The Politics of Ethnic Pressures-The American Jewish Committee as Lobyists 1906-1917, Judith...

7/27/2019 The Politics of Ethnic Pressures-The American Jewish Committee as Lobyists 1906-1917, Judith Goldstein

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THE POLI TI CS OF ETHNI C PRESSURE: THE AMERI CANJ EW SH COMMI TTEE AS LOBBYI ST, 1906- 1917

byJ udi t h Gol ds t ei n

Subm t t ed i n par t i al f ul f i l l ment of t her equi r ement s f or t he degr ee of Doct orof Phi l osophy, i n t he Facul t y ofPol i t i cal Sc i ence, Col umbi a Uni ver s i t y1972


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageI NTRODUCTI ON. 1Chapt er

I . THE NEED FOR ORGANI ZATI ON . 12I I . THE SPEAKER PREVAI LS 66

I I I . THE HOLLOW VI CTORY 135I V. THE DEFI ANT TAFT. . . . 184V. W LSON TRI UMPHS 247

VI . VI CTORI ES AMI D DEFEATS 280CONCLUSI ON 327BI BLI OGRAPHY 340

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I NTRODUCTI ON

II n 1906 sever al sel f - appoi nt ed l eader s of t he

Amer i can J ewi sh communi t y- - t he est abl i shed, " upt own" J ewsof Ger man or i gi nwer e deepl y concer ned about t he wel f ar eand f at e of Russi an J ewr y. These men, t he most out st andi ngof whomwer e J acob H. Schi f f , Loui s Mars hal l , and Oscar S.St r aus, conf r ont ed t wo speci f i c pr obl ems; t he out br eak ofa ser i es of pogr oms agai nst t he J ews i n Russi a and t he campai gn of t he r es t r i c t i oni s t s i n t he Uni t ed St at es who soughtt o i mpede t he ent r y of t he "new i mm gr ant s" f r om east er n andsout her n Eur ope. Ther ef or e t hese l eader s and sever al ot her sf r om ci t i es t hr oughout t he Uni t ed St at es f or med t he Amer i canJ ewi sh Comm t t ee whi ch subsequent l y devel oped pol i ci es onpol i t i cal i ssues af f ect i ng Amer i can and Russ i an J ews andl obbi ed wi t h Congr ess and Pr esi dent s Theodor e Roosevel t ,W l l i am Howar d Taf t , and Woodr ow W l son.

The pur pose of t hi s doct or al st udy i s t o exam ne andeval uat e t he l obbyi ng act i vi t i es of t he AJ C f r om 1906 t o1917 wi t h respect t o the r el at ed i ssues o f t he res t r i c t i vel i t er acy t es t and Amer i can- Russ i an r el at i ons . I n t he pastpol i t i cal sc i ent i s t s and hi s t or i ans of l obbyi ng have concen-t r at ed on t he t echni ques and act i vi t i es of sundr y gr oups:


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peace societies, temperance groups, trade and agriculturalassociations, unions, and business and church organizations.!Ehey have tended, however, to ignore the efforts of ethnicgr oups who l obbi ed wi t h Congr ess men on domest i c and f or ei gnmat t er s , es pec i al l y i n t he per i od pr i or t o t he adm ni s t r a-

1t i ons of Woodr ow W l son. Thi s l ack of at t ent i on and schol -ar l y wor k woul d have sat i s f i ed t he l eader s of t he AJ C, f oreven t hough t hey never deni ed di r ect l y t hat t hey wer e l obby-i s t s , t hey avoi ded publ i c i dent i f i c at i on of t hei r r ol e andi nt ent - - t o af f ect t he wr i t i ng of l egi s l at i on.

I n t hei r vi ew t he AJ C' s pol i t i c al i nt er est s c onc er nedi deal i s t i c i s sues : mor al i t y i n Amer i c an- Rus s i an pol i c y, t hesanct i t y of Amer i can ci t i zenshi p, and the cont i nuat i on oft he t r adi t i on of open i mm gr at i on. The AJ C assoc i at ed l obby-i ng wi t h l ess l of t y commer ci al ent er pr i ses and di shonor abl epr ac t i ces , whi ch wer e t o be di s t i ngui shed f r om i t s wor k .

Thr ee maj or st udi es of l obbyi ng t hat i gnor e et hni cgr oups ar e: Gr ant McConnel l , Pr i vat e Power and Amer i canDemocr acy ( New Yor k, 1967) ; E. Pendel t on Her r i ng, Gr oup Rep-r esent at i on Bef or e Congr ess ( Bal t i mor e, 1929) ; and Davi d B.Tr uman, The Gover nment al Pr ocess ( New Yor k, 1951) . Thr eest udi es concer ni ng et hni c l obbyi ng dur i ng t he W l son per i odar e: Loui s L. Ger son, Woodr ow W l son and t he Rebi r t h ofPol and, 1914- 192 0: A St udy i n t he I nf l uence on Amer i canPol i cy of Mi nor i t y Gr oups of For ei gn Or i gi n ( New Haven,1953) ; Frank E. Manuel , The Real i t i es of Amer i can- Pal est i neRel at i ons ( Washi ngt on, D. C. , 1949) ; and J oseph P. O' Gr ady,The I mm gr ant s 1 I nf l uence on W l son' s Peace Pol i c i es( Lexi ngt on, Ky. , 1967) .


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Other l obbyi s t s had a sul l i ed r eput at i on i n t he Pr ogr ess i veper i od because of scandal s exposi ng t he cor r upt connect i onsbet ween some l egi sl at or s, on t he one hand, and t he i nsur ancei ndus t r y and cer t ai n men i nt er es t ed i n t ar i f f l egi s l at i on,on t he ot her . Fur t her mor e, t he AJ C escaped exposur e andpubl i c scr ut i ny because i t never pai d pr om nent i nt er medi ar i est o r epr esent t he organi zat i on i n Washi ngt on, D. C. and becauset her e was no f eder al l egi s l at i on ( i n f act , none unt i l 1946)cal l i ng f or t he r e gi s t r at i on of l obbyi s t s , r e gul at i ng t hei rwor k, and af f ect i ng t he t axes t hat t hey pai d and t he cont r i -but i ons t hat t hey recei ved.

Schi f f , Mar shal l , and thei r smal l gr oup of assoc i at es ,who cont r ol l ed t he AJ C f or many year s, wer e men who had be-come r emar kabl y successf ul i n t hei r pr of ess i onal car eer s ,benef i t i ng f r om Amer i can educat i onal i ns t i t ut i ons , ext r aor -di nar y har d wor k , and the f l ui di t y of Amer i ca' s soc i al andeconom c or der . They wer e gr at ef ul f or t he success t hatt hey had achi eved i n t he past , out spoken i n t hei r appr eci a-t i on of t he oppor t uni t i es af f or ded t hem i n t he Uni t ed St at es ,and opt i m st i c about t he f ut ur e f or t hemsel ves and ot herAmer i can J ews. And possi bl y because most of t he l eader s oft he AJ C wer e i mm gr ant s or t he sons of i mm gr ant s, t hey en-t hus i as t i cal l y i dent i f i ed wi t h and sought t o sust ai n Amer i ca' si deal s of l i ber t y, r el i gi ous f r eedom t he separ at i on of


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chur ch and st at e, and humani t ar i an di pl omacy.The AJ C l eader s r egar ded t hei r Amer i can i dent i t y and

J ewi sh i dent i t y wi t h equal and non- conf l i c t i ng r espec t .1

Amer i cans of t he J ewi sh f ai t h" was t he way t hat J acob H.Schi f f pr ef er r ed t o descr i be hi msel f and hi s J ewi sh bret hr en. *"Si nce t hey r egar ded t hemsel ves as J ews by f ai t h and not byr ace, Schi f f , Loui s Mar shal l , and Oscar S. St r aus f ound nodi f f i cul t y i n s er i ous l y pr act i ci ng t hei r r el i gi ous bel i ef sand honor i ng t hei r dut i es as ci t i zens . Al t hough t hei r i nt e-gr at i on i nt o Amer i can l i f e was i ncompl et e because some pr ej u-di c e s t i l l exi s t ed agai ns t t he J ews , Sc hi f f and hi s f r i endsr egar ded t he Uni t ed St at es as t hei r per manent home and notas a pl ace of exi l e or t empor ar y asyl um as di d some Amer i can

2Zi oni st s . Emphasi z i ng t hat J ewi sh i deal s and Amer i can i deal sr ei nf or ced one anot her , t he l eader s of t he AJ C pr oudl y poi nt edt o a s t r i ki ng s i m l ar i t y bet ween r ef or m J udai s m t o whi c ht hey adher ed, and Amer i ca' s pol i t i cal t r adi t i on. Bot h sane-t i f i ed l i ber t y and acknowl edged a m ssi on t o set an exampl ef or t he r est of t he wor l d. J ews "have somet hi ng pr eci ous,of hi gh val ue t o mank i nd, i n our keepi ng, " Schi f f wr ot e i n

J ac ob H. Sc hi f f , J ac ob H. Schi f f : Hi s Li f e andLet t er s , ed. by Cyr us Adl er ( Gar den Ci t y, N. Y. , 1929) ,I , 297.2I bi d. , I , 165, 167.


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the s pi r i t of Pr ogr es s i ve Amer i c a. " Our m s s i on i n t hewor l d cont i nues , and wi t h i t our r espons i bi l i t y of one f ort he ot her . Because of t hi s our dest i ny i s among the nat i ons,

1as par t and par cel of t he nat i ons . " i s s ens e of r es pons i bi l i t y " one f or t he ot her "

pr ompt ed Schi f f and hi s associ at es t o l obby wi t h Pr es i dent sand Congr ess on behal f of J ews i n Russi a and Russi an- J ewi shi mm gr ant s i n t he Uni t ed St at es. Al t hough t her e wer e s i g-ni f i c ant c ul t ur al , ec onom c , and r el i gi ous di f f er enc es be-t ween t he Amer i can- J ews of Ger man or i gi n and t hose f r omRussi a, t he AJ C l eader s al ways bel i eved t hat t he Russ i an-J ews shoul d have t he oppor t uni t y and woul d have t he abi l i t yt o adapt t o Amer i can l i f e. Ther ef or e the l eader s of t he AJ Cur ged t he Russ i an i mm gr ant s t o ass i m l at e by l ear ni ngEngl i sh, wor k i ng har d, and par t i c i pat i ng i n el ec t i ons andpat r i ot i c endeavor s .

I n i t s f i ght on behal f of t he Russ i an i mm gr ant s ,t he AJ C c l ashed wi t h t he maj or i t y of Congr ess year af t eryear and f ought agai nst a wi despr ead publ i c sent i ment whi chwas host i l e t o t he cont i nuat i on of Russ i an- J ewi sh i mm gr a-t i on. Fr om 1906 t o 1917 t he Uni t ed St at es f aced t he cr i t i -cal t ask of absor bi ng appr oxi mat el y t en m l l i on i mm gr ant s

"**I bi d. , X, 166.


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f r om al l par t s of t he wor l d but pr edom nant l y f r om eas t er nand sout her n Eur ope. Fear f ul of t he ef f ec t s o f t hi s i nf l ux,r es t r i c t i oni s t s wor ked f or t he adopt i on of a l i t er ac y t es t ,a pr oposed ent r y r equi r ement f or ever y i mm gr ant exceptt hose f r om Chi na and J apan. The l i t er acy t est campai gnsevol ved i nt o f our maj or bat t l es bet ween r est r i c t i oni s t s andant i - r es t r i c t i oni s t s , unt i l Congr ess f i nal l y passed t he t es tover Pr es i dent W l son' s vet o i n 1917.

The AJ C was t he most act i ve and i mpor t ant ant i -r es t r i c t i oni s t l obbyi ng gr oup i n eac h of t he f i ght s . I tal l i ed wi t h I t al i an, Ger man, and Scandi navi an gr oups butnone of t hem di spl ayed t he i nt er est , knowl edge, and sophi s-t i cat i on on t he i mm gr at i on i ssue t hat char act er i zed t he AJ Cef f or t . I n each of t he l egi s l at i ve bat t l es t he AJ C soughtt o del ay cons i der at i on of t he t es t bi l l s and to bl ock t hei rpassage; as a l ast r esor t , t he AJ C sought t o sof t en t he ef -f eet of t he t est on t he Russi an- J ewi sh i mm gr ant s.

The AJ C' s l obbyi ng act i v i t i es shoul d be vi ewedwi t hi n t he c ont ext of c r i t i c i sm made by pol i t i c al s ci ent i s t ssuch as Gr ant McConnel l who obj ect t o t he nar r ow, par t i sanvi ews and act i vi t i es of Amer i can l obbyi ng gr oups. Cr i t i cshave decr i ed t he sacr i f i ce of a nat i onal poi nt of v i ew andnat i onal goal s t o t he sel f i sh concer ns of vest ed i nt er est s . 1

1Mc Connel l , op. c i t . , Chapt er x; Her r i ng, op. ci t . ,Chapt er xi v; E. E . Schat t schnei der , Pol i t i c s , Pr essur es and


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But i f f aced wi t h such a char ge of par t i sanshi p and over -r i di ng sel f - i nt er es t - a char ge whi ch the l eader s of t he AJ Cwer e eager t o avoi dt hey woul d have def ended t hemsel ves bys t at i ng t hat t hey espoused t he i deal , nat i onal poi nt of v i ewand t hat t hey wer e uphol di ng t he gr eat Amer i can t r adi t i onwhi ch val ued i ndi vi dual i mm gr ant s , i r r espec t i ve of t hei ror i gi ns and r e l i gi ous bel i ef s .

I n t hei r ant i - r es t r i c t i oni s t campai gn, J ewi sh spokes -men gl or i f i ed t he l ong- t i me pol i cy of open i mm gr at i on andt he pr ac t i ce of " cosmopol i t an nat i onal i t y. " 1 They ext ol l edt he vi r t ues of a nat i on bui l t by i mm gr ant s , a r i ch i ndus -t r i al nat i on whose cont i nued gr owt h depended on unski l l edEur opean l abor. Fur t her mor e, t hey mai nt ai ned t hat Ameri ca' smor al power and m ssi on i n t he wor l d wer e i nt i mat el y con-nect ed wi t h t he i dea t hat Amer i cans had est abl i shed a r ef ugeand haven f or t hose who had l ef t or woul d l eavet he r e-l i gi ous and pol i t i cal oppr ess i on and the econom c depr i va-t i ons of t he. ol d wor l d. These ant i - r es t r i c t i oni s t s cont endedt hat nat i vi sm and xenophobi a had at t ended ever y pr evi ous wave

t he Tar i f f : A St udy of Free Pr i vat e Ent er pr i se i n Pr essur ePol i t i cs , as Shown i n t he 1929- 1930 Revi s i on of t he Tar i f f( New Yor k, 1935) , pp. 283- 93.1J ohn Hi gham St r anger s i n t he Land: Pat t er ns ofAmer i can Nat i vi sm 1860- 1925 ( New Yor k, 1966) , p. 119.


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of i mm gr at i on and t hat t he new i mm gr ant s woul d he ass i m -latfed j us t as the ear l i er ones had been. F i nal l y, t hey emphat i c al l y deni ed t hat l i t er ac y was a f ai r t es t ei t her of aman' s wor t h or of hi s pot ent i al val ue as an Amer i can c i t i zen.

The AJ C' s concer n wi t h Russ i an- J ewi sh i mm gr at i onnot onl y l ed t o the cons i der at i on of t he depl or abl e condi -t i ons t hat caused mass em gr at i on f r om Russ i a, but al so t oan ext ens i ve l obbyi ng ef f or t i n t he ar ea of f or ei gn pol i cy.Al t hough t he AJ C l eader s wel comed t he : I mm gr ant s t o t heUni t ed St at es, i t was obvi ous t hat endi ng t he pogr oms andi mpr ovi ng t he condi t i ons i n Russ i a woul d l essen t he need andvol ume of J ewi sh i mm gr at i on. For t he Russ i an i mm gr ant sconst i t ut ed t he over whel m ng maj or i t y of J ewi sh i mm gr ant syear af t er year : i n 1906 al one, 125, 234 out of t he 153, 748J ewi sh i mm gr ant s or i gi nat ed f r om some pl ace wi t hi n t he

"1Russi an Empi r e. Reduci ng t he number of J ewi sh i mm gr ant swas desi r abl e not because t he Ger man J ews want ed t o keep outt he Russ i an J ews as i s popul ar l y but er r oneousl y t hought but because t he AJ C r ecogni zed t hat some day t he r est r i ct i on-i s t s woul d succeed i n bl ock i ng t he ent r y of a s i gni f i cantnumber of J ewi sh i mm gr ant s . Sol vi ng t he J ewi sh pr obl em i n

Samuel J oseph, J ewi sh I mm gr at i on t o t he Uni t edSt at es: Fr om 1881- 1910 ( New Yor k, 1914) , p. 164.


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Russi a meant avoi di ng t he damagi ng ef f ect s of a r ever sal ofAmer i ca' s open i mm gr at i on pol i cy.

! Ther ef or e, t he AJ C sought t o pr essur e t he Uni t edISt at es gover nment t o des i gn i t s f or ei gn pol i cy t o f or ceRuss i a t o i mpr ove the econom c and pol i t i cal condi t i ons ofRuss i an J ewr y. Fr om 1906 t hr ough 1917 t he men who r an t heAJ C l obbi ed- - somet i mes t hr ough t he AJ C and somet i mes t hr oughnon- or gani zat i onal channel s - - wi t h t hr ee Pr es i dent s , wi t hCongr ess , and wi t h t he Amer i can busi ness communi t y t o devi sedi pl omat i c and econom c pol i c i es whi ch woul d sol ve t heRuss i an- J ewi sh pr obl em They f ocused on a f ew speci f i c i s -sues i n Amer i can- Russ i an r el at i ons : Amer i ca' s r eact i on t ot he pogr oms i n 1905 and 1906; a campai gn i n 1910 and 1911 t oabr ogat e t he commer ci al Tr eat y of 1832 bet ween Russ i a andt he Uni t ed St ages; t he wr i t i ng of a new t r eat y i n 1916; and,f r om 1905 t hr ough 1917, t he bl ocki ng of Amer i can i nvest ment si n Russ i a.

The AJ C was bot h a sur r ogat e gr oup and an ol i gar chy.I t was, as Gr ant McConnel l has accused many l obbyi ng or gani -zat i ons o f bei ng, an undemocr at i c , el i t e or gani zat i on. 1 De-spi t e i t s assumed mandat e f r om Russi an J ews i n Amer i ca- - t hel ar ge const i t uency f or whom t he organi zat i on c l ai med t o speak

1Mc Connel l , op. c i t . , p. 339.


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t he AJ C al most compl et el y excl uded Russi an J ews f r om i t sr anks. Ther ef or e ot her J ews deepl y r esent ed t he AJ C, al -t hough i t hel d exact l y t he same posi t i on on i mm gr at i on mat -t er s and Russi an- Amer i can t r eat y r el at i ons as di d t heYi ddi sh pr ess and most Russ i an- J ewi sh or gani zat i ons . Ul t i -mat el y, t he i nconsi st ency bet ween t he AJ C1s humane goal s andt he di s cr i m nat or y or gani z at i onal s t r uct ur e l ed t o r ec r i m nat i ons , di sput es , and f i nal l y t o a schi sm wi t hi n the Amer i canJ ewi sh communi t y dur i ng t he Fi r st Wor l d War .

Much hi s t or i cal i nt er est has cent er ed upon the di f -f er ences and t ensi ons bet ween Ger man and Russ i an J ews i nAmer i ca. Unf or t unat el y, an emphasi s upon t he snobbi sh,dom neer i ng, excl usi ve at t i t ude and pr act i ces of t he Ger manJ ews t owar ds t he i mpover i shed Russi an- J ewi sh i mm gr ant s hasdi st or t ed per spect i ve and cl ouded knowl edge of t he upt ownJ ews' deep i nvol vement wi t h Russi an J ewr y. Despi t e t hemyt hs, t he hi s t or i cal r ecor d r eveal s t hat t he l eader s o f t heAJ C used t hei r i mpr ess i ve f i nanc i al r esour ces , t hei r soc i alst at us, and t he r esul t i ng access t o men i n gover nment t o t r yt o sol ve t he J ewi sh pr obl em i n Russ i a and t o f i ght t he r e-st r i c t i oni st movement i n t he Uni t ed St at es.

Why di d t hese Amer i can- J ewi sh l eader s of Ger man de-scent car e about t he Russi an pr obl em? How di d t hey vi ewt hei r pl ace i n Amer i can soc i et y? How di d t hey af f ect t he


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cour se of t he l i t er acy t es t s t r uggl e and Amer i ca' s Russ i anpol i cy? How di d t hey l obby on behal f of t hei r J ewi sh i n t er est s? These ar e t he i ssues t hat ar e pr esent ed andeval uat ed i n t hi s s t udya s t udy of an et hni c m nor i t y i nt he Pr ogr ess i ve per i od whi ch had r i s i ng expec t at i ons , r i s i ngf ear s , and an i nc reas i ng sophi s t i cat i on i n deal i ng wi t h theexecut i ve and l egi s l at i ve br anches of gover nment .


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CHAPTER I

THE NEED FOR ORGANI ZATI ONBet ween 1903 and 1906 appr oxi mat el y t hr ee hundr ed

pogr oms sent waves of despai r and pani c t hr ough t he J ewi shcommuni t y i n Russ i a and caused t he depar t ur e of hundr eds oft housands of J ews f or Engl and, Pal est i ne, Sout h Af r i ca, andi n most cases , t he east er n ci t i es o f t he Uni t ed St at es . 1The pogr oms and t he dr eadf ul Russ i an- J ewi sh condi t i ons outof whi ch these v i ol ent act s devel oped, al t er ed t he at t i t udes,i nt er est s, and or gani zat i on of Amer i can J ewr y. Bef or e 1903Amer i can J ewi sh l eader s t he upt own or Ger man- J ews wer e notdeepl y i nt er est ed i n t he pr obl ems of Russ i an J ewr y and some-t i mes even r esent ed t he i nf l ux of t he poor , i l l i t er at e, andcul t ur al l y st r ange Russi an i mm gr ant s. Af t er 1903, however ,t hese same Amer i can- J ewi sh l eader s became knowl edgeabl e aboutRuss i an J ewr y and m ndf ul of t he pol i t i cal voi ce of t heJ ewi sh i mm gr ant s who s i gni f i cant l y i ncr eased t he J ewi shpopul at i on i n t he Uni t ed St at es.

1Cyr us Adl er and Aar on M. Mar gal i t h, W t h Fi r mnessi n t he Ri ght : Amer i can Di pl omat i c Act i on Af f ect i ng J ews,1840- 1945 ( New Yor k, 1946) , p. 276. " Fr om Ki shi nev t oByel st ok: A Tabl e of Pogr oms, " The Amer i can J ewi sh Year book( Phi l adel phi a, 1906) , 5667, pp. 34- 89.


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W t h t he out br eak of t he pogr oms, t he unof f i c i alAmer i can- J ewi sh l eader s assumed t he obl i gat i on of gi v i ngphi l ant hr opi c ai d t o the vi c t i ms as wel l as exer t i ng pr es -sur e on t he Russ i an gover nment t o change i t s ant i - Sem t i cpol i c i es . I n t he l at t er ef f or t t hey di r ec t l y s ought t he ai dof Pr es i dent Theodor e Roosevel t . Al t hough l acki ng a J ewi shor gani zat i on t hat coul d appl y pol i t i cal pr essur e, J acob H.Schi f f and Oscar S. St r aus, as s pokesmen f or Amer i can J ews,ur ged Roosevel t i n 1905 and 1906 t o i nt er vene i n Russi a' saf f ai r s t o st op t he pogr oms. Roosevel t , however , woul d notaccede t o t he i mpassi oned demands of an et hni c m nor i t y,r ef usi ng t o ant agoni ze t he Russ i ans and make an i nt er na-t i onal i ssue of t he pogr oms.

F rust r at i on over t hei r i nabi l i t y t o change Roose-vel t ' s Russ i an pol i c i es as wel l as t he expect at i on t hat mor epogr oms woul d soon occur wer e t wo f act ors whi ch l ed Schi f fand sever al of hi s associ at es t o or gani ze t he Amer i can J ewi shComm t t ee i n November , 1906. Al t hough t he AJ C concent r at edpower i n t he hands of a f ew Ger man- J ews, i t pr oj ect ed i t sel fas a guar di an of Russi an J ewr y and as t he of f i c i al spokesmanon cer t ai n pol i t i cal mat t er s f or t he Russ i an- J ewi sh i mm -gr ant s i n t he Uni t ed St at es . I t s f ounder s i nt ended f or t heAJ C t o wat ch c l osel y over l egi s l at i ve and di pl omat i c mat t er sof i nt er est t o Amer i can- J ews and t o convey t o t he Pr es i dent ,


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St at e Depar t ment , and Congr ess, r equest s. I nf ormat i on, andif need be, pol i t i cal t hr eat s - The AJ C l eader s al so expect edt he or gani zat i on t o l obby di sc reet l y wi t hout i sol at i ng Amer i -can J ewr y as a mani pul at i ve, pol i t i cal pr essur e gr oup. Thusconf l i c t i ng pr essur es and i nt er es t s i nvol vi ng i t s bas i s ofr epr esent at i on and l obbyi ng t echni ques af f ect ed t he AJ C f r omi t s f or mat i ve st ages t hr oughout i t s many bat t l es on behal fof Russ i an J ewr y and t he Russ i an- J ewi sh i mm gr ant s .

*"Fi ve m l l i on peopl e cannot em gr at e, " wr ot e J acob

H. Schi f f sadl y but r eal i s t i cal l y, "and no mat t er how manyJ ews may l eave Rus s i a, f i ve m l l i ons [ s i c] wi l l al ways r e-

1mai n t her e. " The t hought o f t hose f i ve m l l i on r emai ni ngt her e i n Russ i a was pai nf ul f or Schi f f because by 1903 heand ot her Ameri can- J ewi sh l eader s wer e f ul l y awar e of t henumer ous pogr oms and t he di r e demogr aphi c, econom c, and edu-cat i onal condi t i ons t hat f or med the pat t er n of J ewi sh l i f ei n Russ i a. Fr om 1800 t o 1905 t he Russ i an- J ewi sh popul at i oni ncreased f r om 1, 500, 000 to 6, 060, 415, const i t ut i ng 3. 7per cent of t he t ot al Russ i an popul at i on as wel l as one- hal f2of wor l d J ewr y. W t h t he except i on of a f ew pr i vi l eged1Schi f f , op. c i t . , I I , 122.9The Amer i can J ewi sh Year book ( Phi l adel phi a, 1914) ,5675, p. 337.


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cl asses of J ews, t he Russ i an gover nment subj ect ed t he J ewi shpopul at i on to sever e geogr aphi cal r es t r i c t i ons whi ch con-f i ned r es i dence t o t he t went y- f i ve pr ovi nces i n Russ i a andRuss i an- Pol and cal l ed t he Pal e o f J ewi sh Set t l ement . 93. 3per cent of t he J ews l i ved wi t hi n t he Pal e, cons i s t i ng ofCongr ess Pol and, L i t huani a, Byel or uss i a, and the Ukr ai ne,whi l e 6. 07 per cent l i ved i l l egal l y or wi t h t empor ar y di spen-1sat i ons i n some part of t he Empi r e out si de t he Pal e. Buteven wi t hi n t he Pal e i t sel f , t he gover nment pr ohi bi t ed r es i -denc e i n c er t ai n r ur al ar eas , vi l l ages , and c i t i es .

The J ews wer e f ur t her hamper ed by r est r i ct i ons ont hei r occupat i onal and pr of ess i onal pur sui t s . Smal l quot aswere set t o l i m t J ewi sh r epr esent at i on i n muni c i pal gover n-i ng bodi es and publ i c cor por at i ons. Russ i an l aws al so pr o-hi bi t ed J ewi sh empl oyment i n st at e agenci es? t her ef or e, onl ya handf ul of J ews wor ked i n t he s t at e- r un r ai l r oad or l i quori ndust r i es and none i n t he post of f i ce. 2 The maj or i t y ofJ ews wor ked as smal l - scal e t r adesmen, many wer e ar t i sans andf act or y wor ker s , and a l ar ge gr oup l i ved on " phi l ant hr opi c

1The J ewi sh Encycl opedi a, X ( 1925) , 529.2Luci en Wol f , ed. . The Legal Suf f er i ngs of t he J ewsi n Russ i a: A Sur vey of t hei r Pr esent Si t uat i on, and a Summar y of Laws ( London, 1912) , p. 10.


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1r el i ef . " By l aw t hey wer e al so r equi r ed t o ser ve i n t hear my f or l onger per i ods t han ot her m nor i t y gr oups. To besure, t her e wer e except i ons t o t he l aws desi gned t o denyJ ews weal t h and i nf l uence i n Russ i an l i f e, as exempl i f i edby t he hi gh pr opor t i on of Russ i an- J ewi sh bar r i s t er s .Never t hel ess, i t was est i mat ed t hat 90 per cent of t he J ewi shpopul at i on l i ved i n pover t y at t he t ur n of t he cent ur y be-cause of t he geogr aphi cal and econom c r est r i ct i ons as wel l

3as t he undevel oped nat ur e of t he Russi an economy.The pat t er n of educat i onal r es t r i c t i on f or t he J ews

had par t i cul ar l y ser i ous i mpl i cat i ons because Ameri can r e-s t r i c t i oni s t s suppor t ed the l i t er acy t es t as the pr i nc i palbar r i er agai nst i mm gr at i on f r om east er n and sout her n Eur opeI l l i t er acy ra tes wer e ext r emel y hi gh f or t he ent i r e Russ i anpopul at i on because of pover t y and t he i nef f i c i ent Russ i anbur eaucr acy. The Amer i can Ambass ador t o Russi a, Geor ge von

1Mi c hael T. Fl or i ns ky, ed. McGr aw- Hi l l Encycl opedi aof Russi a and t he Sovi et Uni on ( New Yor k, 1961) , p. 258.2W l l i am Roc khi l l t o Phi l ander C. Knox, Apr . 20,1910, i n Knox Papers ( L i br ar y of Congr ess, Washi ngt on, D. C. )Box 41. Ci t ed her eaf t er as Knox Paper s.3U. S. , Congr ess , Senat e, Repor t of t he I mm gr at i onComm ssi on, 61st Cong. , 3d sess. , 1911, Rept . 748, I V, 332.Ci t ed her eaf t er as RI C. The t er m pover t y was def i ned i n t hef ol l owi ng way: " I n t he br oader sense of a per son wi t h ani nsuf f i ci ent i ncome, a per son unabl e t o make any savi ngs andf orced t o l i ve f r om hand t o mout h. . . . " I bi d.


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Lenger ke Meyer , est i mat ed i n 1905 t hat 99 m l l i on Russi answer e i l l i t er at e and, accor di ng t o t he Russi an census of 1897,onl y 21. 1 per cent of t he popul at i on was l i t er at e. 1 I n addi -t i on t o the obst ac l es of pover t y and the bur eaucr acy, t heJ ews had t o cont end wi t h educat i onal quot as whi ch pr ohi bi t edJ ewi sh st udent s f r om f i l l i ng mor e t han 10 per cent of t hepl aces i n t he pr i mar y and secondar y l evel gover nment school s.I t i s poss i bl e t hat t hese quot as wer e not s t r i c t l y obser ved,as W l l i am Rockhi l l , t he Amer i can Ambassador t o Russ i a i n

21910 mai nt ai ned. The gover nment was pr obabl y as i nef f i ci entand cor r upt i n t he pr act i ce of i t s educat i onal quot a syst emas i t was i n ot her f acet s of i t s oper at i ons . Ther ef or e,many J ews must have t r i ed t o get ar ound t he r est r i ct i ons i mposed upon t hem and i n some cases t hey must have s ucceeded.But c l ear l y t he J ews wer e not as f r ee t o use t he school s aswer e ot her Russ i ans, nor coul d t he J ews af f or d t o or gani ze asyst em of t hei r own whi ch woul d t each non- r el i gi ous subj ect s.

The combi nat i on of pover t y, demogr aphi c pr essur es,and gover nment host i l i t y made i t i nevi t abl e f or t he J ews t o

Mar k Ant hony DeWol f e Howe, Geor ge von Lenger keMeyer : Hi s Li f e and Publ i c Ser vi ces ( New Yor k, 1920) ,p. 196; Fl or i ns ky, op. ci t . , p. 150.2Rockhi l l t o Knox, Apr . 20, 1910, i n Knox Paper s,Box 41.


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have a hi gh i l l i t er acy r at e. Ac cor di ng t o of f i c i al Uni t edSt at es gover nment st at i st i cs bet ween 25. 1 per cent and 26per cent of t he Russ i an- J ewi sh i mm gr ant s wer e i l l i t er at e.I n 1913 the Nat i onal J ewi sh I mm gr at i on Counci l st udi ed t hel evel s of J ewi sh i mm gr ant i l l i t er acy i n or der t o det er m net he accur acy of t he I mm gr at i on Bur eau' s s t at i s t i cs . Af t ermaki ng t hr ee i ndependent st udi es t he Counci l suppor t ed t heBur eau' s f i ndi ngs, st at i ng t hat 15 per cent of t he mal e i mm -gr ant s and 3 9 per cent of t he f emal e i mm gr ant s wer e i l l i t -er at e. ^

Femal e i l l i t er acy was s i gni f i cant because of t hel ar ge number of unaccompani ed f emal e J ewi sh i mm gr ant s; i nf act , t he pr opor t i on of f emal es was f ar l ar ger t han amongot her i mm gr ant gr oups. Fr om 1899 t o 1910 women const i t ut ed43. 4 per cent of t he t ot al J ewi sh i mm gr at i on, i n compar i sont o 30. 4 per cent of al l ot her i mm gr ant gr oups. I n each oft he l i t er acy t est f i ght s f r om 1906 t hr ough 1917, t he r est r i c -t i oni st s exempt ed i l l i t er at e f emal es who accompani ed l i t er at ehusbands or f at her s. The Counci l st udy suggest ed, however ,t hat t he exempt i on woul d not hel p t he J ewi sh f emal e

'' "The I mm gr at i on Bur eau est abl i shed J ewi sh f emal e i l -l i t er acy at 40 per cent . U. S. , Congr ess , Senat e, J ewi sh I mm -gr at i on: Repor t of a Speci al Comm t t ee of t he Nat i onal J ew- ' I I J . 1 t I . . .. A . - _ . . _ - . - . . . . | | 1 .i sh I mm gr at i on Counci l Appoi nt ed t o Exam ne i nt o t he Quest i onof I l l i t er acy Among J ewi sh I mm gr ant s and I t s Causes, 63dCong. , 2d sess. , 1914, S. Doc. 611, p. 5.


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i mm gr ant s: "An exempt i on i n t he l i t er acy t est i n r egar dt o J ewi sh f emal es com ng t o cer t ai n spec i f i ed near r el at i onswoul d not be a mat er i al count er wei ghi ng i nf l uence because oft he f act t hat t he bul k of t he f emal e J ewi sh i mm gr ant s come

wi t hout havi ng par ent or husband her e. "Dr i ven by pogr oms and demogr aphi c and econom c pr es-

sur es, t he Russ i an J ews const ant l y moved i n a " mass f l i ghtf r om pover t y" f r om pl ace t o pl ace wi t hi n t he Pal e, t hr ough

2Eur ope, and acr oss t he At l ant i c . Al t hough Russi an pol i cypr ohi bi t ed em gr at i on f r om t he Empi r e t her e wer e a f ew of f i -

3c i al except i ons t o t he r ul es. One i nvol ved J ewi sh or phansand t hose J ews who l ef t i n whol e f am l i es i nc l udi ng f at her s,mot her s , unmar r i ed daught er s , and sons. The gover nmentpr omul gat ed t hi s r ul e i n 1892 af t er negot i at i ng wi t h t heBar on de Hi r sch J ewi sh Col oni zat i on Assoc i at i on. Accor di ngt o t he agr eement , t he J ews whose f am l i es had f ul f i l l edt hei r m l i t ar y obl i gat i ons , who had no c r i m nal r ecor ds , andwho pr om sed t o l eave Russi an t er r i t or y f or ever wer e ent i t l ed

1I bi d. , p. 10.2Moses Ri s c hm, The Pr om sed Ci t y: New Yor k' s J ews,1870- 1914 ( Cambr i dge, 1962) , p. 24.3I n 1907 over 100, 000 J ews cr ossed t he bor der i l -l egal l y, accor di ng t o a speci al comm ssi on st udy made by t heRussi an gover nment . Rockhi l l t o Knox, Feb. 22, 1910, i nKnox Paper s, Box 41.


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to r ec ei ve t hei r exi t per m t s wi t hout c os t .Many J ewi sh em gr es, however , pai d f or t he expensi ve

exi t per m t s r equi r ed by t he Russi an gover nment , f A common 1but cost l y pr act i ce i nvol ved payi ng t he st eamshi p companyf r om whi ch t r ansat l ant i c passage had been bought t o obt ai nt he necessary exi t paper s. I f t hese met hods f ai l ed, as t heyf r equent l y di d, em gr es coul d f or go t he f or mal i t i es and br i bebor der of f i c i al s or sneak acr oss t he unwat ched sect or s of t hef r ont i er .

Russi an- J ewi sh i mm gr ant s who ar r i ved i n Amer i cabor e t he mar ks of depr i vat i on i n Russi a, t he cost l y andof t en i l l egal depar t ur e f r om home, t he di f f i cul t j our neyt hr ough Eur ope, and a t r yi ng t hr ee weeks at sea. ( The l at t erexper i ence was par t i cul ar l y agoni zi ng f or t he l ar ge number sof J ews who obser ved r el i gi ous di et ar y l aws. ) They wer e poor50, 720 had $50 or l ess i n t hei r possessi on upon ar r i val i n1906. They al so ar r i ved i n l ar ge f am l i es wi t h a gr eat number of dependent s: out of a t ot al of 153, 748 J ewi sh i mm -gr ant s who ar r i ved i n 1906, 43, 620 wer e f our t een year s orunder , and 8, 253 wer e f or t y- f i ve year s or o l der . Thesef i gur es ar e most meani ngf ul i n compar i son wi t h t hose f or t he240, 528 sout her n I t al i an i mm gr ant s: among t hem onl y 26, 546

1RI C, I V, 260- 61.


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were fourteen years or under, and only 11,094 were forty-five years or older^

No mat t er how di f f i c ul t t he pr oc es s of as s i m l at i onwas i n t he Uni t ed St at es and no mat t er how gr eat t he t en-si ons wer e bet ween Gent i l e and J ew, Ger man- J ew and Russ i an-J ew, f ew J ewi sh i mm gr ant s ever r et ur ned t o t he depl or abl econdi t i ons i n Russ i a. Fr om 1908 t o 1924 t he number of per manent J ewi sh i mm gr ant s act ual l y out number ed ot her i mm gr antgr oups f r om I t al y, Ger many, and Gr eat Br i t ai n, as onl y

252, 294 f or ei gn J ews em gr at ed f r om t he Uni t ed St at es . Ap-pr oxi mat el y 956, 000 J ewi sh i mm gr ant s r emai ned as compar edt o 945, 000 I t al i ans, 644, 000 Ger mans, and 648, 000 f r om t heBr i t i s h I s l es . F r om 1908 t o 1943 t he J ewi s h em gr at i on r at ef r om t he Uni t ed Stat es t o Eur ope was onl y 4. 6 per cent com3par ed t o 34. 4 per cent f or al l ot her i mm gr ant gr oups. Thus

Fr ank P. Sar gent , Repor t of t he Comm ssi oner - Gener alof I mm gr at i on ( Washi ngt on, D. C. , 1906) , p. 486. For a st udyof t he t r aumat i c j our ney see Oscar Handl i n, The Upr oot ed;The Epi c St or y of t he Gr eat Mi gr at i ons t hat Made t he Amer i canPeopl e ( Bost on, 1951) , Chapt er i i .2Har r y E. Hul l , Annual Report of t he Comm ssi onerGeneral of I mm gr at i on: For t he F i scal Year Ended J une 30,

1925 ( Washi ngt on, D. C. , 1925) , p. 125. Dur i ng the year s1908 t o 1925, 1, 012, 768 sout her n I t al i ans r e- em gr at ed.I bi d. 3L. Hers ch, " J ewi sh Mi gr at i ons Dur i ng t he Last Hun-dr ed Year s, " The J ewi sh Peopl e Past and Pr esent ( New Yor k,1946) , I , 421.


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t he Russi an- J ewi sh i mm gr ant s st ayed i n t he Uni t ed St at es,f or m ng di s t i nc t soc i al , ec onom c , and pol i t i c al pat t er nswhi ch dr ast i cal l y changed t hei r l i ves and gr eat l y af f ec t edt he assi m l at i on pr ocess of Amer i ca' s Ger man- J ewi sh popul a-t i on as wel l .

At f i r s t , t he ar r i val of t he poor and i l l i t er at eRuss i an- J ews was an unpl easant shock t o t he Ger man- J ews,many of whom wer e i mm gr ant s t hemsel ves or f i r st gener at i onAmer i cans. Not onl y wer e t hey gener al l y unconcer ned aboutt he pl i ght of Russi an J ewr y, but dur i ng t he 1880' s, whi chsaw t he f i r st i nf l ux of Russi an- J ewi sh i mm gr ant s, manyAmer i can J ews had act ual l y act ed i n a f r i ght ened and i nhos-pi t abl e manner . They had di sl i ked t he unenl i ght enedOr t hodox J ewi sh i mm gr ant s and had tr i ed i nef f ect ual l y t odi scour age t hei r com ng. 1 Never t hel ess , a pr ogr am of f i nan-c i al r espons i bi l i t y f or t he i mm gr ant s , i f not a sympat het i cat t i t ude, event ual l y pr evai l ed by t he t ur n of t he cent ur y asAmer i can- J ews est abl i shed numer ous phi l ant hr opi c servi cessuch as hospi t al s , set t l ement houses, r el i gi ous or gani zat i ons ,and i mm gr ant ai d soc i et i es f or t he Russi an- J ews.

I n par t , t he phi l ant hr opi c ac t i vi t y was needed t ocar r y out an agr eement made i n 1892 bet ween J ewi sh l eader s

1Ri s c hi n, op. ci t . . Chapt er vi .


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and t he Sec r et ar y of t he Tr easur y, Char l es Fos t er , r egar di ngt he ent r y of i mpover i shed J ews who upon ar r i val i n t he Uni t edSt at es r ecei ved f i nanc i al ai d f r om c har i t abl e o r gani zat i ons .The agr eement , negot i at ed by Si mon Wol f , a l eader of B' naiB' r i t h, pr ovi ded t hat t he J ewi sh communi t y woul d t ake f i nan-c i al r espons i bi l i t y f or t he i mpover i shed J ewi sh i mm gr ant s .Thus t he Amer i can J ews woul d pr event t he i mm gr ant s f r om be-com ng publ i c char ges and he l p to di sper se t hem f r om t heeas t er n c i t i es . On i t s par t , t he I mm gr at i on Bur eau ( i n t heTr easur y Depar t ment ) pr om sed t o gi ve a l i ber al i nt er pr et a-t i on t o the 1891 i mm gr at i on l aw whi ch pr ohi bi t ed t he ent r yof t hose l i kel y t o become publ i c char ges.

"You dec l ar e the r eadi ness . . . t o gi ve the Gover n-ment i n al l cases a sat i s f act or y bond guar ant eei ng t hat noneof t hese r ef ugee i mm gr ant s shal l become a publ i c char ge, "Fost er wr ot e t o Si mon Wol f . I f t he i mm gr ant s l eave t hec i t i es , Fos t er went on t o dec l ar e, and do not i r r i t at e i ndus -t r i al condi t i ons "no wor t hy i mm gr ant . . . shoul d be ex-el uded f r om t he count r y because, t hr ough t he act i on ofot her s, he i s f or t he t i me bei ng homel ess and wi t hout pr op-er t y. ""^ Thi s under st andi ng bet ween Wol f , t he J ews he

Si mon Wol f , The Pr esi dent s I Have Known f r om1860- 1918 ( Washi ngt on, D. C. , 1918) , pp. 160- 61.


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represented, and the government remained operative through-out the early years of the twentieth century.*"

Amer i can- J ewi sh l eader s t ook one st ep when t hey r e-Isponded gener ousl y t o t he i mm gr ant s al r eady i n Amer i ca;t hey t ook anot her when t hey t r i ed t o af f ect t he J ewi sh s i t u-at i on i n Russ i a i t sel f . Thei r moment of awakeni ng t o t heneed t o i mpr ove the l i ves of t he J ews i n Russi a occur r ed asa r esul t o f t he Ki shi nev pogr om i n Apr i l , 1903. A vi ol entout bur s t di r ec ted agai ns t J ews wi t h t he sem - of f i c i al sane-t i on of t he Czar ' s gover nment , t he pogr om l ef t many dead andwounded and t housands homel ess . Ki shi nev st r uck t he Amer i can-J ewi sh publ i c as an act of uncommon bar bar i t y r em ni scent oft he cr uel pr act i ces of t he Mi ddl e Ages. Numer ous r al l i eswere hel d i n c i t i es t hr oughout t he Uni t ed St at es, and t hou-sands of J ews and non- J ews si gned a pet i t i on of pr ot estwhi ch Pr esi dent Roosevel t sent t o t he Russ i an gover nment .Hi s was a symbol i c gest ur e, however , si n e t he Pr esi dentaccur at el y pr edi ct ed t hat t he Russi ans woul d r ef use t o ac-cept t he pet i t i on. Amer i can- J ews al so r ai sed $100, 000 f ort he r el i ef of t he Russ i an vi c t i ms and t her eby s tar t ed a f l ow

"St at i st i cs of t he I mm gr at i on Bur eau showed t hatJ ewi sh i mm gr ant s wer e i ndeed publ i c char ges i n 1914. Si monWol f t o J acob H. Schi f f , Feb. 9, 1914, i n Hebr ew Shel t er i ngand I mm gr ant s Ai d Soci et y of Amer i ca Paper s (HI AS) , ( Yi voI ns t i t ut e f or J ewi sh Resear ch, New Yor k ) .


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of money f r om Amer i ca t o Eur ope t o par al l el t he t r adi t i onalpat t er n wher eby Eur opean phi l ant hr opi c or gani zat i ons, suchas t he Bar on de Hi r sch Fund and t he Al l i ance I s r ael i t e, pr o->vi ded ai d f or J ewi sh i mm gr ant s i n Ameri ca.

Af t er Ki shi nev t he upt own J ews wer e deepl y i nvol vedi n pol i t i cal event s i n Russ i a. They pr ot est ed the pogr oms;t hey st udi ed t he many, changes of gover nment s; and t hey r e-j oi ced at each chal l enge t o t he Czar ' s aut hor i t y, as di d t heRussi an- J ewi sh i mm gr ant s who kept abr east of event s i nRussi a t hr ough t he Yi ddi sh pr ess i n New Yor k.

I t was J acob H. Schi f f , t he most power f ul man i n or -gani zed J ewi sh l i f e i n Amer i ca, who went f ur t her , seek i ngdi r ect l y t o weaken t he aut ocr at i c Russi an gover nment .Schi f f , a dec i s i ve, uncompr om si ng, and s ter n man, f el t ani nt ense sense of r espons i bi l i t y, s t emm ng f r om hi s s t r ongr el i gi ous bel i ef s , f or t he wel f ar e of J ews i n t he Uni t edSt at es and east er n Eur ope. A com or t abl e i mm gr ant f r omFr ankf ur t , he ar r i ved i n t he Uni t ed St at es i n 1865 at t heage of ei ght een. Thi r t y- f i ve year s l at er , Schi f f had becomeone of t he el i t e of Amer i can banker s , wi t h i nt i mat e t i es t ot he maj or r ai l r oad cor por at i ons , i nsur ance compani es , ut i l i -t i es, and t he i nt er nat i onal banki ng communi t y. * Because of

*Fr om t he Ci vi l War t o t he f i r s t decade of t he t wen-t i et h cent ur y " the gr owt h of Amer i can f i nanc i al capi t al i sm


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t he f or t une he made as a par t ner of Kuhn, Loeb, & Co. ,Schi f f had di r ect access t o t he most power f ul men i n gover n-ment and i n t he f i nanci al communi t y, access whi ch he used

I

cont i nual l y t o benef i t J ewi sh i nt er es t s . Because of hi sf ort une and hi s concer n f or t hose needi ng hel p, he was abl et o di s t r i but e bet ween $50 m l l i on and $100 m l l i on i n char i -t abl e cont r i but i ons t o a r emar kabl e number of J ewi sh and nonsect ar i an i ns t i t ut i ons : t he Red Cr oss , t he Mont ef i or e Hospit a l , t he Henr y Str eet Set t l ement House, t he Sem t i c Museumat Har var d, t he J ewi sh Di v i s i on at t he New Yor k Publ i cL i br ar y, t he J oi nt Di s t r i but i on Comm t t ee, and the Gal ves t onpi an- - t o name but a f ew. * W t h di scr et i on and k i ndnessSchi f f gave t o t hose men and causes t hat he t hought mer i t edhi s hel p.

Now i n r esponse t o Ki shi nev, Schi f f r i gor ous l ysought t o puni sh Russ i a by cl osi ng of f t he Amer i can moneymar ket t o t he Russi an gover nment . To f ur t her weaken t heRuss i ans he under wr ot e a mul t i - m l l i on dol l ar l oan t o t he

. . . was t he wor k of no mor e t han si x f i r ms and har dl y 12men- - and of t hese J acob Schi f f was t he onl y one not a descendant of New Engl and, Pur i t an st ock. " Barr y E. Suppl e, "ABusi ness El i t e: Ger man- J ewi sh F i nanci er s i n Ni net eent h-Cent ur y New Yor k, " Busi ness Hi st or y Revi ew, XXXI ( Summer,1957) , 171.

*St ephen Bi r m ngham "Our Cr owd" : The Gr eat J ewi shFam l i es of New Yor k ( New Yor k, 1967) , p. 326.


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J apanese gover nment dur i ng t he Russo- J apanese War and he evenpai d f or t he di s t r i but i on of r evol ut i onar y l i t er at ur e t o Rus -s i an pr i soner s of war hel d by the J apanese. Many year sl at er i n Apr i l , 1917, Geor ge Kennan, aut hor of Si ber i a andt he Ex i l e Syst em and a l eader of t he Fr i ends of Russ i an Free-dom r emember ed and pr ai sed Schi f f ' s ef f or t : " I t was f r ui t -f ul i n good r esul t s , because i t was t he suppor t of t he ar myt hat enabl ed t he Duma t o over t hr ow t he Gover nment of t heCzar , and you hel ped t o enl i ght en t he ar my. " *

Schi f f even def ended and f i nanced t he act i v i t i es of2

some J ewi sh r adi cal s i n Russ i a. "The c l ai m t hat among t her anks of t hose who i n Russ i a ar e seeki ng t o underm ne gover n-ment al aut hori t y t here ar e consi der abl e number s of J ews, may"be t r ue, " Sc hi f f wr ot e t o Ser gei Yul i evi c h W t t e, Rus si a' schi ef negot i at or at t he Por t smout h Peace Conf er ence. " I n

Geor ge Kennan t o J acob H. Schi f f , Apr . 11, 1917, i nJ acob H. Schi f f Paper s ( Amer i can J ewi sh Ar chi ves , Ci nc i nnat i ,Ohi o) . Ci t ed her eaf t er as Schi f f Paper s .2Zosa Szaj kowski , "Paul Nat han, Luci en Wol f , J acob H.Schi f f and t he J ewi sh Revol ut i onar y Movement s i n East er nEur ope ( 1903- 1917) , " J ewi sh Soci al St udi es, XXI X ( J an. ,1967) , 14. Unf or t unat el y , most of Schi f f ' s paper s wer e de-

s t r oyed i n a f i r e at t he J ewi sh Theol ogi cal Sem nar y i n 1966.Ho l ar ge col l ec t i on of hi s paper s i s avai l abl e f or t he year sbef or e 1914. Ther ef or e, i t has been necessar y t o r el y heav i l yupon publ i shed l et t er s i n books and ar t i c l es t hat r epr oducedsome of t hose pr ev i ous l y f ound i n t he Sem nar y' s ar chi ves.


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fact," he added, "it would be rather surprising if some ofthose so terribly afflicted by persecution and exceptionallaws should not at last have turned against their mercilessoppressors.

Thus , by means of a f i nanc i al boycot t , by ai di ngRuss i a ' s enemy, and by suppor t i ng r adi cal s and r evol ut i on-ar i es , Schi f f vent ed hi s anger agai ns t Russ i an ant i - Sem t i smNow, i n 1905 and 1906, wi t h t he out br eak of new pogr oms,Schi f f pur sued one ot her appr oach: us i ng hi s access t o t hePr es i dent and Secr et ar y of St at e t o per suade t hem t o ai d t heJ ews i n Russ i a. Hi s appeal s , however , wer e made di f f i cul tby t he Pr esi dent , who hel d a sophi st i cat ed and det ached vi ewof Russi an- Amer i can r el at i ons and car ef ul l y wei ghed Amer i canpubl i c opi ni on agai nst t he pr essur e of an et hni c m nor i t y .

I IA heat ed di al ogue bet ween Theodor e Roosevel t and sev

er a l Amer i can J ewi sh l eader s r egar di ng Russ i a' s J ewi sh pol i -ci es t ook pl ace i n 1905 and 1906 when Russi a, whi ch wasweakened by def eat i n her war wi t h J apan, seemed on t hever ge of monument al pol i t i cal and soci al change. The J ews,

* Schi f f , op. c i t . , I I , 131. The l et t er was co-si gned by I saac N. Sel i gman, Oscar S. St r aus, Adol phLewi sohn, and Adol f Kr aus.


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al ong wi t h ot her Amer i cans i nt er est ed i n Russ i an af f ai r s ,os ci l l at ed bet ween opt i m s m and pes s i m s m over t he pos s i bi l -i t i es f or f undament al changes The revol ut i onar y/ event sis t i r r ed t he hope t hat t he aut ocr at i c r egi me woul d l ose i t sgr i p and t he bar r i er s agai ns t t he J ews woul d f al l .

Geor ge von Lenger ke Meyer , t he Amer i can Ambass adort o Russ i a, f el t a sur ge of opt i m sm when he r epor t ed t oPr es i dent Roosevel t about t he Czar ' s Ukase on r el i gi ous f r eedom " gr ant i ng pr act i c al l y r el i gi ous f r eedom t o al l s ect s , except t he J ews. " I t "makes a gr eat concess i on t o t he part yof r ef or m " Meyer wr ot e, " and i f c ar r i ed out i n al l i t s c ompl et eness , t he gr eat es t concess i on t o i ndi vi dual l i ber t ys i nce t he l i ber a t i on of t he s er f s . " 1 Schi f f was hopef ult hat t he J ews woul d recei ve " f ul l r i ght s " i n t he " r evol ut i onwhi ch i s t aki ng pl ace. " He cont i nued t o r ecommend t he ab-sor pt i on of Russ i an J ews by "c i vi l i zed nat i ons , " par t i cul ar -l y t he Uni t ed St at es , i f condi t i ons i n Russ i a f ai l ed t o i ra-pr ove. "But I hope thi ngs wi l l not happen so and I s t i l lhol d f as t t o t he bel i ef t hat t he Russ i an pal e of set t l ementand the r es t r i c t i ve l egi s l at i on agai ns t t he J ews are a t hi ng

2of t he pas t . "

Howe, op. c i t . , p. 149.2Szaj kows ki , op. c i t . , p. 23.


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Unf or t unat el yr t he same r evol ut i onar y event s t hatl ed t o t he Ukase and t he cal l i ng of t he Duma al so l ed t o t heout br eak of new pogr oms i n t he summer and f al l of / 1905 andjt he spr i ng of 1906, and t o an i nt ense ser i es of communi ca-t i ons among Roosevel t , Schi f f , and Oscar S. St r aus.

Of t he t wo J ews, St r aus was c l osest t o Roosevel t andwas used by t he Pr esi dent as hi s advocat e i n t he J ewi sh communi t y . St r aus had been a par t ner i n hi s f am l y' s success -f ul f i r m of L. St r aus & Company, whi ch mer ged wi t h R. H-Macy' s, and had ser ved al so under Pr esi dent Cl evel and as t heAmer i can Ambass ador t o Tur key. An ambi t i ous man, who nowwant ed t o cont i nue hi s car eer of publ i c ser vi ce t hr ough ap-poi nt i ve or el ec t i ve of f i c e, he val ued hi s cl os e r el at i on-shi p t o t he Pr esi dent . Because he was a comm t t ed Republ i -can, a gr eat adm r er of t he Pr es i dent , and an out st andi ngJ ewi sh l eader , Roosevel t woul d l at er appoi nt St r aus t o hi sCabi net as Secr et ar y of Commer ce and Labor .

I n c ont r ast t o St r aus , Sc hi f f was nei t her a pol i t i -c i an nor a t r ust ed associ at e of t he Pr es i dent ' s , but one whogai ned r ecogni t i on f r om t he Pr es i dent because of hi s i mpor -t ance i n t he f i nanc i al wor l d and hi s pos i t i on as t he unof f i -c i a l l eader of Amer i can J ewr y. Schi f f was a Republ i can t oo,but one who of t en cr i t i c i zed and opposed t he Pr esi dent onhi s Russ i an pol i c i es as wel l as hi s cor por at e and monet ar ypos i t i ons .


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Roosevel t ' s hi ghl y publ i c i zed campai gn agai nst t het r ust s and unr egul at ed busi ness oper at i ons m ght have been

1mor e shadow t han subst ance. Never t hel ess, Roosevel t ' sdr i ve deepl y concer ned Schi f f who was a member of numer ousi nt er l ocki ng di r ec t or at es whi ch t i ed hi m t o i nsur ance compani es, banks, and maj or i ndust r i al concer ns. As t he seni orpar t ner of Kuhn, Loeb, & Co. , Schi f f was deepl y i nvol ved i nt he f i nanc i ng of sever al maj or r ai l r oad l i nes such as t hePennsyl vani a and t he Uni on Paci f i c Rai l r oads. Ther ef or e,when Roosevel t moved agai nst t he Nor t her n Secur i t i es Companyi n 1902, he br oke up one of Schi f f ' s cr eat i ons. A f ew year sl at er , when t he Pr esi dent cal l ed f or an I nt er st at e Commer ceComm ss i on i nvest i gat i on of t he Uni on Pac i f i c Rai l r oad, hes cr ut i ni zed t he ac t i vi t i es of one of Sc hi f f ' s maj or c l i ent s .Event ual l y, Schi f f was so di spl eased by Roosevel t ' s cor por at eand monet ar y pol i c i es t hat on one occas i on he bol dl y cr i t i -c i zed t he Pr es i dent t o hi s f ace. Schi f f di r ec t l y accusedRoosevel t of havi ng a "st er n and uncompr om si ng at t i t ude i ni mpor t ant quest i ons, " as shown by "t he manner i n whi chchanges i n econom c condi t i ons, whi ch i n your opi ni on hadbecome necess ar y, ar e f or ced upon t he count r y and upon

1Ri char d Hof s t adt er , The Amer i can Pol i t i cal Tr adi -t i on: And t he Men Who Made I t ( New Yor k, 1951) , p. 228.


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t he I nt er es t s i nvol ved. * 1Now i n November , 1905, St r aus, t he f r i end, and

Sc hi f f , t he cr i t i c , pl eaded f or Roos evel t ' s hel p, , t ur ni ngIto the Pr esi dent as t he onl y one who coul d exer t ] pr essur e

on t he Russ i an gover nment . But Roosevel t r esponded t o t hei r2

pl eas on a t ypi cal not e of "heat ed r i ght eousness. " ThePr es i dent ' s l et t er s t o hi s J ewi sh cor r espondent s wer e t es t yand r epl et e wi t h hi s cust omar y l ect ur es on hi s concept i on ofAmer i c a' s r ol e i n wor l d af f ai r s . He t r i ed, wi t h onl y l i mi t ed success, however , t o convi nce t he J ews t hat t he Uni t edSt at es gover nment was unabl e t o st op t he pogr oms. He ex-pl ai ned t hat he coul d not i nt er vene i n Russ i an af f ai r s t ohel p t he J ews any mor e t han he coul d hel p t he Ar meni ans i nTur key or t he Negr oes i n Por t uguese Sout h Af r i ca and t heCongo Fr ee St at e. The " pr of essi onal hyst er i a cr owd" and t he"ver y wor t hy peopl e of l i m t ed knowl edge and hyst er i calhabi t of m nd, " was t he way Roosevel t char act er i zed t hosewho sought hel p f or t he Russi an J ews, Ar meni ans, and Af r i can

3Negr oes.1Schi f f , op. ci t . , I , 47.2J ohn Mor t on Bl um The Republ i can Roosevel t ( NewYor k , 1965) , p. 2.3Roosevel t t o Cur t i s Gui l d, Apr . 2, 1906, i n Theodor eRoosevel t Paper s ( L i br ar y of Congr ess, Washi ngt on, D. C. ) ,Ser i es I I , 62. Ci t ed her eaf t er as Roosevel t Paper s .


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Al t hough Roosevel t was eager f or t he Uni t ed St at est o pl ay an i mpor t ant di pl omat i c r ol e by mai nt ai ni ng a s t abl e

i .wor l d or der as wel l as by spr eadi ng her Chr i st i an, ? and demo-c r at i c val ues , he was caut i ous and real i s t i c i n hi s Russ i anpol i cy- He r ef used t o bui l d a c r i s i s , at t he pr ompt i ng ofAmer i can J ewr y, wher e, i n hi s v i ew, none seemed t o exi st .Because of f our f act or s- - hi s over r i di ng concer n wi t h domes-t i c mat t er s , hi s i nf or mat i on about Rus s i an af f ai r s , hi ssense of t he l i m t at i ons of Amer i can power , and f i nal l y, hi ssuppor t of t he l i t er acy t es t and r es t r i c t i on movement - -Roosevel t woul d not t ake any dar i ng i ni t i at i ve vi s - a- vi s t heRuss i ans. He car ef ul l y avoi ded maki ng hi msel f vul ner abl ebef or e Amer i can and wor l d opi ni on, whi ch di d not r egar d t heRuss i an- J ewi sh i ssue as a pr ess i ng mat t er .

Af t er t he end of t he Russo- J apanese War , Roosevel twas pr i mar i l y concer ned wi t h domest i c pol i t i cs . Hi s i nt er -est cent er ed on l egi s l at i on such as t he Hepbur n bi l l and t hepur e f ood and dr ug bi l l as wel l as t he Congr ess i onal el ec-t i ons of 1906. Fr om t i me to t i me, however , i mpor t ant f or -ei gn pol i cy mat t er s i nt r uded upon h i m Thi s was t he casewi t h t he di sor der s i n Cuba i n 1906, t he i nt ense di pl omat i cnegot i at i ons wi t h t he J apanese over i mm gr at i on t o t he WestCoast , and t he sendi ng of t he Amer i can f l eet away f r om i t shome i n t he At l ant i c t o J apan and ar ound t he wor l d.


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Al t hough hi s i nt er est was mai nl y di r ec t ed t odomest i c and ot her f or ei gn mat t er s, Roosevel t di d show al i vel y concer n and t hor ough knowl edge of Russi an af f ai r s.Thi s i nvol vement i n Russ i an event s st emmed f r om t he t i me t hathe medi at ed t he set t l ement of t he Russ o- J apanese War . Per -cei vi ng t hat Russi a' s pol i c i es woul d det er m ne whet her Eur opeand Asi a woul d r emai n at peace, he sai d, " Ther e i s no nat i oni n t he wor l d whi ch mor e t han Russi a hol ds i n i t s hands t hef at e of t he com ng year s . . . The Pr es i dent al so f el tt hat t he Russ i an gover nment coul d not be t r ust ed, char act er -i z i ng i t as " t r eacher ous, " " i nsi ncer e, " and most damagi ng of

2al l , l acki ng knowl edge of i t s own st r engt hs and weaknesses.

I n Mar ch, 1905, Roosevel t assi gned Geor ge Meyer ,t hen t he Amer i can Ambassador t o I t al y, t o St . Pet er sbur g,whi ch he descr i bed t o Meyer as " t he onl y Embassy at whi ch I3do want wor k done j ust at pr esent . " Roosevel t was eagerf or Meyer , a weal t hy mer chant f r om Bost on who had been ac-t i ve i n Massachuset t s and Republ i can pol i t i cs, t o pr ovi det r ust wor t hy i nf or mat i on on t he Russ o- J apanese War and i nt er -nal Russ i an pol i t i cal devel opment s . I n hi s l et t er t o Meyer

Bl um op. ci t . , p. 135Edwar d Char l es Wagenknecht , The Seven Wor l ds ofTheodor e Roosevel t ( New Yor k, 1958) , p. 240.

3Howe, op. c i t . , p. 111.


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announci ng t he appoi nt ment , Roosevel t emphasi zed t he si g-ni f i cance of pl ac i ng an abl e di pl omat i n Russ i a: , , The

/t r oubl e wi t h our Ambassador s i n st at i ons of r eal i mpor t ancei s t hat t hey t ot al l y f ai l t o gi ve us r eal hel p and r eal i n-f or mat i on/ and seem t o th i nk t hat t he l i f e wor k of our Ambassador i s a k i nd of gl or i f i ed pi nk t ea- par t y- Now, at S t .Pet er sbur g I want some wor k done, and you ar e t he man t odo i t . 1

Meyer pr oved t o be a capabl e and ast ut e di pl omat whowoul d har dl y have cal l ed hi s l i f e i n Rus s i a " a gl or i f i edpi nk t ea- par t y. " He wor ked har d and di spl ayed sk i l l at t hei nt r i cat e maneuver s t hat r esul t ed i n t he Por t smout h PeaceConf er ence and t he successf ul concl usi on of peace t er ms.W t h t he end of t he War , however , hi s d i pl omat i c act i vi t i esbecame l ess pr essi ng, and Meyer began t o t hi nk t hat hi spr esence i n Russ i a was of l i m t ed val ue t o hi msel f and t he

2Pr esi dent . I n f act , Meyer was qui t e eager t hr oughout 1906t o r et ur n t o Washi ngt on t o a Cabi net posi t i on whi ch Roose-vel t had pr om sed hi m and whi ch he obt ai ned i n Mar ch, 1907as Post mast er - Gener al .1I bi d.

2Geor ge Meyer t o Henr y Cabot Lodge, J an. 19, 1906,i n Henr y Cabot Lodge Paper s ( Massachuset t s Hi st or i calSoc i et y, Bost on) .


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Meyer wr ot e Roosevel t f r equent l y about t he r evol u-t i onar y event s t hat chal l enged t he Czar ' s aut hor i t y: t hemass i ve c i vi l di sor der s , econom c unr es t , t er r or i s t bombi ngs ,and t he cal l i ng of t he Duma. Thr oughout hi s t er m Meyer a l sor eport ed t o Roosevel t about t he Russi an gover nment ' s at t i t udet owar ds t he J ews and t hei r em gat i on f r om Russ i a t o t heUni t ed St at es. I n one such r epor t Meyer wr ot e:

To under st and t he f eel i ng t owar ds t he J ews her e amongt he Russi ans and even among t he peasant s, i t i s neces-sar y t o real i ze t hat i t i s qui t e as bi t t er and unr eason-abl e as t hat of [ Senat or Ben] Ti l l man concer ni ng t hepol i t i cal r i ght s of t he Negr o. Many of t he J ews ar eact i ve l eader s i n t he r evol ut i onary movement , whi cht ends t o i ncr ease t he ant i pat hy among t he r eact i oni st s.The J ews ar e al so f ear ed f or t hei r abi l i t y t o ear n al i vi ng and make money under most adver se ci r cumst ances.A mont h l at er , Meyer r ecal l ed a conver sat i on t hat he had hadwi t h t he m l i t ar y Gover nor of Odessa, a c i t y wher e 150, 000J ews l i ved: " I asked about t he c l ass of J ews t hat wer e t osai l shor t l y f or Amer i ca. He sm l ed and r epl i ed t hat t hey

2had seven m l l i on i n Russ i a t hat we were wel come t o. "

Meyer ' s cor r espondence i ndi cat ed t hat t he Uni t edSt at es gover nment woul d be unabl e t o al t er t he i nt ernalRuss i an- J ewi sh s i t uat i on, shoul d i t ever wi sh t o do so .

*Meyer t o Theodor e Roosevel t , Sept . 21, 1906, i nRoosevel t Paper s , Ser i es I , Box 111.2Meyer t o Roosevel t , Oct . 28, 1906, i n Roosevel tPaper s , Ser i es I , Box 113.


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He st at ed t hi s opi ni on when di scussi ng some abor t i ve pl ansf or l i ber al i z i ng J ewi s h oc cupat i onal and r es i dent i al r es t r i c -t i ons. Some r epr esent at i ves i n t he f i r st Duma had pr oposedt hat J ews who compl et ed t hei r m l i t ar y t r ai ni ng shoul d beal l owed t o l i ve anywher e out s i de t he Pal e, al t hough t heywoul d be al l owed t o own l and onl y wi t hi n t he Pal e i t sel f .React i on agai nst t hi s p l an was i nt ense and ul t i mat el y sue-cess f ul i n bl ocki ng any l i ber al i zat i on. "The J ewi sh pr obl emwi l l not be set t l ed by i nt er vent i on or sugges t i on of f or ei gnpower s whi ch t he Gover nment r esent s and r ef uses t o l i st en t o,but by f i nanc i al necess i t i es , " Meyer obser ved. "The f or ei gnbanker s hol d t he car ds, and gr eat i nf l uence can be br oughtt o bear on Russ i a t hr ough f i nanci al channel s whi ch I bel i evewi l l event ual l y be most i nst r ument al i n f or c i ng t he Gover n-r aent t o gi ve t he needed and pr oper r ef or ms and pr i v i l eges t o

1t he Russi an J ews.

Had he want ed, Roosevel t coul d have di sr egar dedMeyer ' s advi ce and mai nt ai ned t hat t he Uni t ed St at es had aspec i al i nt er es t i n Russ i an- J ewi sh condi t i ons . He coul dhave act ed as t he mor al spokesman f or ci vi l i zed humani t y byobj ect i ng t o the bar bar i c t r eat ment of t he Russ i an J ews.

1Meyer t o Roosevel t , Nov. 26, 1906, i n Roosevel tpaper s , Ser i es I , Box 114.


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Or, he could have maintained that Russia's treatment of theJews caused an unnecessary wave of immigration which wasdetrimental to America's welfare. Roosevelt had two impor-

iItant pr ecedent s f or t he l at t er cour se of act i on- 1 One wascont ai ned i n Pr esi dent Benj am n Har r i son' s Message t o Con-gr ess i n December , 1891, whi ch cal l ed upon t he Russi an gov-er nment t o i mpr ove t he condi t i ons of t he J ews t o r educe t hecauses of em gat i on. The second pr ecedent i n 1902 was con-t ai ned i n a not e f r om Secr et ar y o f St at e J ohn Hay t o t heRumani an gover nment , wr i t t en i n r esponse t o a r equest f r omSchi f f , Oscar S. St r aus , and Repr esent at i ve Luc i us L i t t auer ,a Republ i can f r om New Yor k. Thi s not e l i nked Amer i ca' s con-cer n f or t he depr i vat i ons sust ai ned by Rumani an J ews wi t ht he heavy J ewi sh i mm gr at i on t o the Uni t ed St at es, t hatst emmed f r om unsat i s f act or y l i vi ng condi t i ons. , , I t behoovest he St at e t o scrut i ni ze most j eal ous l y t he char act er of t hei mm gr at i on f r om a f or ei gn l and, and, i f i t be obnoxi ous t oobj ect i on, t o exam ne t he causes whi ch r ender i t s o. Shoul dt hose causes or i gi nat e i n t he act of anot her Sover ei gn St at et o t he det r i ment of i t s nei ghbor s , i t i s t he pr er ogat i ve ofan i nj ur ed St at e t o poi nt out t he evi l and t o make r emon-st r ances.

1Adl e r and Mar gal i t h, op. c i t , p. 123. For a di scuss i on of J ewi sh l obbyi ng i n t hi s mat t er see Naom W enerCohen, A Dual Her i t age: The Publ i c Car eer of Oscar S.St r aus ( Phi l adel phi a, 1969) , pp. 123- 26.


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When Roosevelt formulated his policies towards thepogroms, he did so, in part, because Russia, the largest andone of the most powerful nations in Europe, refused to re-Ispond pos i t i vel y t o c r i t i c i sm on t he J ewi sh i s sue f r om ot hernat i ons. The Russ i an gover nment had i nf ormed ot her Eur opeangover nment s and t he Uni t ed St at es t hat obj ect i ng t o t he con-di t i ons of Russi an J ewr y woul d have but one r esul t - - t o an-t agoni ze t he gover nment . Russ i a r egar ded t he J ewi sh pr obl emas an i nt er nal mat t er and not subj ect t o censur e f r om abr oad.

The Roosevel t Adm ni st r at i on coul d not j oi n wi t hf r i endl y nat i ons such as Engl and and Fr ance i n a di r ect ap-peal t o t he Russi ans, because t hese t wo count r i es wer eal l i ed wi t h Russ i a, F rance s i nce 1894 and Engl and f i nal l y i n1907. Pr eser vi ng good r el at i ons wi t h Russ i a was i nf i ni t el ymor e i mpor t ant t o Fr ance and Engl and t han i mpr ovi ng t he con-di t i on of Russ i an J ewr y. They r ef used to pr ess t he i r r i -t at i ng J ewi sh i ssue when ot her mat t er s wer e at st ake- - mat t er swhi ch concer ned t er r i t or i al aggr andi zement i n Af r i ca, t heKi ddl e Eas t and t he Far Eas t ; and the r el at i ve m l i t ar ypower of Eur opean nat i ons. Roosevel t , who was qui t e sensi -t i ve t o bot h t he i mpor t ance and f r agi l i t y of t he al l i ances t r uc tur e, was not about t o f or ce a pot ent i al l y di vi s i vei ssue on f r i endl y nat i ons, or t o wage an i sol at ed campai gnagai ns t Russ i a' s di sc r i m nat or y pr ac t i ces .


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The Roosevel t Adm ni s t r at i on, however , was wi l l i ngto voi ce i t s concer n f or Mor occan J ewr y at t he same t i methat, t he Russ i an gover nment pr ot ect ed i t sel f f r om di pl omat i c

i nt er f er ence concer ni ng i t s J ewi sh quest i on. I n J anuar y,1906, Secr et ar y of St at e El i hu Root asked Henr y Whi t e,Amer i ca' s r epr esent at i ve at t he Al gec i r as Conf er ence, t or ai se the i s sue of Mor occo' s di sc r i m nat i on agai ns t t he J ews .Root want ed " to r es t r ai n t he spi r i t of i nt ol er ance and pr e-el ude t he devel opment of i t s ef f ect s i nt o ant agoni sm bet weenal l Mohammedans and non- Mohammedans. " Hi s i nst r uct i ons t oWhi t e al so cont ai ned a l et t er f r om Schi f f descr i bi ng Mor occanJ ewi sh condi t i ons. The Conf er ence suppor t ed a r ecommenda-t i on, pr oposed by Whi t e, expr ess i ng an i nt er est i n t he "wel -1f ar e of t he J ews i n Mor occo. " The Uni t ed St at es gover nmentwas abl e t o make t hi s r equest on behal f of t he J ews becauset he Eur opean power s at t he Conf er ence wer e deci di ng t he eco-nom c and pol i t i cal f at e of Mor occo. Ther ef or e, t hey coul dt ouch upon any i nt er nal subj ect of i nt er est t o t hem

I nst ead of maki ng f ut i l e and i r ksome di pl omat i c ef -f or t s t o s t op Russ i a' s di sc r i m nat i on agai ns t t he J ews ,Roosevel t f avor ed an al t er nat i ve sol ut i on t o t he i mm gr at i onpr obl em whi ch st emmed f r om Russi an- J ewi sh condi t i ons.

1Adl e r and Mar gal i t h, op. c i t . , pp. 37- 40.


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! t hrough r es t r i c t i ve l egi s l at i on he sought t o pr ot ec t t heUni t ed St at es f r om i l l i t er at e and i mpover i shed Russ i an i mm -gr ant s whom he r egarded as undesi r abl e. By suppor t i ng t he

fl i t er acy tes t , Roosevel t hoped t o bui l d a bar r i er bet weent he Uni t ed St at es and Russi a and t he ot her east er n and sout h-er n Eur opean count r i es t hat pr oduced l arge number s ofem gr es , wi t hout t r oubl i ng t hose count r i es about t he unsat -i s f act or y i nt er nal condi t i ons whi ch caused em gr at i on.

Cl ear l y, Russ i a was not di r ect l y concer ned wi t hRoosevel t ' s at t empt s t o r es t r i c t i mm gr at i on f rom Eur ope.Thi s pos i t i on was s t r i ki ngl y di f f er ent f r om t hat of t heJ apanese gover nment whi ch had t aken an act i ve r ol e i n nego-t i at i ons wi t h t he St at e Depart ment t o pr event t he Uni t edSt at es f r om s i ngl i ng out t he J apanese i mm gr ant s as undes i r -abl e. J apan r egar ded t he di scr i m nat i on agai nst her i mm -gr ant s on t he West Coast as an af f r ont t o her nat i onal di g-ni t y . Ther ef or e, t he t wo count r i es ef f ect ed t he Gent l emen' sAgr eement by whi ch J apan her sel f st opped t he i mm gr at i on ofunski l l ed l abor er s t o t he Uni t ed St at es . But unl i ke J apan,no s i ngl e east er n or sout her n Eur opean count r y f el t i nsul t edby t he host i l i t y t owar ds t he new i mm gr ant s; no Eur opean coun t r y, i n f act , t ook a deep i nt er est i n t he i mm gr ant s who set -t i ed i n t he Uni t ed St at es. What t hi s act ual l y meant t o Roose-vel t was t hat Russ i a and ot her Eur opean nat i ons woul d not


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i nt er f er e i n t he evol ut i on of Amer i c a' s r es t r i c t i ve pol i c ywhen i t cent er ed on t he l i t er acy tes t .

Now i n November , 1905, when Meyer was home f or av i s i t af t er t he ar duous mont hs of wor k over t he Por t smout hnegot i at i ons , t he conf l i c t bet ween t he Amer i can- J ewi sh l ead-er s and t he Republ i can adm ni st r at i on emer ged. Accor di ng t oMeyer , Secr et ar y of St at e El i hu Root per sonal l y asked hi mupon h i s r et ur n t o St . Pet er sbur g t o di scuss t he pogr omswi t h Count Ser gei W t t e, pr evi ous l y Rus s i a' s r epr es ent at i veat t he Por t smout h Conf er ence, and now pr esi dent of t he coun-c i l of Mi ni s t er s . W t t e had l ear ned at f i r s t hand of Amer i -can J ewr y ' s deep concer n f or i t s Russ i an br et hr en when hehad conf er r ed wi t h Schi f f and sever al ot her J ews dur i ng hi ss t ay i n t he Uni t ed St at es . Thus Root hoped t hat W t t e woul dnow say " somet hi ng t hat woul d assur e t he J ewi sh el ement andqui et publ i c sent i ment . " Meyer added i n hi s di ar y t hat Rootbel i eved " t hat i t was a del i cat e mat t er f or us t o i nt er f er ei n any way and t hat cer t ai n J ews i n Amer i ca wer e mer el y

1s t r i vi ng f or not or i et y. "

The pogr oms t hat br oke out i n t he l at e f al l o f 1905am ds t gener al c i vi l di s or der s i n Rus s i a wer e a di r ec t r e-sui t of t he t r i al s of t he Russo- J apanese War and t he

*Howe, op. c i t . , p. 222.


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i dent i f i c at i on of s pec i f i c Rus s i an J ews wi t h r adi c al andr ef or m s t el ement s . I n r es pons e t o t he new c r i s i s , Sc hi f f ,St r aus, and Cyr us L. Sul zberger headed t he Nat i onal Comm t -t ee f or t he Rel i ef of Suf f er er s by Russ i an Massacr es . Ral -l i es wer e hel d t o expr ess out r age at t he pogr oms and Amer i canJ ews r ai sed $1, 200, 000 f r om t housands of cont r i but or s . 1

Not cont ent wi t h publ i c demonst r at i ons and f und r ai s-i ng, i n December Schi f f wr ot e an i mpassi oned pl ea t o Roose-vel t about t he pogr oms. Suggest i ng t hat i t was "t he dut y oft he ci vi l i zed wor l d t o i nt er vene, " Schi f f asked Roosevel t t ospeak f or t he J ews on behal f of humani t y, as he had oncedone f or t he Cubans i n 1898. Schi f f r ecommended t hat t hePr es i dent expr ess hi s concer n f or t he Russ i an J ews i n amessage t o Congr ess and di r ect t he Uni t ed St at es t o cooper -at e wi t h ot her nat i ons i n an ef f or t t o pr essur e t he Russ i ans .He j ust i f i ed hi s r equest by st at i ng t hat a message f r omRoosevel t woul d " r al l y sel f - r espect i n Russ i a" and al l ow f ort he est abl i shment of a l aw- abi di ng gover nment whi ch woul dpr ot ect t he J ews 3

1The comm t t ee s pent al l but $190, 000 of t he f unds.I n 1913, t he AJ C, r epr esent ed by Benj am n Car dozo, r ecei vedper m ssi on f r om t he New Yor k Supr eme Cour t t o t r ansf er t her emai ni ng f unds t o t he AJ C, t o be used f or emer genci es butnever f or t he expenses i ncur r ed i n r unni ng t he AJ C.2Schi f f , op. ci t . , I I , 137- 38.


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Roosevel t , f eel i ng t hat Schi f f had become "hyst er i -c al " about t he pos si bi l i t i es f or Pr e si dent i al ac t i on i n r e -sponse t o the "dr eadf ul at r oc i t i es , " mai nt ai ned t hat t her ewas no way f or hi m t o i mpl ement t hese r equest s. 1 Theref ore,l i e wr ot e Schi f f t hat t hese pr oposal s "woul d make t he Uni t edSt at es gover nment r i di cul ous , and so f ar f r om hel pi ng t hecondi t i on of t he J ews woul d have hur t t hem i n Russ i a andwoul d have t ended t o hur t t hem here. " Roosevel t f i r m yst at ed t hat t he Uni t ed St at es woul d not j o i n a non- exi st entuni on of Eur opean st at es dedi cat ed t o hel pi ng t he Russ i anJ ews, nor woul d hi s Adm ni st r at i on even pr omot e such a uni on.1, ! sympat hi ze t hor oughl y wi t h your f eel i ngs, wr ought up ast hey ar e and ought t o be by t he dr eadf ul out r ages comm t t edon t he J ews i n Russ i a, " Roosevel t wr ot e i n hi s one conc i l i a-t or y pass age. He woul d do what he coul d but he woul d not

2"t hr eat en ai m ess l y and t her eby do har m "

St r aus, who was f am l i ar wi t h t he cor r espondence be-t ween Roosevel t and Schi f f , f el t compl et el y sympat het i c t ot he Pr es i dent ' s v i ew t hat t he Uni t ed St at es was power l ess i nt hi s mat t er . He wr ot e the Pr es i dent , sayi ng t hat he had

1Roosevel t t o Oscar S. St r aus , Dec. 14, 1905, i nRoosevel t Paper s , Ser i es I I , 60.2Roosevel t t o Schi f f , Dec . 14, 1905, i n Roosevel tPaper s , Ser i es I I , 60.


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come to Roosevel t ' s ai d by f ur t her expl ai ni ng t o Sc hi f f andother J ews t hat t he Pr es i dent ' s hands wer e t i ed. St r aust hen i ndi cat ed t hat some ot her f or m of Pr es i dent i al ac t i ondesi gned t o pl ease Amer i can J ews m ght be desi r abl e. Hewr ot e about t he J ews who wer e ar r i v i ng i n Amer i ca as a r e-sui t of t he pogr oms and suggest ed t hat Roosevel t somet i me i nt he f ut ur e s tat e publ i c l y " t hat humani t y and the spi r i t ofour h i st or y and devel opment al i ke, di ct at e t hat we shoul dnot g i ve a gr udgi ng wel come t o t he r ef ugees f r om r el i gi ous

1per s ecut i on. . . .

The pogr om i ssue abat ed unt i l Apr i l , 1906, whenSchi f f and St r aus l ear ned f r om Eur opean J ewi sh sour ces t hatnew pogr oms woul d occur dur i ng t he Russi an East er . St r ausasked t he Pr esi dent t o speak wi t h Bar on Roman Romanovi chRosen, Russi a' s Ambassador i n Washi ngt on, as wel l as t odi r ect Meyer t o make i nqui r i es of t he Russ i an gover nment i nSt . Pet er sbur g; he want ed Roosevel t and Meyer t o expr ess 2Amer i ca' s concer n and di sappr oval i n advance of any pogr oms.Ther ef or e Ass i st ant Secr et ar y of St at e Robert Bacon i nst r uct edMeyer t o appr oach t he For ei gn Mi ni st er i n a di scr eet manner

1St r aus t o Roosevel t , Dec. 15, 1905, i n Roosevel tPaper s , Ser i es I , Box 101.2St r aus t o Roosevel t , Apr . 1, 1906, i n Roosevel tPapers , Ser i es X, Box 104.


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about: the "grave apprehensions" in America over new pogroms.Meyer was asked t o consul t wi t h t he Br i t i sh and t o get i nf ormat i on about Russi a' s ef f or t s t o pr event t he pogr oms as wel lConsequent l y , he r ecei ved assur ances f r om Count W t t e, t hePr es i dent of t he Counci l of Mi ni st er s , t hat t he government

1woul d pr event t he out br eak of East er pogr oms.

Roosevel t , f or h i s par t , spoke wi t h Rosen and r e-cei ved t he same assur ances. I n r el at i ng t hi s news t o St r auson Apr i l 10, Roosevel t t ook t he oppor t uni t y t o expr ess h i sdi spl easur e wi t h Schi f f ' s appr oach t o t he Russ i an- J ewi sh i s -sue. " Bar on Rosen spoke ver y war m y of your cour t esy andcons i der at i on, " Roosevel t i nf or med St r aus . But " I am boundt o add t hat he st at ed t hat anot her pr om nent J ewi sh gent l e-man i n New Yor k Ci t y had prej udi ced W t t e agai nst t he cause2f or whi ch he was pl eadi ng by hi s at t i t ude. " The Pr es i dentagr eed t o make publ i c t he f act t hat t he Uni t ed St at es hadmade the Apr i l i nqui r i es, but Roosevel t was eager t o convey

1Rober t Bacon t o Meyer , Apr . 9, 1906, i n Gener alRecor ds of t he St at e Depar t ment : Russ i a, Pol i t i cal Rel a-t i ons wi t h t he Uni t ed St at es ( Nat i onal Ar chi ves, Washi ngt on,D. C. ) . Ci t ed her eaf t er as SDF. Meyer t o St r aus , Apr . 9,1906, i n Oscar S. St r aus Paper s ( L i br ar y of Congr ess,Washi ngt on, D. C. ) , Box 4. Ci t ed her eaf t er as St r aus Paper s .Meyer t o St r aus, Apr . 10, 1906, i n Roosevel t Paper s , Ser i esI , Box 104.

2Roosevel t t o St r aus, Apr . 10, 1906, i n Roosevel tPaper s , Ser i es I I , 62.


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the impression that no *,pressures" had been applied to get afavorable response.1

As t he Russi an gover nment pr om sed, no vi ol ence oc-cur r ed at East er , but t wo mont hs l at er , dur i ng a per i od ofl ar ge- s cal e agr ar i an unr es t , a f r i ght f ul pogr om t ook pl ac eat Bi a l yst ok. Agai n Schi f f and St r aus ur gent l y asked Roose-vel t t o pr ot est t o t he Russ i an gover nment . But t hi s t i meSchi f f conceded t o the Pr es i dent t hat t he Uni t ed St at es gov-er nment c oul d not pr event t he out br eak of pogr oms: "X doknow i n advance t hat unf or t unat el y not hi ng can be done byour Gover nment , but I have f el t t hat I shoul d at l east mor ef ul l y acquai nt you wi t h t he ter r i bl e s i t uat i on whi ch has un-f or t unat el y devel oped i n t he f ai nt hope t hat poss i bl y youand al so Secr et ar y Root m ght be abl e t o see some way i nwhi ch pr essur e c an be br ought upon t he Russi an Gover n-

2me n t . . . .

Root i nst r uct ed Meyer t o consul t i nf or mal l y wi t h t heRuss i an gover nment t o l ear n i f l ocal of f i c i al s wer e par t l yr espons i bl e f or t he pogr om A f ew hour s a f t er r ecei vi ng t her equest Meyer met wi t h Russ i an Mi ni st er of For ei gn Af f ai r s

1Roosevel t t o St r aus , Apr . 13, 1906, i n Roosevel tPaper s , Ser i es I I , 63.2Schi f f , op. ci t . , I I , 139.


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Al exandr I zvol sky but t he Mi ni s t er cat egor i cal l y re f used t odi scuss t he mat t er wi t h Meyer or wi t h t he Br i t i sh Ambassadorwhen he t r i ed t o r ai se t he same subj ect . The meet i ng waspar t i cul ar l y f r us t r at i ng f or Meyer not onl y because I zvol skyr ef used t o hear hi s message, but al so because i t was c l eart hat t he Mi ni s t er al r eady knew i t s cont ent s , t he Russ i an gov-er nment havi ng deci pher ed t he St at e Depar t ment code. "1" Heal so embar r assed t he pr ot est i ng Br i t i sh and Amer i can Ambassa-dor s by t el l i ng t he Ger man Ambassador about t he r ebuf f .Meyer l ear ned of t hi s di sc l osur e whi l e pl ayi ng po l o wi t h t heCounsel l or of t he Aust r i an Embassy: " I hear you and t heEngl i sh Ambassador r ecei ved a r ef usal at t he For e i gn Of f i ce, "t o whi ch Meyer r epl i ed, "Wher e di d you get t hat i dea?" Notonl y was i t bad f or m Meyer wr ot e i n hi s d i ar y, but " i twoul d be bad f or publ i c sent i ment i f i t got i nt o t he Amer i -

2can paper s. "Roosevel t al so r egar ded the J une i ni t i at i ve as a

secr et i ve and del i cat e pr obe. " I do not wi sh t o say t o any-one as yet what was done, " he wr ot e Schi f f . "The ef f i cacyof anyt hi ng t hat i s done depends l ar gel y upon t her e bei ng no

1Meyer t o El i hu Root , J une 27, 1906, i n SDF, no. 551.2Howe, op. c i t . , p. 294.


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sympt om of of f ense t o t he Russ i an aut hor i t i es . " Tr yi ng t odo what Schi f f suggest ed, Roosevel t l at er wr ot e , t he Uni t edSt at es was on t he "ver ge of r ecei vi ng a r ebuf f " t hat woul dhave pl aced i t " i n a ver y undi gni f i ed and unpl easant2pos i t i on. . . . " Root expr essed t he same caut i ous vi ewwhen he wr ot e Roosevel t t hat publ i c knowl edge of Amer i ca' sact i ons woul d "pr event t he Russi an Gover nment f r om act i ng. "I t woul d, he sai d, " i nc rease t he ant i - J ewi sh f eel i ng, " and3" make f ur t her massacr es mor e pr obabl e. "

Whi l e Root and Roosevel t wer e i nhi bi t ed and f r us-t r a

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