoughyoumaythinkofyourcontactwiththedonoraseither

intellectual("theyareimpressedwiththequalityofmywork"),orbasedonyourobviouspersonalcharisma,itis,infact,amixtureofboth.Anddon'tasktoooften.AstheoldMaineminkfarmerrespondedwhenavisitorqueriedhimabouthowoftenhetookthepeltsofthecunninglittlebeasts:

"Well,"hedrawled,"theydogetmightynervousifyouskin'emmorethanonceayear."He'sright,andnervousdonorsareneveranyfun.

Butcautionarytalesabound,andsomeofthemareeventrue.Therereallyarelittleoldladiesandmenintennisshoesoutthere,andtheyarelookingforpeopleandtopicstosupport.Indeed,youmayevenfind,toyourobviousrelief,thattheyreallyenjoygiving;allyouneedtodoisgivethemthechance.Butdon'tthinkyoucanturnthattrickrightawayonfirstcontact;patienceisavirtueheretoo.Theymustgettoknowandtrustyouandyourprogrambeforethey'llwriteacheck.

ThefactisthatlotsofdonorsaredeeplyinterestedinthehistoryoftheAmericanIndians;youcanmakethatinterestworkforyou.Lookatyourlistoflocalamateurs.Reallygettoknowsomeofthemwell;iftheycan'thelpyououtwithacheck,maybetheyknowsomeoneelsewhocan.Alsolookforsomereallylocalfoundationsthathaveaspecialinterestinthearea.Finally,trywhatseemstobethattoughestnuttocrack,thecorporategift.Here'swhereahookisdownrightessential.Manylargebusinessorganizationshavefoundationsorspecialofficersresponsibleforgiving.Gettoknowthemdon'tbeshy,you'resurelynotthefirstnorthelasttoattempttoimportunethemandyou'vegotnothingtolosebyconfessingyourprojectover-runandconsequentfundingneed.

Conclusions

OnefinalpieceofadvicethatIknowyou'llneed.Don'tgetdiscouraged;noonebatsathousand.Sobecontentwithamodest.300average.AfterallWadeBoggsdoesn'tdomuchbetterthanthat,ontheplayingfieldthatis.Seriously,privatefundraisingisanonstopenterpriseateveryinstitution.Youcometotheendofthefiscalyear,proudofwhatyouraised,anddiscouragedovertheonesthatgotaway;thentheverynextdayyou'reoffandrunningagain.Willit

neverend?Iknowtheanswerbutyoudon'twanttohearit.

Sotakeheartandrememberthatthemostimportantstepistogetthatfirstgiftfromadonororafoundation,evenifitisn'tatthelevelyoumighthavehopedfor.Oncethey'vewrittenthatfirstcheckitsuptoyoutoprovetothemthatthey'vepickedawinner.

NowIcan'tstresstoomuchthatgivingisaverypersonalactthefundsmaysupportyourproject,buttheyaretrulygiventoyou.Thereforeyou'reonthefiringline.Don'teverbetrayyourdonor'strust.Don'tpromisemorethanyoucandeliver.Hooplaandglitzmaysellsnakeoil,secondhandcars,orevenbrandnewIsuzus,butrememberyou'llbebacknextyear,skinningknifeinhand.Goodluck.

U.S.FederalFunding:ResourceandLandManagementSupportJohnG.Douglas

Archaeologicalsurvey,excavation,andprotectionprojects,costingmanymillionsofdollars,areconductedeachyearonthevastfederallandreservesoftheUnitedStates,arguablywithimperfectresearchfocus.Tohelpimprovethisfocusandtoturntheseactivitiestowardparticularresearchends,nonfederalarchaeologistsmustbecomefamiliarwithandactivelyinvolvedinfederalagencyplanning.

BeforeIcometothetopicofU.S.federalagencyfundingforlandandresourcemanagementandimplicationsforresearchsupport,IwanttotalkgenerallyabouttheadministrativeandgeographicaldistributionofU.S.federallandsandthenatureofmanagingagencies'missions,theultimatepointbeingtoputthetopicintowhatIhopemightbeausefulperspectiveforthosewhowishtoinfluenceresearchsupport.Myremarks,whiletheyunavoidablyreflecttheviewpointIenjoyfromtheagencyIworkfor(BureauofLandManagement[BLM]),representonlymypersonalviews.

First,therearereallyveryfewfederalland-managingagencies.Nearlyseventyunitsofthegovernmentadministersomeland,rangingfromtheone-tenthofanacrechargedtothefederalGrainInspectionServicetothemorethan270millionacresoftheBLM.Wecandisregardmostofthelowendoftherange.Onemillionacres(404,700hectares)makesaconvenientdividinglinetoseparatelargefromsmallland-holdingagencies.Thisgenerallycorrespondswithagencies'self-identificationaslandmanagers,anditdoesn'tarbitrarily

excludeanythatjustmissesthecutoff(thenearestrunner-uphasmanyfeweracres).Tohelpyouvisualize,1millionacreswouldbecontainedbyasquarejustunder40miles(63.6kilometers)onaside.

Almostone-thirdofthelandsurfaceoftheUnitedStates,morethanseven-tenthsofabillionacres,isfederallyowned

(BureauofLandManagement1989:Table4).Onlyfourcabinetdepartmentsandonegovernment-ownedcorporationhaveresponsibilityforasmuchasonemillionacres.TheTennesseeValleyAuthority(TVA),thecorporation,isjustabovethemillion-acrecutoff.ThentherearetheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)withabout2.2millionacres,theDepartmentofDefense(DoD)withabout25millionacres,theDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)witharound190millionacres,andtheDepartmentoftheInterior(USDI)withmorethan500millionacres.Ifyouseparateoutfromthesethreedepartmentsthesubdivisionsthatthemselvesadministeronemillionacresormore,thenumberofunitsthatdosogoesuptotwelve.Thesedozenunitsareresponsibleformorethan99percentofallfederallyownedland.FivearebureausinUSDI(BLM,FishandWildlifeService,NationalParkService(NPS),BureauofIndianAffairs,andBureauofReclamation)andfouraresubdivisionsofDoD(DepartmentoftheArmy,DepartmentoftheAirForce,DepartmentoftheNavy,andArmyCorpsofEngineers).TheremainingthreearetheUSDA'sU.S.ForestService(USFS),DOEOperations,andtheTVA.Afterthesetwelve,morethanfiftyadditionalunitsaccountfortherestofthefederallands,afractionofonepercent,spreadunevenlyamongthem.

ThesefewagenciesthatmanagemostofthefederallandsandresourceshavemostoftheirholdingsinthewesternUnitedStates,includingAlaska;theTVAisthesingleexception.Aboutfive-sixthsofthelandsheldbytheUSFSareinwesternstates,andvirtuallyallofthoseheldbytheBLMare.So,too,aremostoftheunitsoftheNationalWildlifeRefugeandNationalParksystems,andmostoftheDoDlands(GeneralServicesAdministration1989).Federallandandresourcemanagementissues,then,moreoftenthannot,arewesternissueswithinU.S.sociopolitics.

WithinnonfederalcirclesinthewesternUnitedStates,closeattentionispaidtohowfederalmanagementisdone,whatfederalpoliciesand

precedentsareestablished,andhowtheuseoffederallandsandresourcesisconstrained.ThisreflectsthefactthatAlaskais87percentfederallyowned,Nevada85percent,UtahandIdahoeach63percent,Wyoming50per-

cent,Oregon49percent,California46percent,andsoon.Incontrast,alloftheUnitedStatescutbyorfallingeastofthe100thmeridian,exceptforFloridaandNewHampshire,countfederallandpercentagesinsingledigits(BureauofLandManagement1989:Table4).AverysubstantialportionoftheeconomyofthewesternUnitedStatesdependsonfederallandandresourcemanagement.

Thepointofthisrecitationistoemphasizethatnearlyanydiscussionaboutmanagingfederallandsandresources,includingnaturalandculturalresourcesimportanttounderstandingthepeoplingoftheAmericas,willinvolvejustahandfulofagenciesthattendtohaveawesternframeofreference.Theytendalsotobenewcomersatdealingwitharchaeology.

Management

Mostfederalagencieshavebecomefamiliarwitharchaeologicalmattersonlysincetheearly1970s,inresponsetoTitle36CodeofFederalRegulations(CFR)Part800,theregulationsthatimplementSection106oftheNationalHistoricPreservationAct(NHPA;Title16U.S.Code[U.S.C.]Section470).Whetherlandmanagersornot,agencieswhoseactionsorauthorizationsforotherstoactmighthaveaneffectonsignificantarchaeologicalorhistoricalpropertiesmustgothroughacloselydefinedaccountabilityprocessbeforemakingafinaldecisiontoproceed(seeFowler,thisvolume).Whentheconsultingparticipantsdeterminethataproposedactionwouldhaveanadverseeffectonasignificantproperty,the"Section106reviewprocess"usuallyconcludeswithanagreementensuringthattheadverseeffectswillbemitigatedinanadequatemanner,suchasthroughpartialdatarecoveryinthecaseofanarchaeologicalsitethatcannotbeorneednotbepreservedinplace.Theproponentoftheaction,eitherthefederalagencyitselfortheholderofafederalauthorization,isthenobligatedtoconducttheagreed-uponmitigationbeforeproceeding

withtheactionthatpromptedthereview.

TheSection106complianceprocessis,withoutquestion,thelargestcauseoffederalandprivateexpendituresforarchaeologyintheUnitedStatestoday(seeWatson,Bonnichsenetal.,thisvolume).Unfortunately,fewpeoplewhoarecloselyinvolvedwithitlikeitverymuch.Agencymanagersareoftenfrustratedbyitbecauseitslowsandaddsunpredictabilitytothedecision-makingprocess;landuseapplicantswhoarerequiredtopayconsultantsforsurveysandmitigationprojectsarealmostalwaysannoyedbyitbecauseofthetimeandmoneythatitrequires;evenarchaeologistswhocarryitoutarenumbedbyitsroutinenature.Andarchaeologistsobservingfromoutside,whentheydo,arelikelytobedisappointedwithitsorientation,outcome,orboth.Asthecustomarylabelof"compliance"wouldsuggest,Section106reviewissomethingtobestoicallylivedthrough;andmuchofthetimeitisnotverygoodscience.Itiscertainlyexpensiveintermsoffinitearchaeologicalresourcesaswellastimeanddollars,perhapsevenintermsofgoodwilltowardarchaeologyandarchaeologists.InpartsoftheWestwherethereissubstantialeconomicdependenceongovernmentlandsandresourcesandwhereattitudestendtofavorminimalgovernmentregulation,archaeologyissometimesnotagoodtopicforlightdiscussion.

WhileSection106hascreatedonekindofarchaeologicalinvolvementinfederalagencies,theArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979asamended(ARPA;16U.S.C.470aamm)hascreatedquiteadifferentkind.In1979,ARPAreinstatedtheabilityoffederalagenciestoprosecuteviolatorswhodiginand/orremoveartifactsfromfederalarchaeologicalsiteswithoutapermit,anabilitythathadbeenhamperedinmuchoftheWestbyanearlierappealscourtdecisionaffectingtheAntiquitiesActof1906.Likeitsprecursor,ARPAisprincipallyacriminalstatuteratherthanoneconcernedwithresourcemanagement.However,anamendmenttoARPAnowrequiresagenciestoplanandschedulesurveystolocate

thescientificallymostimportantarchaeologicalresourcesthatis,thosepresumedtodeservethemostcarefulprotectionfromillegaldisturbanceorremovalthusaddingabitmoremanagementtothemix.Theamendmentissilentaboutauthorizingfundsforconductingsuchsurveysasmaybeplannedand

scheduled.Incidentally,ARPAenforcementcanbeanothersourceofstrainedpublicattitudestowardarchaeology.InsomewesternU.S.localities,huntinganddiggingforartifactsisviewedasaharmlesstraditionalpastime,andarrestsbygovernmentagentsmaystirdeeplocaloutrage.

TheNHPAandARPA,plussomerelatedstatutesofgeneralscopeandeffect,canbeseentogiveacertainuniformityofpurposetoland-managingagencies,applyinginmoreorlessthesamewaystoall.However,thisveneerofuniformitymaymasksomemajorinteragencydifferences.Inadditiontostatuteswithnationalapplication,mostagenciesfollowtheirownagency-specificlegislation,lawsthatgivethemparticularmissionsanddistinguishthemfromsimilaragencies.Muchmorethanthenationalstatutes,theselawsarekeytounderstandingaparticularagency'sviewpointandculture.

Untilthelastdecadeorso,fewofthesemission-defininglawsexplicitlyincludedarchaeologicalandhistoricalmatterstheNPSorganicactof1916beinganotableexceptionbutnowthesemattersarebeingincorporatedamongagencyresponsibilitiesasnewlawsarewrittenandoldonesareupdated.ThemessagesinthisarethattheCongressisawareandsensitive,atleastataproblem-recognitionlevel,andthatland-managingagenciesareperforcebecomingmoreso.Itappearssafetosaythatarchaeologyissecuringapermanentplaceonthepublicagendaforfederallands.Itisprobablyjustassafetosaythatmostland-managingagenciesarenotyetcompletelycomfortablewiththeirnewresponsibilities.

MultipleUseManagement

Thetwolargestland-managingagencies,theBLMandUSFS,aresimilarinmissionaswellasinimmensesize.Thesearetheagencies

whosespecificlegislationtellsthemtomanageafullrangeofrenewableandnonrenewableresourcesallthethingsthataregenerallyrecognizedasbeingresourcesonthebasisofmultipleuseandsustainedyield.Sustainedyield,whenconsideredintermsofrenewableresourcessuchastimberand

livestockforage,isfairlyselfexplanatory.Theconceptofmultipleusehingesonbalanceandinformedchoice,thecombinationoflandandresourceusesthatwillbestaccommodatebothpresentdemandandfutureneeds.Itisaconservationconceptintendedtopromoteforward-lookingandthoughtfuluseofthenation'sassetsownedincommon.

TwofederalacresoutofthreearemanagedbytheBLMorUSFS.Twofederalacresoutofthreearemanagedformultipleuse.Partoftheimportanceofthisliesinthefactthatthesetwoagenciesarepainstakingplannersinordertofindthatpropercombinationoflandandresourceusesandplanningisverymuchopentopublicparticipation,needsit,dependsonit.Thefurtherimplicationisthatarchaeologistshaveagenuineopportunitytomaketheirspecialknowledgeandresearchinterestspartofthebasisonwhichparticularfederallandsaremanaged,anopportunitythatisalmostalwaysoverlooked.

ResearchFunding

Now,afterallthatpreamble,thereisnotmuchtosayaboutarchaeologicalorarcheologicallyrelatedresearchfundingbyland-managingagencies.Intheseyearsofcontinuingbudgetdeficitsandrelativeausterityindomesticprograms,itisgratifying,Isuppose,thatthesmallamountoffederalspendingforculturalresourcesarchaeologyandhistoryseemstostayfairlyconstant,keepingpacewithinflation.ThePresident'sbudgetsubmissionstotheCongressmaycallfordecreases,buttheCongressusuallyrestorestheprioryear'slevelwithalittleextra,tohelpkeepupwithincreasedcostsofdoingbusinessandtorespondinmodestwaystonew,congressionallydirectedemphases.Forexample,theCongresshasemphasizedARPAprotectioninthelate1980sandearly1990s,particularlywithregardtoagencies'lawenforcementcapabilities.

Ican'ttellyouexactlyhowmuchmoneyisinvolved.Justasfederalagenciesoperateundertheirownagency-specificlaws,fulfillingtheirindividualmissions,theyhaveevolvedtheirownwaysofcategorizing,requesting,andaccountingforap-

propriatedfunds.Differentagenciescountmoneydifferently.Consequently,itisdifficultorimpossibletocomparebudgetfiguresacrossagencylinesandhavereasonableassurancethatlikeitemsarebeingcompared.

MoreusefulthanrawappropriationorbudgetfiguresarethenumbersagenciescompileandsubmitfortheSecretaryoftheInterior'sannualreporttotheCongressonfederalarchaeologicalactivities(KnudsonandMcManamon1992;seealsoKeeletal.1989,McManamonetal.1993).Forthe43agenciesrespondingtothequestionnairesforfiscalyears1985and1986,itappearsthatabout$75-$80million(inappropriatedfunds)isbeingspenteachyear,roughly95percentgoingtoNHPAcomplianceandmostoftheremaindertoARPAenforcement.ThereisnowaytodeterminehowmuchprivatemoneygoestoNHPAcompliance.

Cananyofthisfundingbemadeavailabletosupportacademicallysignificantarchaeologicalresearchinthenonfederalsector(seeBonnichsenandothers,thisvolume)?Perhaps,iftheresearchquestionsweredefinedintermsofanagency'smanagementneeds,andcommunicatedtotheagencyinusableways.Fewland-managingagencieswouldidentifybasicresearchasanagencypriority.Whiletheywillalmostalwaystrytobringresearchrelevancetobearondecisionsaffectingarchaeologicalresources,agenciesgenerallyhavetoscrambletoaccomplishthethingstheyarelegallyrequiredtodo;thistendstogivethemanarrow,pragmatic,somewhatstingyoutlook.Evenifarequiredtaskconsistsmainlyofgatheringandunderstandingnewarchaeologicaldata,itmaynotbespokenofas''research";infederalland-managingagencyjargon,"research"maywellcarryconnotationsoffrivolityorivory-towerimpracticality.Ifonelooksclosely,though,manypractical,mission-orientedoperationsreallyareresearch,lackinglittleinpreparation,execution,analysis,orinterpretationbutphrasedinpractical,bureaucraticterms.Anddueto

atightfocus,amanagementstudyconductedundercontractresearchofatask-adapted,appliedsortmayinadvertentlyneglecttoexploresomeofatopic'sorastudyarea'sresearchpotential.Itbearsmentionthatacademicallybasedresearchersseldomcompeteforcontractstodomanagementstudies.

Planning

Ispokebrieflyofplanning.Forthesakeofdiscussion,federallandmanagementplanningcanbeseenasbeingoftwokinds.Thefirstisamoreleisurelykind,conductedovermanymonths,thatexaminesquantitative,qualitative,andspatialdataforacomprehensiverangeofnaturalandculturalresources,supplyanddemandissues,potentialconflicts,competingpublicinterests,andnumerousotherfactors.Thiskindofplanningproducesrelativelycomplete,long-term,resourceallocationandlanduseprescriptions,abasisforfuturemanagement.Thesecondisamuchmoreimmediatekindofcompliance-drivenplanningthatinvolvesarelativelymorehurriedreviewofidentifiableenvironmentalconflicts,aweighingofapparentconsequences,acomparisonofoptions,someselectedpublicparticipation,andadecision.Asshouldbeintuitivelyevident,planningofthelatterkindismorelikelytoyieldgooddecisionsifplanningoftheformerkindhasalreadybeendoneanddonethoroughly.

AsIpreviouslynoted,thearchaeologicalprofessionislargelyuninvolvedinplanningbyfederalland-managingagencies,whetherlong-termmanagementplanningorshort-term,compliance-drivenplanning(seeBonnichsenetal.,thisvolume).Thisissurelyoneofthemainreasonswhyfederalculturalresourcemanagementissubjecttocriticismasso-soscience.Fewarchaeologistsseemtohaverealizedthatfederalagenciesareaccountabletothepublicfortheirpolicies,procedures,plans,andperformance,andthattheyaretrulyopentohelpfulinformation,ideas,andsuggestions.

AllowmetoquoteseveralparagraphsfromanotherpaperIpresentedinearly1989:

Ifyouweretoaskagoodsampleofpeoplewhodealregularlywithculturalresourceswhatculturalresourcemanagementmeans,they'dsurelyalmostallsaysomethingaboutSection106compliance.Manywould

equatethetwo,consideringthemtobeexactsynonyms.Don'tgetmewrong,Section106isagoodtoolforhistoricpreservation,aprovenmeansfor

makingfederalagenciesaccountable,andIandmanylikemeoweourjobstoit.ButSection106complianceisnotculturalresourcemanagement,it'sundertakingmanagement,projectmanagement,administrativeprocessmanagement.

Wetypicallygointoitwithtoolittletimeandadearthofknowledge,discoverthingswescarcelyanticipated,applyawoefullyinadequatesetofscreeningcriteria,makesomehalf-informedmitigationdecisions,collectthestandarddata,andneverlookback.Wecan'tlookback,we'retoobusydoingitalloveragainsomewhereelse.Withrepetitionwegetprettygoodatit,butourproficiencyisgearedtoapplyingtheprocess,nottomanagingtheresources.Maybeit'snotquitethatbleakandmindless;weactuallydosavesomethingsthatshouldbesaved(andmaybesomeweneedn'tbotherover),andweimproveourfeelforwhat'simportantaswegoalong.Butwe'renotmanagingculturalresources.

Ican'timagineaconstructionunderwhichhistoricpreservationincludingreactiveSection106compliance(andarchaeologicalresourceprotectionincludingreactivelawenforcement,forthatmatter)wouldnotbepartofculturalresourcemanagement.Buttherehastobemoretomanagementthanreaction....

Ifthearchaeologicalprofessioncollectivelywants...goodmanagementforarchaeologicalresources,thenindividualarchaeologistsmuchbeactiveinsharingwhattheyknow,andthink,andcanfigureout....

[F]indoutwhich[federalagency]officeadministersthelandsandthearchaeologyyou'reinterestedin,askwheretheyareintheplanningcycle,getontheirmailinglist,dosomeresearch,andparticipate.Thinkofitasprobonoworkweshouldbeatleastasnobleaslawyers(Douglas1989).

Participation

Manyconcernedindividuals,industryrepresentatives,specialinterestgroups,andotherswithaneconomicorpolicystakeinthemanagementoffederallandsandresourcesactivelyinvolvethemselvesintheworkofgovernment,visitingfieldoffices,talkingwithstaffandmanagers,attendingpublicmeetings,readingandcommentingondraftdecisiondocuments,offeringhelpfulsuggestions,influencingtheoutcome.Forarchaeologiststoneglecttodothisistoentrustthecareofarchaeologicalresources,includingtheresearchusesifanytowhichtheyareput,blindlytoothers.Overextendedandpressuredagencystaffwilldothebestjobtheycan.However,iftheydon'thappentoknowthethingsyouknow,ortovaluethethingsyouvalue,youcanbereasonablysurethatyourinterestswillnotbeweighedinagencydecisions.Pleasedonotletthathappen.

ReferencesCited

BureauofLandmanagement

1989PublicLandStatisticsVol.173(1988).U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington.

Douglas,J.G.

1989WhyNotManageCulturalResources?In"CulturalResourceManagementinthe1990s,"editedbyP.S.Miller,D.E.Gelburd,andG.A.Alderton,pp.63-70.AmericanSocietyforConservationArchaeologyProceedings1989.



Knudson,R.,andF.P.McManamon

1992TheSecretary'sReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologyProgram.FederalArcheologyReport5(2):1,4-9.

McManamon,F.P.,P.S.Knoll,R.Knudson,G.S.Smith,andR.C.Waldbauer(compilers)


VIISUMMARYTheconferencereportedinpartinthisvolumewasorganizedasaninternationalscientificresearchexposition,withthePublicTrustSymposiumaddedasanafterthought.Becauseofthepresentdifferencesbetweentheculturesincludinglanguage,structure,function,andvaluesofpublicarchaeologistsandacademyresearchers,communicationbetweenthetwoworldsisdifficult.Fewpeoplecrossovereffectivelybetweenthetwodomains.EvenattheMay1989SummitConference,theredidnotappeartobemuchcommunication"researchers"wereveryinvolvedinthefirstthreedaysof"scientific"papers,andmostleftbeforethePublicTrustSymposium.Manyofthesymposiumparticipants,mostofwhomare"culturalresourcemanagers,"didnotattendallofthefirstthreedays'presentationsandcametotheconferencealmostexclusivelytoparticipateinthesymposium.

Yet,probablyallconferenceparticipants,ifasked,wouldsaythattheybelievethatFirstAmericansresourcesareofsignificantpublicscientificandhumanisticvalue,andthattheirconservationisamajorpublicpolicyissue.

Thepost-conferenceinteractionamongscientific,educational,andmanagerialinterestshasbeensignificant,andthisvolumewithitsexplicitlinkagesofthesevariouselementsisanexcitingprojecttohavegeneratedandseentofruition.

ThefinalpaperbyKeelandCalabresereviewsthepubliccontextinwhichFirstAmericansarchaeologicalandpaleo-environmentalresourceswillbeconserved,used,orconsumedapublicmanagementcontext.Togetherwiththeotherpapersinthisvolumetheyprovideguidanceforthefutureofthedistantpast.

RUTHANNKNUDSON

StewardshipofFirstAmericansResourcesBennieC.Keel&F.A.Calabrese

ThePublicTrustDoctrineisanappropriateconceptunderwhichtodevelopFirstAmericansstewardshippoliciesandprograms,andisembeddedintheU.S.authorizinglegislationestablishingagenciessuchastheSmithsonianInstitution,NationalParkService,andBureauofLandManagement.FirstAmericansresearchsponsoredbynationalland-managingagenciesshouldhavetwogoals:tocollectnewinformationforuseinpublicunderstandingofthepast,andtoassisttheagenciesinmanagingthearcheologicalsites,materials,andinformationforwhichtheyareresponsible.Bothavocationalandprofessionalarchaeologistsneedtobecomemoreinvolvedinthedevelopmentandimplementationofenvironmentallegislation,ensuringthatitincludesprotectionofarchaeologicalorothermaterialscriticaltounderstandingtheFirstAmericans,sothattheseresourcesaremanagedaspartofbroaderair,water,andlandmanagement.PublicawarenessofFirstAmericansarcheologicalprotectionneedsisacriticalfactorinimplementingapublictrustconcept.

ThePublicTrust

Itisappropriatethatthisvolumeshouldbeginwiththeconceptofthepublictrust(Knudson,LeMaster)inarchaeology.ItisthroughthisconceptthatintheUnitedStatestodaywehavethephilosophy,ethic,laws,andmanagement(stewardship)principleswhichallowustoprotectourarchaeologicalresourcesbetheytheremainsoftheFirstAmericansorahistoricalmilitaryorcivilianencampment

representingthewesternexpansionintheterritoriesheldbythedescendantsofthoseFirstAmericansaswellasnaturalresources.

Theconceptofapublictrustisstatedrathersimplyandwithoutequivocationinthe1916actestablishingtheNational

Ifnopublicationdatesarenotedwithabibliographiccitationinthischapter,thereferenceddocumentisincludedwithinthisvolumeandisnotincludedinthecitedreferencesforthischapter.

ParkService(NPS)asanagencyresponsible"...toconservethesceneryandthenaturalandhistoricobjectsandthewildlifethereinandtoprovidefortheenjoymentofthesameinsuchamannerandbysuchmeansaswillleavethemunimpairedfortheenjoymentoffuturegenerations"(PublicLaw[P.L.]235,39Statutes-at-Large[Stat.]535,16U.S.Code[U.S.C.]1etseq.).Implicitinthisstatementisnotonlytheconstructofpreservationastheobjectiveofpolicyandlaw,butthefactsofhowwearetotreattheresource(itistobeleft"unimpaired")andwhywepreserveit("fortheenjoymentoffuturegenerations").ThesewordsimposethefullforceofapublictrustupontheNPS.

The1916actembodiesconceptswhichdevelopedinthelate1880saboutthepreservationoflandsforfuturegenerations,reflectingthephilosophiesofPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt(inoffice1901-1909)andnaturalistJohnMuir(1838-1914).Whiletheconceptwasfirstembodiedintheestablishmentofournationalparksandsignificanthistoricresources(HotSprings,Arkansas,inthe1860sandYellowstone1872)itisnotuniquetotheUnitedStates.Infact,whiletheUnitedStateswasinitiallysettingasidelandsaspreserves,theCanadiangovernmentwasthefirsttoestablishacentralmanagingagency,ParksCanada,in1895.

Theconceptofapublictrustinpreservationhasitsrootsinthepreservationofnaturalareas,towhichwereaddedhistoricaland,byextension,archaeological,resources.ThesamepreservationethicresultedintheUnitedStatesintheestablishmentoftheSmithsonianInstitution(1849),aswellastheBureauofAmericanEthnology(1879),entitieswithamissiontopreservetheknowledgeofindigenouspeoplesandlifewaysbeforetheirtotaleradicationandloss.And,whilethephilosophyofanethicofpublictrustismanifestintheprotectionoflargelandareas,thelegalbackboneformuchoftheacquisitionofsuchpreservesintheUnitedStatesrestsuponthe

AntiquitiesActof1906,legislationdesignedtoprotectarchaeologicalandhistoricallysignificantremains(P.L.59-209,Stat.335,16U.S.C.431-433).

Theconceptofpublictrustisalsoembeddedinlegislationofothermajorfederalland-managingagenciesintheUnited

States(Douglas),withtheFederalLandPolicyandManagementActof1976(P.L.94-579)givingsimilarresponsibilitiestotheBureauofLandManagement.AlthoughwithintheU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior(USDI)thevariousland-managingagenciesmayhavedifferentmanagementdirectives,e.g.,multipleuseandconservationvs.preservation,thepublictrustethicisexplicitandshouldpervadethemanagementdecision-makingprocess.ItdoesnotalwayshappenintheidealfashionforthereasonsaddressedbyLeMaster.

TheproblemsresultingfrompressuresuponFirstAmericansresourcesfromcompetingprivate,andsometimespublic,interests(LeMaster)aremostreadilyobservedinexplicitactstoobtainnaturalresourcesheldinprotectedlandpreserves,e.g.,oilinAlaskaandthecoastalareas,coalintheDakotas,wetlandsdevelopmentinsuburbanareas.Thetakingoftheseresourcesbyprivatecompaniesseeminglyimpactsonlythenaturalenvironment,buttheseactionsalmostalwaysinvolveextensivelandmodification,withtheresultingpotentiallossofsubsurfacearchaeologicalresources.Whilearchaeologicalresourcesappeartobeprotectedinconjunctionwithourlandsin"publictrust,"protectionisoftencompromisedbyoutrightshiftsinfederaladministrationpolicyconcerningdrilling,mining,orlanduse,orpurposefulneglectthroughfundingshifts(LeMaster).Areasassumedtobebestpreserved,suchasnationalparks,canbecompromisedbyshiftsinmanagementphilosophiesatnotonlythenationalbuttheregionalandeventhelocallevel.Inshort,whilethereissufficientlegislationtoprotectandpreserve,thatethiciseasilyunderminedbothconsciouslyandunconsciouslyinanumberofways.

TheapplicationofapublictrustphilosophyandethictoprivatelandholdingsseemsaninsurmountableproblemintheUnitedStates,givenourfiercebeliefinprivateownershipofproperty.Buttherearebreaksdevelopinginthatarmor,asnotedbyFowler.Historicalandprehistoricburialremainsandassociatedgravegoodsonprivatelands

arebeingprotected,irrespectiveoftheirantiquity.Andconsensualarrangementsarebeingmadeforprotectionandpreservation(e.g.,privatelyheldsitesontheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces).

AshiftinU.S.philosophyconcerningtheprotectionofantiquitiestoonesimilartothoseinAsianand/orSouthAmericancountriesisnotoutofthequestioneventhoughalongshot.ButasLeMasternotes,inarepresentativedemocracy,thepublic(andarchaeologists)haveanopportunitytodirectthatphilosophyandethic.Itisuptoustoshapethemoratleasttonudgetheminaspecificdirection.ThelegislationthatisinplacetoprotectandpreserveresourcesonU.S.publiclandscameaboutthroughevolutionaryratherthanrevolutionarychangesinmandates;asthatevolutioncontinues,theremayalsobeashiftintheconceptsthatareadaptedtotheprotection,preservation,andmanagement(stewardship)ofthearchaeologicalresources.

ThesumtotalofU.S.publicpolicyforarchaeologycanbeviewed,asLeMasterconsidersit,as''...amosaicofpolicystatementscontainedinthelaws,administrativerules,courtdecisions,recentpresidentialbudgetrequests,andcongressionalappropriationsacts..."(andthesituationisprobablysimilarinmostothercountries).Thatishowourcollectiveattitudeaboutthepublictrustismademanifest.Ifthatisthecase,thenweareindeedintrouble,forwearchaeologistscollectivelyhavenotworkedwellinourownbestinterests.

Assomemustrequirealeapoffaithtoassertthatarchaeologicalresourcesarepartofapublictrust,publicarchaeologistscanonlyaskacademicscholarlyarchaeologiststoextendthat"leapoffaith"tosomeoftheircolleaguestothosewhohaveventuredintotheworldofresourcemanagementwithinthefederalaswellasstategovernment,tothosewhohaveworkedhardtoseetheconceptofpublictrustbecometheoverridingmanagementphilosophy,whileyetretainingtheabilitytointegrateresearchintothemanagementdoctrine.

ForsomewithintheU.S.federal,tribal,andstateculturalresourcemanagement(CRM)systems,ithasbeenfrustratingtowitnessthe

directionthatarchaeologistsandarchaeologicalprogramshavetakeningeneralpreservationprograms.AstatementthatCalabresemadetoaformerprofessorin1974cametobetrue:"Trainyourstudentswell,andrememberthosewhodonotgoontobecomeresearchersmayandwillseekemploymentinthestateandlocalgovernments;andtheywill

dictatethefuturearchaeologywilltakeinthiscountry."Calabresedidnotrealizeatthattimethefullimpactofwhathewaspredicting.Nowarchaeologicalprotectioncomplianceproceduresarerequiredoffederalagenciesandprivatecompanies,performedbystaffarchaeologiststrainedbytheacademicresearchers,andmostfrequentlyundertheguidanceofstateHistoricPreservationOffice(SHPO)staffs.Thus,toomanyarchaeologicalprogramsmustbecarriedoutbykeystaffmemberswhoare,asDouglascomments,"numbedbytheroutineofit,"pursuingtasksthatmustbe"stoicallylivedthrough"tofacilitatearchaeologicalworkthatendsupas"notgoodscience.''Whosefaultisthat?Itisours,notanyoneelse's.

Tobesure,asBonnichsenetal.pointout,federalarchaeologicalprogramsintheUnitedStateshavetakenaturnwedidnotexpectandtherehasbeenaninterestinbuildingadministrativestructurestocontrolarchaeology.Perhapstheresultofanylegislationisthedevelopmentofabureaucracytoimplementit.Butthatdoesnotmeanthattheinterestsofscienceandresearchcannotbeserved.Ifthoselaws,rules,decisions,policystatements,andbudgetrequestsreflectourcollectivepublicpolicyandserveasunderpinningsforourpublictrustethicandinarepresentativedemocracy,asLeMasternotes,wecontrolthatpolicy,thenwemustcollectivelytakefullresponsibilityforouractionsconcerningthepublictrust.Archaeologistscannothideinivorytowers(basementanthropologylabs)orgovernmentcitadels(smallwindowlessoffices)andplaceresponsibilityforourcurrentstateofaffairsonanyoneelse.

Calabrese(1976)pointedoutthat,aboutthetimetheMoss-BennettbillpassedtheU.S.Congressin1974,archaeologistscreatedanenvironmentthatencouragedtheriseofcontractarchaeology(cf.Bonnichsenetal.).Atthattimetherewasanopportunitytodevelopaninstitutionalframeworktoguidethemanagementofarchaeologicalprogramswitharesearch-orientedphilosophy.Buttherewerefew

advocatesofsuchapolicy,andevenfewerscholarswereawarethat,whilethelegislationmightprotectresources,itwouldnotprovidebetterscholarshipandresearch.Thoseresponsibleforoverseeingfederalarchaeologicalprogramsatthattimewerenotpromot-

ingaresearchapproach,butratheralternativepolicieswhichledtoourcurrentfederalmanagementprograms.

Research

Itisclearfromthepapersinthisvolumethatphilosophiesonthedirectionarchaeologyshouldtakedifferbetweenresearcherswithinandoutsideoffederalorstateagencies.Ontheonehand,Bonnichsenetal.lamentprogramsstressingsurveyandinventoryfor"placeoriented"federalagenciesandarchaeologicalprogramstopromoteavoidance,whileontheotherhandCalabresehasrecentlytoldtheNPSAssociateDirectorforCulturalResourcesthatthebiggestcontributiontheNPScanmakeisto"inventory...inventory...inventory."Withoutdoubttheneedsoftheland-managingagenciesandresearchersdonotalwayscoincide,butthesedisparateapproachesneedtobemutuallyunderstoodandvalued.TheydonotnecessarilyprohibitandcansupportdesirableresearchinFirstAmericansstudies.

ThosewhopromoteCRMastheultimateobjectiveofpublictrustarchaeologyoftencontrolthedollarsthatareusedandneededtoaccomplisharchaeologicalprojectsandprograms.Somepeoplehaveworkedhardtointegratetheconceptsofconservationandpreservation(LipeandLindsey1974)withresearchinfederalarchaeologicalprograms;however,notallfederalarcheologyprogramsaretiedtocompliance-ordevelopment-relatedarchaeology.TherearealargenumberofprogramsintheUnitedStatesintegratingpublicandacademicarchaeologywithinthefederalsystem,inbothcompliance-relatedprogramsandprogramsdesignedforlong-termdevelopmentofinformationforscholarlyandpublicconsumption.Anumberofsuchinformation-developmentprogramshavebeencarriedoutbyresearcherswithintheNPSMidwestArcheologicalCenter,andthroughcooperativeagreementswithmajoruniversities.The

examplesbelowareonlyasampling.

TheKnifeRiverArchaeologicalPrograminNorthDakotabeganasacooperativeprogrambetweentheNPSandtheUniversityofNorthDakota,designedtoprovidedataforanewlyestablishedparkarea.Aresearchdesignwasdevelopedwhichbroughttogetherresearchersingeomorphology,geography,anthropology,ethnohistory,physics,mathematics,andcomputersciencetoevaluatearchaeologicalremainsattheKnifeRiverIndianVillagesNationalHistoricSiteareafromthePaleoindiantothepresent.Whiletheemphasiswasuponthelastonethousandyears,fundswerealsoexpendedtoworkoutsidetheparkareatoevaluatethelocalgeomorphologyandtestanumberofsitesinconjunctionwithprivatelyfundedresearchinthearea.ThisresultedinthelocationofoneoftheearliestPaleoindiansitesinNorthDakotaaswellasanumberofArchaicarchaeologicalsites.Theresultsofthisprojectincludedmorethanthirtymonographs,severalmastersthesesandtwodissertations,afour-volumesummaryseriesofscientificinformation,abookdesignedasasynthesisforthelaymanandforpubliceducation(Ahleretal.1991),andasecondbookforchildren(Wardetal.1989).

AnotherprojectconductedasrescuearchaeologyevolvedintheGrandTetonNationalParkinWyoming,astheBureauofReclamation(BoR)drewdownthewatersoftheartificiallyraisedJacksonLakeinpreparationfortherebuildingoftheJacksonLakeDam.Withthewaterlevelslowered,anumberofimportantarchaeologicalsiteswereexposed.Asurveyoftheareawasinitiatedtolocateothersitesthatmighthavebeeninundatedsincethe1906constructionoftheoriginaldam.Overonehundredpreviouslydrownedsiteswererecorded.Aspartoftheproject,aresearchdesignwasdevelopedtoguidethesurveyandsucceedingmitigationprogram.Partofthisdesignwasasystematicprogram,employingtheworkofPleistocene-HoloceneresearchgeologistKenPierce,todiscoverpaleosoilswherePaleoindiansitesmightbelocatedand

evaluated.Therewerefundingconstraintsandtimeconstraints,butthenwhenaretherenotingovernmentprograms?Givenallofthelimitations,asincereeffortwasmadetolocateandevaluate(excavate)Paleoindiansitesaswellasrepresentative

samplesofallothersites.Unfortunately,foravarietyofreasons,althoughsurfacemanifestationssuggestedthepresenceofPaleoindianremains,theywerenotfoundinthesubsurfaceformations,thoughtheyarewellrepresentedinsurfacecollectionsmadearoundthelakefordecades.

HarneyFlatsinFlorida(DanielandWisenbaker1987)wasalarge(3.36acres,1.35hectare)LatePaleoindian-EarlyArchaicsite.ThearchaeologicalrecoveryprojectconductedtherewasfundedbytheU.S.DepartmentofTransportationandtheFloridaDepartmentofTransportation,andwascarriedoutbytheFloridaBureauofArchaeologicalResearch.Some967m2oftheearliestcomponentswereexcavated.Throughcarefulexcavationsandpieceplotting,theinvestigatorswereabletoconstructdistributionswhichledtotheidentificationofactivityareasandunderstandingofthesitefunctionandplan.ThefinalreportprovidesanexcellentrecordofthematerialanddatarecoveredthatcanbeusedtofurthertheunderstandingofFirstAmericanscomplexes.

ExpliciteffortsweremadeinthedevelopmentoftheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(COE)RichardB.RussellReservoirinGeorgiaandSouthCarolinatoidentifyandexaminePaleoindiansiteswithintheprojectarea,withintheoverallpreconstructionculturalresourceinventoryandevaluationeffort.ThiseffortwasplannedasajointresearchprogrambytheCOE,NPS,GeorgiaandSouthCarolinastatearchaeologists,SHPOstaffs,andelementsoftheprofessionalcommunity.Someeighttotenprofessionalarchaeologistswereinvolvedindevelopingtheresearchparametersforthisproject.AsynthesisaswellasacriticalcritiqueoftheRussellresearchprogramarepresentedinAndersonandJoseph(1988).TheresultsofFirstAmericansresearchtherewerequiteinformative,althoughnomajorinsituPaleoindiancomponentswerefoundandinvestigated.Nonetheless,smallburiedPaleoindiancomponentswereexcavatedat

severalsitesandthemethodsusedandreportsoftheseeffortsprovideexceptionallygooddata.

Atthesametime,afewmilessoutheastoftheRussellReservoirarea,PaleoindianresearchwasbeingconductedbytheUniversityofGeorgiaintheWallaceReservoirontheOconeeRiver.Thiswaspartofaprogramtomitigatetheeffectsofthe

proposedWallaceReservoirconstruction,andwassupportedbytheGeorgiaPowerCompany.TheWallaceReservoirinvestigationshavebeenpublishedbytheUniversityofGeorgia(Brook1991,FishandHally1983,Ledbetteretal.1981,O'Steenetal.1986).InformationacquiredfromtheseaswellasotherPaleoindianinvestigationsinGeorgiaandthesurroundingstateshasbeensynthesizedinAndersonetal.(1990).

AdditionalCRMprojectsintheUnitedStatesinwhichFirstAmericansresearchconcernswereimbeddedintheimplementingstagesofmitigationeffortsorgrewoutofinitialCRMinvestigationsarelistedbelow,withtheirsponsoringagenciesandresultingpublications:

Tennessee-Tombigbee,AlabamaandTennessee(COEandNPS;Brose1991)

SouthwestJeffersonCounty,KentuckyFloodControlProject(COEandNPS;Collins1979)

1-270Project,Illinois(IllinoisDepartmentofTransportation,NPS,andIllinoisArchaeologicalSurvey;BareisandPorter1984)

NewMelonesDamandReservoir,California(COE,NPS,andBoR;Morattoetal.1988)

CentralArizonaProject,Arizona(BoR)

DoloresProject,Colorado(BoR;Breternitzetal.1986)

DanielBooneNationalForest,Kentucky(U.S.ForestService;BushandThomas1986a,1986b,Ison1988)

DelawareWaterGap,PennsylvaniaandNewJersey(COEandNPS;OrrandCampana1991)

TellicoReservoir,Tennessee(NPSandTennesseeValleyAuthority

[TVA];Chapman1985)

NormandyReservoirProject,Tennessee(TVA;FaulknerandMcCollough1973)

Theresultsoftheseinvestigationsandtheinsightstheyhaveproducedhavenotbeenrelegatedtothegreyliterature,buthavebeenpublishedinmonographsdistributedtothepublicwithoutcharge.

FederalandstatearchaeologicalprogramsintheUnitedStatesarecompatiblewithFirstAmericansresearchobjectives,iftheprincipalrepresentativesofthefederalandstateagenciesinvolvedhavearesearchorientation.Thedivorceof

researchfromCRMisnotareflectionoflegislation,butoftheattitudeofthearchaeologistsservingasadvisorstothemanagersoftheresource.

Publicarchaeologyhasproducedahugevolumeofmonograph-sizepublicationsoutliningtheresultsofsurveys,datarecovery,andevaluationstatements.Theseareoftenavailableonlyinmanuscriptform(thegovernmentcertainlycannotaffordtopublishthemall)senttointerestedscholarsanddistributedasgreyliterature(thoughseediscussionoftheNationalArchaeologicalDataBaseinMcManamonandKnudson,thisvolume).Buttosaythatanyonewishingtodoresearchwiththisliteraturemustspendinnumerablehoursseparatingoutvaluabledatafromlegallyrequireddocumentationisanoverstatement,andsuggeststhattheseresearchersarebecomingabitlazy.Whosaidthatresearchiseasyornottimeconsuming?Withsomefamiliarity,thesedocumentscanbescannedanddigestedquiteeasily.IfoneistocontributetothesearchfortheFirstAmericans,onemustbecomefamiliarwiththeavailabledataallofit.Whoeverpromisedthatitwouldbeneatlysynthesizedandpre-digestedandregurgitatedfirst?

InfactanumberofbenefitshavederivedfromtheCRMprogramsinU.S.federal,tribal,state,andlocalagencies.

ThroughouttheUnitedStates,inSHPOsandothergovernmentagencyoffices,arecomputerizedlistingsofknownarcheologicalsitesandculturalaffiliationsaswellaselectronicbibliographiesoftheavailablegreyliteraturereportingthesesites(McManamonandKnudson,thisvolume).Onecanpredictthatasweforgefurtherintothecomputerage,additionaldatawillbecomeavailabletoresearchersintheofficeandathomewithouttheneedtotraveltotheareaofinterest.Itisfarbetternowthanitwasinthepast.Archaeologicalinformationgatheringinthelate1960sandthroughthe1980sinthe

UnitedStatesrequiressearchingthroughunorganizedsiterecordsinmustybasementsandpersonallibrariesofprofessorsforobscurepapersandlittle-knownandoftenunpublisheddata.Theproblemcontinues,thevolumeofdataisgreater,andfederalagenciesareattemptingtousethebestavailablemethodsformanagingandcontrollingthisinformation.

LegalAspects

Severalchaptersinthisvolume(Fowler,LeMaster,Magne,McGimsey)coveringthelegalenvironmentprovideabasicframeworkforunderstandingopportunitiesandconstraintsinconductingarchaeologicalresearchingeneral.ItisnotsurprisingthatsomeCentralandSouthAmericancountrieshavestrongerlegislationthantheUnitedStatestoprotectthenation'sinterestincontrollingsites,objects,andmonumentsofthecivilizationsrepresentedintheirhistory.Unlikesitescontainingevidenceofearliercultures,theremainsofthehighculturesareimpressive,eventothecommoncitizen,andthereisgeneticcontinuitybetweenalargeproportionofpastandpresentpeoplesthere.

Lawsandtheiremphasisreflecttheparticularhistoryoftheindividualnationalgovernment.Thecoverageorprotectivedepththatthelawsreachreflectthepoliticalphilosophiesofcurrentgovernments.Irrespectiveoftheamountofcoverageofferedbytheselaws,acommonbasicunderpinningisconservationofeachnation'sarchaeologicalrecordforthebenefitofitscitizens.Howthosebenefitsaretoaccrueisnotspelledoutinthelaws.

Thereseemstobeacommonviewacrossmuchoftheworldthatarchaeologicalorhistoricpreservationlawsaresomehowanti-researchbecausetheydonotstipulate"research"intheirlanguage.SomemanagersanddecisionmakersintheUnitedStatesmakethisinterpretation,butmostofthemhavebeenswayedfromthispositionbycraftyagencyarchaeologistswhohavebeenabletodevelopresearch-likeprogramsthoughthethoughtfulmanipulationofcomplianceprojectplanningandcontractinglanguage.InstancescanbecitedtoshowthatresearchershaveusedpoliticalconnectionstoexpandandaugmentCRMprojectstoparalleltheirresearchinterests.Elsewhereinthischapterwehavedescribedresearcheffortsrelatedto

FirstAmericansstudieswhichhavebeencarriedoutwithintheexistingbodyofpreservationrulesandregulations.Ineachcasetheseeffortsweredevelopedthroughtheclosecooperationof"researchers"andgovernmentarchaeologists.

WebelievethatmostpublicagenciesinNorthAmericawelcomewell-designedresearchprojectswithintheirdomains.ThenormalrequirementstoconductresearchonUSDIlands,forexample,areprettysimple:apracticalexplicitresearchdesign;competentresearchers;thewherewithaltoconducttheprogram,includingfunds,equipment,institutionalbacking,andarecordofsuccessfulresearch;andaprogramthatdoesnotinterferewithotheragencymissions,particularlythemissionofthelandunitwhereinvestigationsaretotakeplace.Frequently,flexibilityinschedulingfieldworkwillovercomeconflictwithothermissionobjectives.Contrarytosentimentsexpressedbysomeofourcolleagues,weseethepurposeofconservationarchaeologyasnottolockoutresearch,butrathertoassurethatresourcesarewiselyconsumed.

Archaeologistsincountriesthatarejustbeginningtoformulateorredefineenvironmentallegislationneedtobecomedeeplyinvolvedinsuchefforts.Participationatthebeginningofthelegislativeprocessmayallowforthelegalauthorizationofspecificarchaeologicalvaluesupfront,ratherthantheneedtocontinuallystruggletosneaksuchvaluesunderthetentatalatertime.

PublicEducationandAwareness

Wefindourselvessinginginthesamechoirasdomanyotherauthorsinthisvolumewhenitcomestotheneedforgreaterpubliceducationofthelaity,politicians,NativeAmericans,anddecisionmakers.Clearlythereisgreatneedforarchaeologytogainasmuchpublicsupportaspossible.TheexperiencesreportedbyDevineandBenseshowthatseveralsegmentsofthepublicareinterestedinplayingaroleinarchaeology.Therolesthattheywishtoplaymaybeactiveonesrangingfromfieldorlaboratoryvolunteeractivitiestoservingassitestewardsorclientsofarchaeologicalentertainment.Weencourageresearcherstodeviseasmanyopportunitiesaspossibleforpublic

participation.Ourexperiencehasbeenthatmembersofthepublicarewillingtoputupwiththesamedifficulties

andfrustrationsaspaidcrewmembersinfieldwork.Theyarefrequentlywillingtogobeyondtheeffortsofpaidpersonnelinthelaboratory.

IntheUnitedStatesoverthelastdecade,asignificantefforthasbeenmadebytheUSDI,SocietyforAmericanArchaeology(SAA),severalSHPOs,andotherpartiestohaltvandalismandthedestructionofarchaeologicalresources.Theattackonthisproblemhasseveralfacets.In1985,theUSDI'sDepartmentalConsultingArchaeologistinstitutedthecollectionanddisseminationofdataconcerningillegalarchaeologicalactivitiesandbeganreportingthemtoCongress(KnudsonandMcManamon1992;seeKeeletal.1989,McManamonetal.1993).Simultaneously,adatabaseforthecollectionanddisseminationofinformationaboutarchaeologyeducationprograms(Knoll1990,1993)wasinstituted.In1998,ARPAwasamendedtoreducethefelonythresholdforoffensesundertheAct,makeintenttoviolatetheActanoffense,andrequireagenciestopursueinventoryofarchaeologicalresourcesonthepubliclandsinamoresystematicandtimelymanner.

Alsoin1988,theSAAinitiatedapublicarcheologicalresourceprotectionprojectwiththehelpoffederalfunding.ThisinitiativeresultedinmeetingsofconcernedprofessionalsinTaos,NewMexico(SAA1991),andinLasVegas,Nevada(SmithandEhrenhardt1991),devotedtoidentifyingproblemsanddefiningpracticalsolutions.TheresultsoftheseconferencesaresimilartotheideasexpressedbyBonnichsenetal.inthisvolume.

Atthenationallevel,theUSDIrecognizesexemplaryeffortsofpublicandprivatesectorgroupstoconservethenation'sresourcesthroughitsPublicServiceAwardsprogram.RecentrecipientsincludeGulfPowerCompany(Florida)foritsHawkshawProject(Bense1985),GeorgeGummerman,SouthernIllinoisUniversity-Carbondaleforthe

BlackMesa,Arizonaproject,andFredWendorf,SouthernMethodistUniversity,forhiscareer-longeffortsinpublicarchaeology.Alsoatthenationallevel,thePresident'sAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservationoperatesanawardsprograminwhicharchaeologicalpreservationprojectshavebeenrecognized(ACHP1993:8).Anumberofstatesandstate-levelarchaeo-

logicalsocietiesaswellastheSAA(CrabtreeAward)andCanadianArchaeologicalAssociationpresentannualrecognitionawardstodeservingindividualsorgroups.Themediaattentiongiventotherecipientsoftheseawardsfurtherseducationofthegeneralpublicregardingthedesirabilityofthewiseuseofthenation'sarchaeologicalresources.

TheNPSiscurrentlyconductinganEarliestAmericansNationalHistoricLandmark(NHL)ThemeStudy(Grumetetal.1995)torecognizeandprotectsignificantFirstAmericanssites.DesignationofFirstAmericansNHLsonpublicandprivatelands,anddistributionofinformationaboutthem,willsupportresearchandenhanceawarenessofLatePleistocene-Holoceneclimatesandenvironments,andhumanadaptationtoanduseofthoseenvironments.

Ourimpressionisthatoverthelastfewyearstherehasbeenanincreaseinthenumberofsocietiesorfoundationsthatpromotearchaeologicalresearchandconservation.Therealsoseemstobeaslightgrowthinthemembershipsofstate-levelavocationalsocieties,whichmaybegeneratedbytheopportunityformoreactiveparticipationatthelocallevel.Inatleastonestate,NorthCarolina,twostatewidearchaeologicalorganizationstheArchaeologicalSocietyofNorthCarolina,whoseoperationhasbeenguidedbytheUniversityofNorthCarolina-ChapelHill,andtheFriendsofNorthCarolinaArcheology,operatedoutoftheDepartmentofCulturalResourcesinRaleighhavemergedintoasinglestrongorganization.Bothbodiesbelievedthatasasinglevoicetheywouldhaveastrongerimpactonthestatehouseinmattersrelatedtothestate'sarchaeologicalprograms.WebelievethattheseexamplesofincreasedpublicparticipationinarcheologicalactivitiescanbeattributedtoagreaterlevelofawarenessofthestatusofandthreatstoU.S.archaeologicalresources.

Funding

FirstAmericansresearchersneedtobecomemoreawareofthemultitudeofpotentialsourcesforfundingtheirstudies.

Weexpectthatscholarsinvolvedinactiveresearcharefullyawareofthetraditionalfundingbodieswithintheirownnations.IntheUnitedStates,academiciansmostcommonlynametheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)andtheNationalGeographicSociety(NGS)asarchaeologicalresearchsupportagencies.Wealthyindividualsortaxshelterfoundationscreatedbyindustryareothersourcesofsupport.Supportfromthegeneralpublicthroughfund-raisingactivitieshasbecomemorecommonintheUnitedStatesinrecentyears;inEngland,archaeologythroughpublicsubscriptionhasbeenaroundforsometime.ThelargestsourceoffundingforFirstAmericansresearchintheUnitedStatesprobablyistobefoundinstateandfederalagenciesastheymeettheirculturalresourcemanagementresponsibilities.

Williamshasprovidedexcellentguidanceonthecareandfeedingofprivatefundingsources.Itshouldnotbesurprisingthattherecommendationsheprovidesarealsodirectlyapplicabletodevelopingandmaintainingapositiverelationshipwithgovernmentagencies.DouglasgivesaparticularlyclearpictureoftheintricaciesofCRMplanningandfundinginamajorU.S.land-managingagency.HisdiscussionoftheinteractionbetweenresearchersandhisagencyparallelscommentsmadebyWilliams.Thekeyseemstobecommunicationbetweenagencymanagersandresearchers.AsWatsonnotes,fundingfordirectorrelatedFirstAmericansresearchintherecentpasthascomprisedaboutsixpercentofthe$2-$3millionawardedannuallybyNSFtoarchaeologicalactivities.Duringthe1978-87decade,NSFthusspentabout$1.5milliononPaleoindianresearch.ReferringbacktoWatson'spartiallistoffederalCRMprojectsinvolvingFirstAmericansresearch,wesuggestthatsubstantiallymorewasspentbythefederalgovernmentthroughitshistoricpreservationactivitiesthanthroughdirectresearchfunding.

InvestigatorspursuingfundsforFirstAmericansresearchinthe

UnitedStatesshouldconsiderbroadeningtheirhorizons.GiventhattheCongresshasdirectedfederalland-managingagenciestodevelopspecificplanstoidentifytheimportantfederallyownedarchaeologicalresources,thetimeisripeforFirstAmericaniststoparticipateinguidingthiseffort.

Recommendations

FirstAmericansresearchisimportantindelineatingtheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericas,butitisonlyasmallpartofeachnation'soverallpublicarchaeologicalprograms.Manifestationsoflaterculturalcomplexesaremoreapparentandmoreeasilylocatedandrecordedthanthoserepresentingthefirstinhabitants.Itisimportanttorecognizethisfact,sothatineachmajorland-developmentprojectsufficienteffortismadetoemployamultidisciplinaryresearchapproachthatwillallowforevaluationofthepotentialforPaleoindianremains,andtotakeeveryopportunitytofillinthatsegmentofthearchaeologicalrecord.Buttheremainderoftherecordshouldnot,ofcourse,beslighted.

ThisapproachisdependentuponFirstAmericansscholarsbecomingfamiliarwithandaccustomedtoworkingwitharchaeologistsandlandmanagersinvolvedinoverseeingpublicarchaeologicalprograms.ItisalsodependentuponpublicarchaeologistsinsuringthatthoseinvolvedinFirstAmericansresearcharenotifiedabout,andtheirtalentsandknowledgeintegratedinto,researchplansandprogramswherethepotentialexistsforunravelingFirstAmericansquestions.

Thepublictrustphilosophyandethicmustbestressedandpromotedateveryopportunity.Therehasbeenarecenttrendtofosterthatawarenessthrough''archaeologyweeks"(Greengrass1993)andthroughcommunicationofbasicinformationtothepublicbypublicagencies.Additionalemphasisisneeded.Inlargepublicprojectsinvolvingarchaeology,sufficientfundsmustbeprogrammedtodevelopbooksforalayaudience,includingchildren,inseverallanguages.Videos,brochures,booklets,andposterscanconveytothepublicconsiderableinformationanddevelopanarchaeologicalawarenessnototherwisefound.FirstAmericansscholarsmusttakethetimetodevelopthesemedia,towriteinaformatthatis

conceptuallydifferentfromthatinwhichtheyaretrained.Theymustacceptandevensupportthefactthatfundstheymightbelievebetterspentonresearcharebeingusedtopromotearchaeologicalpubliceducationandawareness.

Theconceptofapublictrust,alreadynotedinU.S.landmanagingpolicies,mustbestressedforourculturalpropertiesaswellasnaturalresources.Thephilosophyandethicisthere,buttherelationshiptoarchaeologicalresourcesmustbestatedexplicitly.Furtherdevelopmentofthepublictrustconceptasitrelatestoprivatepropertyrightsmustawaitashiftinthecollectivepublicphilosophy.Toforceorattempttodirectthatshiftmayalienatethepublicmorethanitwouldpersuadethemofthenotionthatarcheologicalresourcesareapublictrust.

FundingofFirstAmericansresearch,oranyotherarchaeologyforthatmatter,isnotgoingtoincreaseinthenearfuture.Slightincreasesinfundingmayoccur,butitislikelythatarchaeologicalfundinglevelswillremainstagnantordecreaserelativetospendinginothersegmentsoftheeconomy.FundingforarchaeologyintheUnitedStatesisinlargeparttiedtofundingofpublictrustlandmanagingagencies.Thatinturnistiedtoadministrativeandcongressionalactions.Therealityinmostnationsisthatfundingforarchaeologyistiedtoeconomicprosperity,andwillincreaseonlywhenthecollectivenationaldisposableincomechanges.Givenothersocialprogramneeds,archaeologydoesnotstandmuchofachanceforbudgetaryincreases.Archaeologistsmustseekprivate(foundationandindividual)fundingforourspecialFirstAmericansprojects,andinsurethatFirstAmericansresearchisconsideredandincludedinexistingandfuturepublicprograms.

ReferencesCited

AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation(ACHP)

1993ReporttothePresidentandCongressoftheUnitedStates1993.AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation,Washington.

Ahler,S.A.,T.D.Thiessen,andM.K.Trimble

1991PeopleoftheWillows:ThePrehistoryandEarlyHistoryoftheHidatsaIndians.UniversityofNorthDakotaPress,GrandForks.

Anderson,D.G.,andJ.W.Joseph

1988PrehistoryandHistoryAlongtheUpperSavannahRiver:TechnicalSynthesisofCulturalResourceInvestigations,RichardB.RussellMultipleResourceArea,VolsIandII.RussellPapers,InteragencyArcheologicalServicesDivision.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Atlanta,Georgia.

Anderson,D.G.,R.J.Ledbetter,andL.O'Steen

1990PaleoindianPeriodArchaeologyofGeorgia,UniversityofGeorgiaLaboratoryofArchaeologySeriesReportNo.28;GeorgiaArchaeologicalResearchDesignPaperNo.6.

Bareis,C.J.,andJ.W.Porter

1984AmericanBottomArchaeology.UniversityofIllinoisPress,Champaign.

Bense,J.A.(editor)

1985Hawkshaw:PrehistoryandHistoryinanUrbanNeighborhoodinPensacola,Florida.ReportsofInvestigations,No.7.OfficeofCulturalandArchaeologicalResearch,UniversityofWestFlorida,Pensacola.

Breternitz,D.A.,C.K.Robinson,andG.T.Gross

1986DoloresArchaeologicalProgram:FinalSyntheticReport.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,BureauofReclamation,EngineeringandResearchCenter,Denver.

Brook,G.

1991GeoarchaeologyoftheOconeeReservoir.WallaceReservoirProjectContribution15.DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens.

Brose,D.S.

1991Yesterday'sRiver;TheArcheologyof10,000YearsalongtheTennessee-TombigbeeWaterway.ClevelandMuseumofNaturalHistory,Cleveland.

Bush,D.R.,andJ.E.Thomas

1986aACulturalResourceInvestigationofselectedareaswithintheRedbirdRangerDistrict,DanielBooneNationalForest,Kentucky.DavidBush,Inc.,Cleveland.

1986bPhaseIIAssessmentTestingodEnochForkShelter(15Pe50),RedbirdRangerDistrict,DanielBooneNationalForest,Kentucky.DavidBush,Inc.,Cleveland.

Calabrese,F.A.

1976FederalArchaeologyLegislationandAdministration:IntentandReality,pp.19-26.ASCAProceedings1976.

Chapman,J.

1985TellicoArchaeology.UniversityofTennesseePress,Knoxville.

Collins,M.B.(editor)

1979ExcavationsatFourArchaicSitesintheLowerOhioValley,JeffersonCounty,Kentucky.OccasionalPapersinAnthropology,No.1.DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington.

Daniel,I.R.,Jr.,andM.Weisenbaker

1987HarneyFlats:AFloridaPaleo-IndianSite.BaywoodPublishingCo.,Inc.,Farmingdale,NewYork.

Faulkner,C.H.,andM.C.R.McCollough

1973IntroductoryReportoftheNormandyReservoirSalvageProject:EnvironmentalSetting,Typology,andSurvey.ReportsofInvestigations,No.11.DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofTennessee,Knoxville.

Fish,P.R.,andD.J.Hally

1983TheWallaceReservoirArchaeologicalProject:AnOverview.EarlyGeorgia11(1-2):1-19.

Greengrass,M.R.

1993StateArcheologyWeeks.ArcheologicalAssistanceProgram

TechnicalBrief15.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,Washington.

Grumet,R.S.(projectcoordinator)andM.R.Barnes,S.L.DeVore,H.R.Dunbar,R.S.Grumet,andS.D.Morton(compilers)

1995EarliestAmericansNationalHistoricLandmarkThemeStudy.Draft1:ProjectDescription,StatusReport,andStatePaleo-IndianArcheologicalDataSummaries.Ms.onfile,NPS,Mid-AtlanticRegionalOffice,Philadelphia.

Ison,C.R.

1988TheColdOakShelter:ProvidingaBetterUnderstandingoftheTerminalArchaic.InPaleoindianandArchaicResearchinKentucky,editedbyC.C.Hockensmith,D.Pollack,andT.N.Sanders,pp.205-219.KentuckyHeritageCouncil,Frankfort.



Knoll,P.C.(editor)



Knudson,R.,andF.P.McManamon

1992TheSecretary'sReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologyProgram.FederalArcheologyReport5(2):1,4-10.

Ledbetter,R.J.,L.D.O'Steen,andS.A.Kowalewski

1981ChertofSouthernOconeeCounty,Georgia.EarlyGeorgia9:1-13.

Lipe,W.D.,andA.J.Lindsey

1974Proceedingsofthe1974CulturalResourceManagementConference,Denver,Colorado.TechnicalSeriesNo.14.MuseumofNorthernArizona,Flagstaff.



Moratto,M.J.,J.D.Tordoff,andL.H.Sharp,withcontributionsbyothers

1988CultureChangeintheCentralSierraNevada,8,000B.C.-A.D.1950.FinalReportoftheNewMelonesArcheologicalProjectVol.

9.ReporttotheNationalParkService,Washington,D.C.INFOTECDevelopment,Inc.,Sonora,California.

Orr,D.G.,andD.V.Campara(editors)

1991ThePeoplingofMinisink.Papersfromthe1989DelawareWaterGapSymposium.NationalParkService,Mid-AtlanticRegion,Philadelphia.

O'Steen,L.D.,R.J.Ledbetter,D.T.Elliott,andW.W.Barker

1986PaleoindianSitesoftheInnerPiedmontofGeorgia:ObservationsofSettlementintheOconeeWatershed.EarlyGeorgia1:13-63.

Smith,G.S.,andJ.E.Ehrenhard(editors)

1991ProtectingthePast.CRCPress,BocaRaton,Florida.

SocietyforAmericanArchaeology(SAA)

1991SavethePastfortheFuture:ActionPlanforthe'90s.SocietyforAmericanArchaeology,Washington.

WardM.,J.Burr,andJ.Ahler

1989TheMouseRaid.UniversityofNorthDakotaPress,GrandForks.

LISTOFCONTRIBUTORSJudithA.BenseistheDirector,ArchaeologyInstitute,andAssociateProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofWestFlorida,Pensacola.

RobsonBonnichsenistheDirector,CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,andAssociateProfessorofAnthropology,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.

F.A.CalabreseistheChief,MidwestArcheologicalCenter,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Lincoln,Nebraska,andanAdjunctProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofNebraska,Lincoln.

HeatherDevineisanindependentculturalheritageconsultantandformerEducationOfficeroftheArchaeologicalSurveyofAlberta,ProvincialMuseumofAlberta,Edmonton.

TomD.DillehayisaProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,andtheDepartamentodeAntropologia,UniversidaddeChile,Valdivia.

JohnG.DouglasisaSeniorArcheologist,DivisionofCulturalResources,BureauofLandManagement,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington.

JohnM.FowleristheSeniorCounsel,AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation,Washington.

GeorgeC.FrisonisaProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofWyoming,Laramie.

RoyA.GallantisDirector/LectureroftheSouthworthPlanetariumandAdjunctProfessorofEnglish,UniversityofSouthernMaine,Portland.

LeslieStarrHartisChief,OfficeofProfessionalandEmployeeDevelopment,DenverServiceCenter,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Denver,andatthetimeofthesymposiumwasChief,DivisionofCulturalResources,AlaskaRegionalOffice,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Anchorage.

FumikoIkawa-SmithisaProfessorofAnthropology,McGillUniversity,Montreal.

BennieC.KeelistheSoutheastRegionalArcheologist,SoutheastArcheologicalCenter,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Tallahassee,andAdjunctProfessorofAnthropology,

FloridaStateUniversity,Tallahassee.AtthetimeofthesymposiumhewasNationalParkServiceAssistantDirector-ArcheologyandtheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorDepartmentalConsultingArcheologist.

RuthannKnudsonisanArcheologist,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivisionandOfficeoftheDepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington;ResearchAssociate,CaliforniaAcademyofSciences,SanFrancisco;andprincipalofherownsmallwoman-ownedfirm,KnudsonAssociates,Alexandria,Virginia.

DennisC.LeMasteristheHead,DepartmentofForestryandNaturalResources,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,Indiana.

FrancisP.McManamonistheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorDepartmentalConsultingArcheologistandChief,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington.

MartinP.R.MagneiscurrentlyChiefofArchaeologicalServices,ParksCanada,AlbertaRegion,Calgary,andatthetimeofthesymposiumwastheHead,ArchaeologicalSurveyofAlberta,AlbertaProvincialMuseum,Edmonton.

CharlesR.McGimseyIII,isnowDirectorEmeritus,ArkansasArcheologicalSurvey,andProfessorEmeritusofAnthropology,UniversityofArkansas,Fayetteville.

DennisStanfordisaCuratorofAnthropology,DirectorofthePaleoindianProgram,andChair,DepartmentofAnthropology,NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory,SmithsonianInstitution,Washington.

D.GentrySteeleisaProfessorofAnthropology,TexasA&M

University,CollegeStation.

AllanR.TaylorisaspecialistinthelinguisticsofNorthAmericanIndiansandisaProfessorofLinguistics,UniversityofColorado,Boulder.

JohnTomenchukisaResearchAssociate,RoyalOntarioMuseum,Toronto.

PattyJoWatsonisaDistinguishedUniversityProfessorofAnthropology,WashingtonUniversity,St.Louis,Missouri.

StephenWilliamsisEmeritusProfessorandtheHonoraryCuratorofNorthAmericanArchaeology,PeabodyMuseumofArchaeologyandEthnology,HarvardUniversity,Cambridge,Massachusetts,andwasPeabodyProfessorandCuratoratthetimeofthesymposium.

INDEX

A

AbandonedShipwreckActof1987,81,101-102

AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation,78,79,84,101,199

Alberta,93,102,130;

HistoricalResourcesActof,98;

ArchaeologicalSurveyof,98-99;

Calgary,100,128-129,137;

EnvironmentConservationAuthorityof,98,104

AmericanIndianReligiousFreedomAct,80

AntiquitiesActof1906,13,51,55,58,176,188

ArchaeologicalandShipwreckInformationSystem,39

ArchaeologicalResourceProtectionAct,5,13,51,53,55,79,101,119,122,158,176-179

archaeologicalresources:

insituconservationof,19,31,51,53,54,58,62-63,96;

inventoryof,5-6,54-55,57,79-80,89,120-121,176,192-194;

lootingof,49,51,73,80,89,140-141,199;

managementof,3-6,19,49-50,55-57,99,173-182,185,192,197-198(seealsomanagement)

quantities,5-6,121;

submerged,17,39,81,88,97;

trafficking,49,74,96,97;

valueof,12,18,19,51,185

archaeologists,amateur/avocational,vii,57,59,100,119,177,200,202

ArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974,13,51,54,78,124,158,191

ArcticResearchandPolicyActof1984,3-4

artifacts,89,100;

classificationof,40;

coreandflaketoolpatterns,34;

curationof,21,100,121,123-124,163-164;

fishtailpointcomplex,34;

projectilepointstyles,33-34;

UpperPaleolithictechnology,36-37

Asia,4,30-32,35,37,39,41,46-48,53,87-90,115,190

Auel,Jean,62,64

Australia,47-48,73

AutomaticManagerofArcheologicalSiteDatainArkansas,39

B

bioanthropology.Seeresearch

BureauofIndianAffairs,174

BureauofLandManagement,52,121,124,134,173-175,177,178,

187,189

BureauofReclamation,121,124,159,174,193,195

C

California,15,175,195

Canada,49,50,52,55,57,74,75,76,84-85,93-105,130-131,163

(seealsoAlberta):

ArchaeologicalSurveyof,RescueArchaeologyProgram,95;

CanadianAntiquitiesAct(suggested),95-96;

CanadianArchaeologicalAssociation,95-98,102,104,200;

DepartmentsofCanadianHeritage,102,

Communications,93,96-98,102-104,

Environment,96;

IndianandNorthernAffairs,96-97,104,Transport,96;

CanadianEnvironmentalAssessmentActof1994,52,95;

CanadianFederalHeritageBuildingReviewOffice,84;

CanadianMuseumofCivilization,94,95,103;

CanadianParksService,94,95,188;

DepartmentofIndianandNorthernAffairsDevelopmentAct(IndianAct),84,94

CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,ix-x,2,40,140,142,144

CentralAmerica,4,48,49,87-90,197

Chile,90,164

Chippendale,Christopher,11,22

Cleere,Henry,10,22,50,66

climaticchange.Seepaleoenvironment;research.

Clovis,33,37,48,115,162,163

compliancearchaeology.Seearchaeologicalresources,management

CulturalPropertyExportandImportAct,96,102

culturalresources,10,17,56,88-89,121,178,181

D

DefenseTechnicalInformationService.SeeU.S.DepartmentofDefense.

DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist.SeeU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior.

E

EconomicRecoveryActof1981,109

economics,1,10,19,34,49,52,54,55,61,106,127-128,147-155;

archeologicalfunding,5-6,54,74,151-152,157-159,160-166,167-172,173-182,199-201,203;

compensation,12,15,16,17,19;

costofarchaeology,99-100,121,151-152,157-159;

marketing,145-146

ecosystems,ecology.Seepaleoenvironment

Ecuador,89,161

education:

college,59,100-101,136,169;

environmental,127-129,136;

kindergarten-grade12,98,127-137,147;

Native,32,127-129,136;

public,1,4,20,30-32,48,53,59,61-63,97,115-116,117-126,140-144,147,187,193,198-200,202;

training,55,123-125

electronicmedia,142,148,150-154,202

England,11,13,201

environmentalassessment.Seemanagement,environmental.

ethics,2,10-12,14,16,18,189,202-203

ExecutiveOrder12630,16,26

F

FaunMap,39

FederalLandPolicyandManagementActof1976,189

FederalLawEnforcementTrainingCenter,124

Florida,15,124,145-155,175,194,199

Folsom,63

G

Georgia,194-195

GulfPowerCompany,146-148,199

H

Hawkshaw,147-148,199

Head-Smashed-InBuffaloJump,99,102-103

I

Importationofpre-ColumbianMonumentalandArchitecturalSculptureorMurals,U.S.lawon,87,90

Indiana,140-141

InternationalCommitteeonMonumentsandSites,87,90,91

InternationalCourtofJustice,91

InternationalRadiocarbonDataBase.Seeresearch.

J

JacksonLakeproject,193

K

Kentucky,140-141,195

Knudson,Ruthann,141

L

landmark,82,119

language(s).Seeresearch,linguistics.

law,60,61,115,197-198

(seealsoindividualcountries,regions):

archaeologicalresourceprotection,4,13,51,53,55,74-86,98,101,124,175-177;

inAsiaandLatinAmerica,87-92;

Canadian,76,84-85,93-105;

cemetery,81-82;

civil/code,88;

common,49,75,85,88;

easements,75,83;

environmental,13,20,52-53,55,77,81,95-98,187,198;

NativeAmerican(seeNativeAmericans,law);

international,87,90-91,95;

local,82-83,148-149;

Marxist/Leninist,88;

naturalresource,11-12,13,16,17,106,112-113;

private,82-83,86;

property,14;

provincial,84-85,98-99;

state,15,80-81,83,119;

UnitedStates,3-5,11-17,20,26,51-55,58,75,77-81,101-102,109,119,122,124,148,158,176-179,188-189,191;

zoning,75,82

Lipe,WilliamD.,12,25

ListingofEducationinArcheologicalPrograms,118,199

ListingofOutlawTreachery,120

Lujan,Manuel,Jr.,19,25,49,69

M

management

(seealsoarchaeologicalresources,management):

ofculturalresource,10-11,100,180-181,190-201;

environmental,21,52-53,58-60,95,100;

ofnaturalresource,19,106-113,177-178,189;

ofpublicresource,1,10-11,21,29,30,48-61,63,94,97,109-111,173-182

Martin,Paul,143

Masse,Marcel,97,105

McGimsey,CharlesR.,III,11,26

Mexico,88,89,90

Mongolia,88

Morlan,RichardE.,40,69

Muir,John,188

N

NationalAnthropologicalArchives,123

NationalArcheologicalDataBase-Network,119-120,196;

NADB-Reports,39,56-57,60,119-124

NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,160,164,165

NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct,52,55,77

NationalGeographicSociety,135,141-142,201

NationalHistoricPreservationAct,52,55,75,77-81,101,122,148,158,175-177,179;

Section106process,75,78-79,81,148,175-176,180-181

NationalInstitutesofHealth,160,164-165

NationalParkService,x,2,3-6,52,77-78,117-124,159,174,187,192-195;

NationalParkSystem,121-122;

ArcheologicalAssistancedivision,117-121,123;

CulturalResourcesManagementBibliography,121-122;

CulturalSitesInventory,122;

MidwestArcheologicalCenter,192;

organicactof1916,177,187-188

NationalPreservationInstitute,124

NationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,75,77-78,81,101,189

NationalScienceFoundation,57,154,160-166,201

NationalStrategyforFederalArcheology,11,19

NationalTechnicalInformationService,123

NationalTrustforHistoricPreservation,50-51

NativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationActof1990,79-80,102,119

NativeAmericans,vii,3,17,21,30,32,62,79,80,94,97,98,100,102,171,198;

bioanthropologyof,41-44;

culture/valuesystemsof,12,32,127;

educationof,127-131;

humanremainsof,vii,15,41-44,73,76,79-80,84,94,140,189;

law,84,94;

linguisticsof,45-48

Nichols,Johanna,47-48,69

NorthAmerica,30-32,35,39,41-42,49,53,115,198

NorthAmericanFreeTradeAct,102

O

ownership,vii,7,8,9-10,12,16,17,21,100;

common,16,49;

Crown/nation,88-89,96-99;

Indianland,79,94;

jointandseveral,9,14,21;

Native,102;

privateland,16-19,48-50,52,81,83,86,89,99,112-113,119,145146,189,203;

publicland,8,73,74,76-77,79,97,99,113,173-175;

usufruct,14

P

paleoenvironment:

changein,20,30,32,35-36,59,160;

cultural-naturallinkages,32,35-37,52;

databases,38-39;

remains,1,2,11,20,33,49,54,59,60,115-116,157,186,193

paleontologicalresources,98,103

partnership,viii,3-4,30,135;

academic-government,6,58-61,118,192-194,197,201;

federal-state,79-82;

public-private,83,145-155

PennCentralcase,17

Peru,88,89,90,164

physicalanthropology.Seeresearch,bioanthropology

plans/planning,3,89,122;

archaeologicalmanagement,149;

historicpreservation,52,58;

landuse,52,58,60-61,85,115,122,180

Powell,JohnWesley,46,70

property

(seealsoU.S.Constitution):

common,8;

freedoms,15-16;

private,11,15,16;

rights,7,8,12-18,21;

state,8,81;

values,17

publicarchaeology.Seearchaeologicalresources,management

publications,134;

government,56-58,118-119,122-123,134,195-196;

popular,viii,134-135,140-144,193,195,202;

technical,viii,34-35,41,56-57,132,136,140,193,195-196

publicpolicy(U.S.),11,48-61,106-113,185,190-191;

appropriationsprocess,107-108,178-179,203;

budgetprocess,107-111,178-179

publictrust,7-8,9-28,49,53,93,103,116,167,187-191,202-203;

Public

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