The Practice and Implications of Naming

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The Practice and Implications of Naming

by: Lauren Ashley Huff

Winter 2009

We can take our names and bury them in the ground.1

Names are most often given at birth before an individual can agree or disagree with

their pending title- before they can walk, speak, make eye contact or roll over. From this

point onward, a proper name is assumed. This proper name is branded on legal documents

and baby books, library cards and drivers licenses, business cards and resumes. Some are

even named while still in the womb, their names emblazoned on Were Expecting! cards

reading, Baby Owen is on his way. And this excited anticipation is not without reason-

one of the universal joys of parenthood is naming ones child, rummaging through books like

60,001+ Best Baby Names Book and The Greatest Baby Name Book Ever.

In American culture there are a meager few which delay this process of naming- very

rare cases in which individuals can say, For the first year of my life my parents called me

Umpqua. Young girls often make lists of names they like, or names they wish they had

received: Scout, Adeline, Petra, Emerson. And just the same, expecting parents detail lists

of possible names, while testing them for aesthetic appeal and sound. They practice both

yelling them across the room, and speaking them quietly. But not all are content with this

traditional method of picking a name.

Some parents, with the wish to choose a perfectly suited name at the forefront of their

minds, hire professional name consultants. These name consultants employ an intuitive

system of going beyond the sight and sound of a name to feel its vibration and observe the

1Stephen Steinbrink, Being Late, Overpassing, 2007


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energy it creates every time it is said, spelled, and even though. They rely on collective

support from their studies in numerology, psychology and historical naming traditions,

charging fees which range from $25 to $400 for their services.2

Whether or not their name was chosen traditionally or by a name consultant, when an

individual matures enough to recognize the existence of their name how they will feel about

their parents far reaching decision is debatable. Names are high personal, yet at the same

time nearly always the first thing another learns about you. Before telling someone your age,

occupation, residential locale, childhood history or favorite food, you shake and exchange

names. Some hold their names closely to them, choosing not to reveal the personal detail.

Others eagerly introduce themselves, openly sharing their namesake and identity.

Possessing a name has its benefits- to be called directly by ones name can give on a

feeling of self-worth and comfort. Individuals suffering from amnesia regularly possess a

lack of memory in regards to past history, age and especially their names. To forget ones

name can give one a feeling of lost identity and purpose, and to never receive a name would

have similar implications. Ernest Pulgram, author of the dissertation Theory of Names,

states that The name of a man is like his shadow. It is not of his substance and not of his

soul, but it lives with him and by him.3 But in humanities long history there was hardly a

time when individuals did not possess some sort of title or name.

Names have always been used as a function of identity. Even before the cognitive

development of spoken language, it is thought that humans used hand gestures to denote and

signify personal titles. And though the history of names is one characterized by much change

2 Hagar Scher, Pick the Perfect Name, Parents, October 2009, 118.3Ernest Pulgram, Theory of Names (Berkeley: American Names Society, 1954), 1.

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in practice and product across time and place, there is today no known knowledge of any one

group or society of peoples in which proper naming practices do not exist. Expanding on this

notion, Pulgram also states that since the giving and bearing of names have found such

universal acceptance in all forms of societies and in all states of culture, this fact of

universality ought to be indicative of a common need, perhaps even of a common urge, which

all human beings share.4

Names, in essence, are simply proper nouns- words used to title people or places with

proper names. Linguist Ernest Pulgram defines these as such:

A proper name is a noun used in a non-universal function, with or without

recognizable current lexical value, of which the potential meaning coincides with and

never exceeds its actual meaning, and which is attached as a label to one animate

being or an inanimate object (or to more than one in the case of collective names) for

the purpose of specific distinction from among a number of like or in some respects

similar beings or objects that are either in no manner distinguished from another or,

for our interest, not sufficiently distinguished. 5

Or more simply put, a name is used to designate or define a person or an entity, to give one a

distinct title for use in common life, interactions and conversation.

And though this is the most widely accepted notion of what a name is, there exists

some debate in the Linguistic world over exactly how one should define a name. Some reject

the notion that names have any linguistic importance- they instead believe that the study of

names, or Omnastics, have no place in the study of language. Similarly they believe that the

relationship an individual and ones name maintain are of little importance to Linguistics.

Others maintain the belief that the meaning of a name is simply the person or place a name

4Ernest Pulgram, 5.

5 Ernest Pulgram, 8

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refers to, that a name should not be considered a proper noun and that a names meaning is not

related to the meaning of any common root nouns. In short, there is no definitive designation

of what a name is, save for the stock dictionary definition: the word or words that a person,

thing or place is known by.6

But no matter how one defines the notion of name, it is universally true that all of the

names from a particular society are drawn from a core pool of nouns and adjectives. This

idea is illustrated in Table 1. Names essentially all began as titles which were extrapolated

from other words in any particular language. Pulgram states, I have found no names which

ultimately and basically are not part of the current or past lexicon of a language. 7 And with

this being said, although all names were likely drawn from a similar pool of sources, most

languages are characteristic of a pattern of de-etymologisation of names. Thus, as time

passes names become less and less visibly related to nouns and adjectives, names change and

shift. Nicknames are established and later these nicknames can become names in and of

themselves. For instance the de-etymologisation of Max from the previously popular

version, Maximillian. But though de-semanticisation is typical, many names contain

elements which in origin are descriptive and are transparently and accessibly so.8

Regarding this long standing history of names, how do parents go about choosing a

name for their children? In America, the rules and guidelines for naming ones child are

nearly endless in regards to official law. The United Kingdom and the United States are

practically the only countries that adhere to the principle of Roman law that a person has the

6Cambrigde Dictionaries Online, Cambrigde Advanced Learners Dictionary, Name, Cambrigde,http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=52846&dict=CALD&topic=names-and-titles7

Ernest Pulgram, 128John Anderson, On the Grammarof Names, Kamaria, Methoni Messinias, 2002, 19-22

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right to use and change his name as he pleases, except for fraudulent purposes. 9 But in some

societies, a parents choice of name is highly regulated and controlled. In Germany parents

must submit their tentative names to the local Office of Vital Statistics, or the Standesamt.

By German law, a child's name has to meet two conditions: (1) it must reflect the sex of the

child, and (2) it must not endanger the 'well-being of the child. 10 For example to name ones

child a name such as Whoopi after Whoopi Goldberg, would not be allowed because of the

connotation the word Whoopee has with sex. Gender neutral names are also infrequently

used in Germany for this reason.

In this sense, because of the lack of rules and laws, and the present relative freedom of

choice, naming practices in America is first and foremost a matter of taste, a social process

which consists of multiple factors. Stanley Lieberson, a Linguist who specializing in names,

states that the choice of names may be viewed as involving an interaction between the

images that the names hold for the parents and the expectations, hope and visions they have

about their children at the time of birth.11

These images that a name night hold can create

stereotypical pictures which influence parents decisions. For instance associating the name

Mary with quiet, kind, and studious traits, or the name Adrian with handsome and artistic

traits. Parents, while considering the potential stereotypes a name may hold are very much

affected by both the image [they] have of the name, the image they have of their child (in

terms of what they want of their child), and their conception of what is proper in society. 12

This can include an estimate of the response of others to the name, the awareness and

9Stanley Liberson, Whats in a name? some sociolinguistic possibilities, Mouton Publishers, Amsterdam,7710

Hyde Flippo, The German Way, McGraw-Hill, 1996, 96-9711

Stanley Lieberson, 7712 Stanley Lieberson, 83

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knowledge of names through mass media, parents beliefs about what are appropriate

childrens names for persons of their status, and institutionalized norms and pressures. 13

There are also several external conditions which affect parents in regards to their

naming decisions, and which influence the ways in which they view the images a name holds

and what the potential implications of a name could be. For the purposes of this paper, the

external conditions which will be examined will be parental educational and skill level,

gender, socio-economic status, social and moral values, familial and cultural norms, and the

influence of popular style and subculture elements. Parents in the naming process will

consider the images a name may hold on many different levels, but the verbalized result could

only manifest itself in simply liking or disliking a particular name.14 However, the

implications which this simple like or dislike can have as a child matures and progresses

through life can be huge. Just as names hold particular images for parents during the naming

process, names maintain these images even after they are bestowed and as a child moves

through life. It is important to note that all of these images and separate factors (parental

education, gender, ect) affect the naming of girl and boys in a different manner. Among white

parents, the process of naming boys in comparison to girls is the most striking example of this

difference.15

Looking comparatively at the naming trends for girls and boys during recent decades

in America, it can be noted that boys are more likely to be named after relatives, and be

named with more traditional and historical names. Girls on the other hand are less likely to

13Stanley Lieberson and Eleanor O. Bell, Childrens First Names: An Empirical Study of Social Taste, The

American Journal of Sociology: November 1992, 51414

Stanley Lieberson, 715 Stanley Lieberson and Eleanor O. Bell, 516

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receive family names and instead be titled with names which are more likely to be influenced

by popular culture and innovation. For instance, a boy is more likely to be named after his

father with a name like Samuel, while a girl could more easily receive a new and innovative

name, like Zoey. For girls, naming practices are much more indicative of novelty and

creativity.16 What can be said for this difference?

Throughout time, naming practices have often been affected by predominant sex roles.

In this sense, the stark separation between familial naming for boys and girls alludes to

prevailing ancestral and social norms which have been present in the United States for some

time. Lieberson and Bell state that parents are more likely to give kin names to boys than

girls to symbolize and encourage their sons roles as perpetuators and symbols of family

continuity and prestige, as can be seen visibly in the naming of sons after close relatives. 17

Boys have a 49% likelihood of being named after a relative, with most being named after

fathers, grandfathers or great-grandfathers.18 This is the process which creates the well-known

coupling of father and son pairs aptly named with titles such as Shelton Jr. and Shelton

Sr., or Junior and Senior. First born sons are the most likely individuals the title of

Junior, two to three more times likely then later born children.19

The implication of this tradition especially profound for boys, more so than girls.

Sharing a name with a father or grand-father can in some cases create a special emotional

bond between two individuals, but can at the same time could potentially create massive

pressure to meet high parental or familial expectations. Stephen Wilson believes that a boy

16Stanley Lieberson and Eleanor O. Bell, 516-518

17Stanley Lieberson and Eleanor O. Bell, 521.

18Thomas V. Busse, The Professors Book of First Names (Pennsylvania: Green Ball Press, 1984), 42

19 Thomas V. Busse, 46

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is named Junior in deference to the fathers wish to perpetuate himself in his son, to have his

son emulate him, and at the same time to retain a clearly superior role himself.

In the race to live up to ones namesake, a boy could fall victim to low self-esteem,

low self-worth and feelings of failure. Thomas V. Busse, author ofThe Professors Book of

First Names believes that the objectionable effects of identical naming seem to fall most

heavily on boys, probably because employment-related achievement pressures are focused

more strongly on males.20 It is also because of this repeated pattern of familial naming, that

boys are more likely to have traditional names.

If boys are likely to be named after a relative, it is natural that certain traditional

names would remain so readily in use. Even when looking at the shifting popularity of names

over time, there is turnover in the statistics for the most given names for boys the new names

are usually reflections of old-fashioned names. Girls on the other hand, are less likely to

receive traditional names, historical names, and instead are more likely to receive names

which have more root in popular society.21

This is because first name sharing between

mothers and daughters is rare. Only 6% of girls are named for their mothers, and only 30% of

girls are named for a relative overall.22 Lieberson and Bell believe that this is because in the

same sense that men are viewed as symbolic carriers of a families name, that the divergent

tastes underlying naming patterns for boys and girls reflect a tendency to assign a lesser role

to women, such that their names are relatively more decorative and thereby open to fashion. 23

Because of this, parents are often influenced by popular culture when naming their

20Thomas V. Busse, 4421Stanley Lieberson and Eleanor O. Bell, 52122Thomas V. Busse, 4323Stanley Lieberson and Eleanor O. Bell, 516

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female children. Wilson states that, fashion has long been a factor in first-naming, even for

male children, although to a lesser degree. In America the first celebrity naming began with

the trend of naming ones child after Revolutionary War heroes. Babies increasingly began to

receive the names of Hancock, Washington and Warren, men whos successes were widely

known across America. As history progressed, more trends were made as Franklin,

Jefferson, Harrison, and Grant came into fashion. 24 Today, name trends are strongly

influenced by which names celebrity parents bestow on their children. For instance, since the

inauguration of President Obama, the names Sasha and Malia have increased in

popularity. When Gwyneth Paltrow named her daughter Apple, this relativity unique name

similarly soared in popularity.

But these celebrity baby name trends are largely impermanent. Bill Marsh and Alicia

DeSantis, co-authors ofQuick Arriving Fads Quick to Flame Out, state that, The faster they

come to prominence, the faster their use declines. First name trends in America especially

are characteristic of this potent and swift pattern of change. Stephen Wilson states that the

most striking feature of first-name choice in the period since 1875 is the volatility of the list of

commonest names.25 This type of list can be gauged generally by calculating the number of

new names entering the top ten names every decade.26 (An example of a list of this kind can

be seen in Table 2.) In response to this, if one were to look at the statistics of popular female

names over time, one would find that there is more turnover in the popularity of girls names-

this high rate of turnover characterized by more unique names, names which are more likely

24Stephen Wilson, , The Means of Naming, (Pennsylvania: UCL Press, 1998), 296

25Stephen Wilson, 29126Stephen Wilson, 292

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to be made up, names influenced by popular culture and names which have few familial ties.27

And while females are already unlikely to receive familial names, it is interesting to

note that the instances of paternal and familial naming have been in relative decline for the

majority of white families. Wilson states that this is because:

in the midst of the continual movement which agitates a democratic

community, the tie which unites one generation to another is relaxed or

broken; every man readily loses the trace of the ideas of his forefathers or

takes no care about them. More particularly the family became less

patriarchal and more matrifocal, less hierarchical and more egalitarian, and

there was more stress on the individual both within and apart from the

family.28

But even so, although sex roles have changed throughout history, the combination of kin

names and new names in vogue continued over successive generations down to the present. 29

In this sense, although familial naming began as an essential representation of gender

roles, as time progressed relating first-name choice to particular kin by parents was a

rationalization of choices actually dictated by fashion, a view which the breakdown of

specific lineage naming would tend to confirm. And although instances of paternal and

familial naming have been in relative decline for the majority of white families, be this

dictated by societal roles or fashion, blue-collar and black families have mildly increased

familial naming practices.30 Larry M. Logue believes that the cause of this could potentially

be the result of these two groups mimicking what they thought was a badge of respectability

and asserting their identity and creating stability in an insecure world.31

27 Stanley Lieberson and Eleanor O. Bell, 52128 Stephen Wilson, 29429

Stephen Wilson, 29530

Larry M. Logue, Modernization Arrested: Child Naming and the Family in a Utah Town, The Journal of

American History, June 1987, 13231 Larry M. Logue, 133

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And this makes sense, because in many cases the naming practices of ethnic groups

are largely influenced by a desire to assimilate oneself or ones child into the dominant group.

Or conversely to set oneself apart from the dominant group. Asian-American parents, for

instance, are likely to name their children with traditionally white sounding names. Perhaps

Philip or Brandon, as opposed to a more traditional sounding name such as Cu Bi.

Only a small amount, around ten percent, of newborn Asian-American babies will receive

names which do not reflect popular White sounding name choices.

A possible explanation for this trend towards conformity in first names among

ethnic groups such as Asian Americans could be the desire of successive waves of

immigrants to assimilate via the us of American names.32 It is also true that as a result of

immigrants assimilating into the dominant culture through name choice, that all modern

Western first-naming systems have divergent trends towards conformity and originality. 33

Indeed to give one's child an American name in hopes of quick assimilation on the part of

Asian-American parents could express hopes for success in regards to common Asian-

American values such educational and financial success. It is still important, however, to note

that although there have been patterns of excessive American name homogenization, that

more generally, there has been a trend among descendants of older immigrants into the USA

to revive their ethnic names, as they feel more secure perhaps in being American yet wish to

proclaim their roots.34

This pattern of giving children more traditionally White sounding names also used

to be characteristic of African-American naming practices. Until somewhat recently, Black

32Stephen Wilson, 297

33Ernest Pulgram, 10

34 Stephen Wilson, 306

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families and White families gave their children names which hardly differed from one

another, and which factors such as segregated or integrated neighborhoods, or the presence of

only a single parent had nothing to do with name choice. Someone states that Black naming

patterns were largely stable throughout most of the 1960s. However, in line with the Black

Power movement of the early 1970s, African-American naming practices became much more

distinct. A shift occurred in which African-American babies began receiving less White

sounding names, as well as more unique names. And because of this unique divergence from

the common trend of naming in America, large amounts of research have been conducted in

regards to African-American naming practices.

According to Roland Fryer and Steven Levitt, co-authors of the Causes and

Consequences of Distinctively Black Names, the Black Power movements purpose was to

accentuate and affirm black culture and fight the rumors of black inferiority. This

accentuation and affirmation can be noted in the increase of African styled clothing and

hair in the early 1970s, as well as the increased instances of African-American parents

choosing to name their children with more unique and Black sounding names. It is also

interesting that the percentages of these names increase in the areas in which the Black Power

Movement centered: Alameda, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.35

Today the statistics are tremendous, Someone states that Nearly 30 percent of Black

girls receive a name that is unique among the hundreds of thousands of children born annually

in California. Among whites that fraction is only five percent. Similarly, the fraction of

unique names among Black boys is six times higher than for White Boys, although only about

35Roland Fryer and Steven Levitt, The Causes and Consequences of Distinctively Black Names, National

Science Foundation: July 2003, 19-22

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half the rate of Black girls. The median Black child shares his or her name with 23 other

children; the number is almost fifteen times greater for Whites.36

But the occurrences of unique Black sounding names given to African-American

babies are not without parameter. Those who are most likely to give these types of names to

their children are single, African-American mothers living in low-income segregated

communities with less than a high-school diploma. And when looking at the statistics,

African-American single mothers with only high-school diplomas are much more likely than

White single mothers of the same socio-economic status to name their child unique names.

According to Lieberson, in general, the level of education a parent or name giver possesses

also can affect whether a child is given a traditional or unique name, and the rate of turnover

of popular names no matter what ones race. Parents with less education, namely those

without college degrees, are more likely to name their children with unique names-

particularly unique names with unusual spellings and style. For those parents who possess

greater education than that of a high school diploma, naming trends are usually characteristic

of more traditional names. Additionally, when looking at naming trends comparing across

education and skill levels, the most popular names for those groups who have less than a

college degree are characterized by greater rates of turnover. While those groups which have

education levels above a high school diploma show trends of more steady change among the

top name choices.37

However, it is only for African-American single mothers that the decision to name

ones child a unique name becomes necessary to ones inclusion in a particular subculture.

36

37Stanley Lieberson, 331

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Fryer and Levitt believe that this is because it allows parents to distinguish themselves from

parents who identify as white, and derive more utility from social interactions. As a result,

peers come to regard Black names as a signal of community loyalty. For a single African-

American mother, this affinity with the Black community could be crucial to ones survival.

In order to hold a job, find housing and receive financial and emotional support as a single

parent from the Black community, naming ones child with a distinctively black name would

positively influence these pursuits.

This notion is supported by the statistical evidence present by someone which states

that African American babies born in segregated hospitals are more likely to receive unique

sounding names. While those African-American babies born in pre-dominantly White

hospitals are likely to receive names which are essentially the same as those give to White

babies. It is also interesting to note that one of the direct consequences of receiving a

distinctively Black name is that one will name their own children with Black sounding names.

There is also a trend which shows that as single mothers age and have multiple births, they are

most likely to increase the creativity they use in their naming with each consecutive birth. 38

But what are the effects of this intended decision? One explanation for the

prevalence of distinctively Black names is ignorance on the part of Black parents, who fail to

appreciate the costs they are imposing on their children through such choices.39 In a

controversial study by Marianne Bertnana and Sendhil Mullainathan, Are Emily and Greg

More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market

Discrimination, it is concluded that one of the costs of possessing a distinctively Black

38Roland Fryer and Steven Levitt, 2539 Roland Fryer and Steven Levitt, 27

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sounding name could potentially be negative effects as a child matures and enters the job

marker.

Bertnana and Mullainathan sent hundreds of doctored resumes, half containing names

that were distinctively White, such as Emily Walsh or Greg Baker, and the other half

entitled with distinctively Black names, such as Lakisha Washington or Jamal Jones.

Largely racial differences were found in the rate of call backs. Applicants with White names

need to send about 10 resumes to get one callback whereas applicants with African American

names need to send around 15 resumes to get one callback.40 In this sense, the return in

possessing simply a White sounding name can give one the equivalent of 8 extra years of

experience.41

Possessing a distinctively Black name was also found to deter individuals in regards to

the quality of their resumes. In general, it was found that White individuals with higher

quality resumes (better education and work experience) received 30% more callbacks than

White Individuals with lower quality resumes. But for one with a distinctively Black

sounding name, to possess a high quality resume had little to no effect on heightened callback

rate compared to a lower quality resume. In this sense Bertnana and Mullainathan concluded

that discrimination therefore appears likely to bite twice, making it harder for African

Americans to find a job and also to improve their employability. 42

It is also interesting to note that living in a distinctively wealthier, more educated, and

Whiter neighborhood did not significantly affect African American applicants in callback

40 Marianne Bertnana and Sendhil Mullainathan, Are Emily and Greg More Employable than Lakisha and

Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination, University of Chicago Graduate School of

Buisness 2003, 3-441Marianne Bertnana and Sendhil Mullainathan, 1142Marianne Bertnana and Sendhil Mullainathan, 1-4

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rate. It was also found that comparing across various fields of work which applications were

submitted to, that discrimination levels on the basis of first name are essentially the same.

Federal contractors, who are more severely constrained by affirmative actions laws, do not

discriminate less: neither do larger employers or employers who explicitly state that they are

an Equal Opportunity Employer in their employment ads.43 In this sense, a name can have

gravely negative implications on an individual as they age.

And it is not simply a unique Black sounding name that can affect one as they move

through the phases of work and school. Possessing simply any unique name, or traditional

name, for that matter, can affect an individual negatively or positively as they move through

life. Many studies have been done on the stereotypes or images associated with particular

types of names and how they effect peoples perceptions of them. In general, mens names

connotate less moral, less warm, less cheerful and more successful, and more masculine

characteristics and well as a less ethical caring rating.44 It is also interesting to note that men

who took the survey rated female names to be even more feminine than female raters.

In a study regarding Attractiveness of Characteristics Implied by Conventionally and

Unconventionally Spelled Names it was found that because unconventionally spelled names

are found more rarely in society, there are less images for others to gage a particularly unique

name by. For example, naming ones child a conventional name such as Mary, but with the

spelling Maree. As a result, less attractive traits are placed on uniquely spelled names,

traits such as unpopularity and lack of ethical caring. It was also found that men with

unconventionally spelled names were attributed with less masculine traits, women with

43Marianne Bertnana and Sendhil Mullainathan, 544

Albert Mehrabian, Characteristics Attributed to Individuals on the Basis of Their First Names, Genetic,

Social and General Psychology Monography:2001, 64

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unconventionally spelled names with more masculine traits. In a desire to give ones child a

unique and different name, a parent could run the risk of giving their child a name which

could convey unflattering and unattractive characteristics. 45

Another factor which can affect the way people perceive names is name length. In a

similar study entitled Attractiveness of Characteristics Implied by Name Length, this

phenomenon was explored. It was found that shorter names were generally considered more

attractive, as well as greater levels of perceived popularity and cheerfulness. While longer

names were generally perceived as connotating high levels of morality and success, but less

popular and cheerful traits.

One thought about these results was that the names which people preferred to be

called are often nicknames or shortened versions of ones given name. In most cases, one uses

a shortened name or a nickname with those they are most familiar with, a close friend or

family member, while it is more likely that one would use their full name with a stranger.

This would make sense because those with a short name, perhaps Sam, would appear

familiar and more approachable with others, whereas those with longer names, perhaps

Maximillian would appear more unfamiliar, respectable and unapproachable.46

In the same sense it was found that to possess as nickname as ones main name is

thought to give an individual more popular and cheerful traits, but less successful and more

characteristics. Historically, major league baseball players were perceived as folk heroes

with whom fans felt intimate, whereas recently they were perceives as impersonal

entrepreneurs. Data showing declines in usage of nicknames for major league baseball

45Albert Mehrabian, 73


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players over the past few decades [is consistent with this]. 47

According to Mehrabian, 55% of boys and 40% of girls in high school have

nicknames. Those with unique names are the most likely to possess a nickname, as well as

those which have negative feelings about their first and middle names. These nicknames are

most often given in response to physical traits or are a form of an individuals last name. In

this sense, when naming a child it would be wise to consider whether the name one is

choosing could have the potential of being shortened to a nickname.48 Given names are more

suitable for professional and business settings in which an image of reliability,

trustworthiness, success, and intelligence is an asset. Nicknames would be more suitable

when one attempts to project an image of friendliness, playfulness, and a good sense of humor

along with an image of health, vitality, confidence and assertiveness. 49

In regards to all of these findings, it has also been found that the attractiveness of first

somewhat correlates with academic achievement. Although unique names often times have

less stereotypical images associated with them because of their infrequency of use, it is also

for this reason that the people who bear them are more noticeable and memorable and that

such names possibly encourage a striving for uniqueness related to a positive sense of self-

esteem. There are been findings which suggest that unique names may be associated with

higher levels of academic performance. And in the world of academia it is interesting to

note that many large figures in psychology have unique names: Bibb Latane, Rollo May, etc. 50

In Philip G. Erwins study entitled Attractiveness of First Names and Academic


48Albert Mehrabian, 65-66


50Philip G. Erwin, Attractiveness of First Names and Academic Achievement, The Journal of Psychology,

1999, 617-618

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Achievement, it was found that in terms of name attractiveness, individuals with names that

were rated as unattractive achieved better grades in their academic assessments than did

individuals with more attractive names.51 And furthermore that the grades associated with

different name evaluations are not solely the result of biases on the part of graders; the actual

quality of the work produced also appears to differ between individuals with unattractive and

attractive names. Which may in fact point to the fact that academic stereotypes could

potentially be internalized and manifested in individuals school performance, simply on the

basis of their names. Erwin believes that perhaps being in the spotlight created by a very

unusual or unattractive name spurs some able individuals on to higher levels of achievement

then they might otherwise have achieved.52 It has also been publicized that ones first name

can affect popularity in schools in the same way. It was found that there is a correlation

between possessing a socially desirable first name and popularity in grade-school children.

These are mere examples of the influence ones name could potentially have as one

advances through life, but there are many instances which have not been studied yet which are

effected by ones name. And so, in observing all of this, the origin of names, the way in which

parents decide to name their children, and the images, stereotypes and implications a name

might carry, what is the end result? While there are many parents who take the matter of

naming their children quite seriously, there are even more which name their children things

like Fifi Trixiebell and Seraphina. While these parents might find their name choice

whimsical or fun, it would be a disservice to ones child to name them thoughtlessly- no matter

what the sentimental, economic, or social value might be to the parent. Names are what give

51Philip G. Erwin, 61952Philip G. Erwin, 619

19
http://www.cafemom.com/dailybuzz/pregnancy/2321/Jennifer_Garner_and_Ben_Afflecks_New_Baby_Girl_Seraphinahttp://www.cafemom.com/dailybuzz/pregnancy/2321/Jennifer_Garner_and_Ben_Afflecks_New_Baby_Girl_Seraphinahttp://www.cafemom.com/dailybuzz/pregnancy/2321/Jennifer_Garner_and_Ben_Afflecks_New_Baby_Girl_Seraphina


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individuals a distinction, a title- they have distinct implications on ones life, in childhood,

school, the workplace, as a parent, and beyond.

TABLE 1:53

1. The realm of the godsa. Deva-God (in compounds)b. Divine names (in compounds)

2. The realm of naturea. Plantsb. Animalsc. Mineralsd. Other elements

3. Time and circumstances of birth4. Time of life; kinship5. Geographical situation; ethic

relation6. Dress; finery7. Physical appearance8. Human mind

a. General attributesb. Intelligence or lack of itc. Character; temperament9. Human conditionsa. Way of life; foodb. Happiness; luckc. Wealth

53John Anderson, 20

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d. Joy; lovee. Activities

(1) Religion; cult(2) Science; philosophy(3) Public service

10. Various other concreta

11. Titles (sovereign; honorary)12. [Womens names]TABLE 2:54

Popular Baby Names in 2009:

Rank: Male: Female:

1 Ethan Isabella

2 Noah Emma

3 Jacob Olivia

4 Aiden Ava5 Logan Sophia

Annotated Bibliography:

Albert Mehrabian, Characteristics Attributed to Individuals on the Basis of Their First

Names, Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monography:2001.

Cambrigde Dictionaries Online, Cambrigde Advanced Learners Dictionary, Name,

Cambrigde, http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?

key=52846&dict=CALD&topic=names-and-titles

This web-entry provides a textbook definition of the word name. The entry itself comes

from the Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary, a highly reputable and trustworthy

source. Because this entry is from a dictionary, the author of the definition is unknown.

Although, because of the heavy revision process dictionaries endure, it could easily be said

that the definition provided of the word name is well defined and researched.

Ernest Pulgram, Theory of Names (Berkeley: American Names Society, 1954).

54Social Security Administration, Popular Baby Names, Social Security Online,http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/babynames/background.html

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Ernest Pulgram, a Linguist whose work widely influenced the study of names, discusses the

origins and functions of names in regards to the wider study of Linguistics and the world. He

believes that all names were drawn from a pool of nouns and adjectives, and that in this sense

names maintain some meaning in relation to their original origins. This paper provides a

detailed and thorough representation of the linguistic background of names.

Hagar Scher, Pick the Perfect Name, Parents, October 2009.

This article was a featured in an issue of the popular parenting magazine,Parents. Scher

described her processing of choosing a name for her daughter, as well as her foray into the

strange world of professional name consultants. AlthoughParents is generally regarded as a

popular culture parenting magazine for the general population, Scher took a highly informed

and worldly tone as she spoke of the trials of name choice. This article generally provides

modern perspective of naming practices.

Hyde Flippo, The German Way, McGraw-Hill, 1996.

John Anderson, On the Grammarof Names, Kamaria, Methoni Messinias, 2002.

In his paper, On the Grammar of Names, John Anderson details a complex and thorough

description of the grammar and origins of names, especially in regards to the morphosyntax of

names. He writes with distinct authority and clarity, and readily cites each of the sources he

gleaned guidance and knowledge from. This source primarily focused on Indo-European

names, French, Greek, but mostly English.

Larry M. Logue, Modernization Arrested: Child Naming and the Family in a Utah Town,

The Journal of American History, June 1987.

Marianne Bertnana and Sendhil Mullainathan, Are Emily and Greg More Employable than

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Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination, University of

Chicago Graduate School of Business.

Philip G. Erwin, Attractiveness of First Names and Academic Achievement, The Journal of

Psychology, 1999.

Roland Fryer and Steven Levitt, The Causes and Consequences of Distinctively Black

Names, National Science Foundation: July 2003.

Social Security Administration, Popular Baby Names, Social Security Online,

http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/babynames/background.html

Stanley Liberson, Whats in a name? Some Sociolinguistic Possibilities, Mouton

Publishers, Amsterdam.

Stanley Liberson, a Linguist who specializes in names, muses on the general Sociolinguistic

potential for names and naming. He writes in an approachable and understandable manner,

not a tone of academia and great detail. He speaks of how parents decide what to name their

child, the images names hold, and some potential implications of this. This source is a

scholarly article, and therefore reputable as a reliable source.

Stanley Lieberson and Eleanor O. Bell, Childrens First Names: An Empirical Study ofSocial Taste, The American Journal of Sociology: November 1992, 514

Stephen Steinbrink, Being Late, Overpassing, 2007

Stephen Wilson, , The Means of Naming, (Pennsylvania: UCL Press, 1998).

Thomas V. Busse, The Professors Book of First Names (Pennsylvania: Green Ball Press,

1984).

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Works Consulted:

Jerlean E. Daniel and Jack L. Daniel, Preschool Childrens Selection of Race-Related

Personal Names, Journal of Black Studies: March 1998.

Carole Hough, Towards an Explanation of Phonetic Differentiation in Masculine and

Feminine Personal Names, Journal of Linguistics: March 1999.

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The Practice and Implications of Naming

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