The Philosophes and Their Ideas• France was the capital of the Enlightenment. • Leaders of the Enlightenment were called

“Philosophes”. • Writers, professors, journalists, statesmen

economists and social reformers.• Came from both the nobility and middle class.• Reason was to be used as a tool. • Apply facts to experience to find the best way

for society to operate.• Secular movement; focus was not on an

afterlife, but on this world and how it could be improved and enjoyed.

• Everything should be questioned to determine whether it made logical sense and served society.

The Philosophes• Intellectuals who

discussed ideas• Used reason to explain

their world• Believed that reason

could improve society• Not satisfied with old

ideas• Believed in tolerance for

all religions

The Philosophes

• Search for universal laws in human affairs

• Scorned superstition, Christianity: Voltaire

• Encyclopedia--All human knowledge: Diderot

• Deism: God created universe to operate rationally

• Loosely united group who shared attitudes towards society

• Saw themselves as critics and reformers

• Opposed supposed ‘truths’ of Christianity

– Some atheist, but others saw truth in Godliness and spirituality

• Attempted to find truth in God with an explanation to the natural world

• Believed in divine governance

– God transcended Christianity, found in all world religions

The “Enlightened” Individual

The Philosophe

► Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking publicists of the new thinking CHANGE & PROGRESS! CHANGE & PROGRESS!

► They were students of society who analyzed its evils and They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.advanced reforms.

What did the Philosophers Despise?

• Absolute Monarchs

• Land-Owning Nobles

• The Catholic Church’s Abusesf power

Thomas HobbesPeople cannot be

trusted. Kings should rule!

Thomas Hobbes - English• Hobbes believed humans are

naturally violent & disorderly; citizens need kings to protect them from themselves (like a father protects his children)

• Hobbes believed that people form a social contract with the king & agree to give up their freedoms in exchange for the king’s protection

John Locke

People are good! They have rights & should overthrow

the gov’t when kings abuse their

power

John Locke - English• Locke believed that all people

have natural rights (rights to life, liberty, & ownership of property)

• He added to Hobbes’ Social Contract Theory saying that people can break the “contract” when a king become corrupt

• The best government has limited powers & listens to the people

Who’s ideas are right?

HobbesHobbes

• People are selfish, self-serving, & brutal

• Without government control, society would be chaotic

LockeLocke

• People are reasonable & able to make decisions

• People should be able to rule themselves

Voltaire

Don’t be a hater! People

should be allowed to say anything they want, even if

you don’t like it

Voltaire - French• Voltaire demanded that kings

offer their people freedoms of thought, speech, & religion

• He fought against prejudice & pushed for the French king to be more tolerant

Questions for discussion:• Voltaire said:Voltaire said:

““I may disapprove of what I may disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to you say, but I will defend to

the death your right to say it.”the death your right to say it.”

• What does this statement What does this statement indicate about Voltaire’s views indicate about Voltaire’s views on free speech? on free speech?

Baron de Montesquieu - French

Giving one person all the power is a bad

idea.

Baron de Montesquieu• Montesquieu wanted separation

of powers & checks and balances to keep kings from gaining too much power in the government:

–Legislative branch makes laws

–Executive branch enforces laws

–Judicial branch interprets laws

Like Parliament or

Congress

Like a king or president

Like a court

system

Jean-Jacques Rousseau - French

Let’s make a government that

benefits the majority of people

Jean-Jacques Rousseau• Believed people are naturally

good, but power corrupts them• The best form of government is

a direct democracydirect democracy that promotes the common goodcommon good of the majority

• People give up some of their individual rights to be ruled by the general willgeneral will of the majority

What the majority wants, the majority

gets

Like their choice if they disagree with the majority

opinion

Centers of the Enlightenment

How did Enlightenment writers How did Enlightenment writers and thinkers set the stage for and thinkers set the stage for

revolutionary movements?revolutionary movements?• Philosophes encouraged people

to judge for themselves what they thought was right or wrong

• People began to rely on reason to solve their social problems

• These ideas led to violent revolutions in America & France to overthrow “corrupt kings”

The American “Philosophes”

John AdamsJohn Adams(1745-(1745-1826)1826)

Ben FranklinBen Franklin(1706-1790)(1706-1790)

ThomasThomasJeffersonJefferson(1743-(1743-1826)1826)

……...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of ...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…happiness…

Philosophers in America

• Thomas Jefferson

• Thomas Paine

• Benjamin Franklin

• Patrick Henry

• George Washington

Putting Theory into Practice:The American Revolution

• “Great upheavals in history occur when circumstances are ripe.”

• French & Indian War (1754-1763)• Stamp Act of 1765

– Needed to raise revenues in colonies to pay war debt– Taxed 54 ordinary items– Colonial reaction was bitter, Stamp Act repealed

• Townshend Acts of 1767– Taxed paper, paint, glass, lead, and tea– Colonists organized boycott; British dissolved the

Massachusetts legislature and sent troops to Boston

• Boston Massacre (1770)—5 dead

Putting Theory into Practice:The American Revolution

• Tea Act of 1773– Led to Boston Tea Party

• Coercive or Intolerable Acts of 1774– Shut down port of Boston– Forbade meetings– British troops could be housed in colonists’ homes– No British officials could be tried in colonies– Annulled charter of colonies, put British Governor in charge

of all

• First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia• “The Shot Heard Round the World”

– Lexington & Concord

Thomas Jefferson• Jefferson wrote the Declaration of

Independence (1776) & based it heavily on John Locke’s ideas

• The Declaration explained the reasons for the American Revolution & the that the US gov’t would be based on human liberty & democracy

The American Revolution & Declaration of Independence

inspired people around the world to overthrow their gov’t & form

democracy

Progression Timeline

Five Key Ideas of the Enlightenment

The five important philosophical concepts are

1. Reason

2. Nature

3. Happiness

4. Progress

5. Liberty

Five Key Ideas of the Enlightenment• EnlUrged the use of:

– Reason: absence of intolerance, bigotry or prejudice in one’s thinking; beliefs should be rational and free of biases

– Nature: natural laws exist w/out man’s creation; what was natural was good and reasonable; God is found in nature

– Happiness: a person who lives by nature’s law finds happiness; argued against medieval notion that people should accept misery as part of life’s circle; Philosophes believed in well-being on earth

– Progress: Philosophes believed individuals could seek perfection and in return, society seek perfection; looked at human being as capable of progress, making something better

– Liberty: freedoms should not be merely granted, but expected; beliefs that we are born with liberties in nature

Philosophes were social critics who Philosophes were social critics who believed reason could be applied to all believed reason could be applied to all

aspects of life.aspects of life.

They think aboutThey think about

Reason: The belief that through reason society could be set free.

Nature:Believed that nature was good and reasonable.

Believed that everyone who lived by the laws of nature would be happy.

Happiness:

Progress:

Liberty:

Believed that reason would lead people to improve themselves.

Believed that only through liberty or freedom can people be happy.

*Belief in logic and science.*Supported the application of the scientific method to all aspects of society.*Government should be based on reason.*It was a period of questioning---led to the development of Political Science.*Importance of education and knowledge:

a)an understanding of human nature and how to apply that knowledge

b)knowledge would conquer fear, superstition, and prejudice

c)knowledge was key to improving society

Reason

Reason• Truth can be discovered

through reason (logical thinking).

• Reason= unbiased thinking – open to new ideas

Reason• Enlightenment philosophers combined logic

and reason• Logic: formal logic is the process(es) by

which an argument can be determined as valid or not. An argument is valid if the premises are all true, then the conclusion must also be true.– Example: All humans have heart. Tom is a

human. Therefore, Tom has a heart.

• Reason: Enlightenment thinkers stated that it consisted of common sense, observation, and their own unacknowledged prejudices in favor of skepticism and freedom.

Reason Cont.

*The greatest crimes are perpetuated in the name of religion and God.

*A fair, just, and productive society absolutely depends on religious tolerance.

*This means religious tolerance for all forms of Christianity and non-Christian faiths.

What is “Enlightenment?”

ReasonReason& Logic& Logic

TraditionsTraditionsandand

SuperstitionsSuperstitions

Immanuel Kant –-- Immanuel Kant –-- DARE TO DARE TO KNOW!KNOW!

Immanuel Kant –-- Immanuel Kant –-- DARE TO DARE TO KNOW!KNOW!

rationalismrationalism empiricismempiricism tolerancetolerance skepticismskepticism DeismDeism

nostalgia for the nostalgia for the

past past organized organized religionsreligions irrationalismirrationalism emotionalismemotionalism

Reason• Issues of the 17th century scene that the idea

of Reason attacked: Dogma & Fanaticism– Witch-hunts and Wars of Religion– Protestants & Catholics denounced each other as

followers of Satan– People imprisoned for attending wrong church– All publications censored by church and state– Slavery widely practiced, defended by religious

leaders– Despotism of monarchs=“divine right of kings”– Any opposition was imprisoned or executed

• Reason and Logic had no room for these matters

Topics of the Age of Reason

Science

Government

EthicsHow are these subjects like the subjects of The Age of Faith?

How are they different from the subjects of the Age of Faith?

*The belief that there were natural laws that govern the earth as well as man.

*Focused on the scientific discoveries and use of reason to examine the world.

*Deism---a religious philosophy that developed around the following concepts:

a)an impersonal deity (God)b)God is found in nature. You do not have to attend

a formal church.c)There is a common morality amongst humans that

is seen in the similarities between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

d)It is a religion based upon REASON and not Faith.

Nature

Nature• What is natural is good

and reasonable• Natural laws affect

economics and politics just as natural laws guide science (ex: motion).

Nature Cont.e)Goal was to humanize religion.

f)Rejected original sin.

g)Attacked Christianity for the persecution of other religions and abuses of power.

h)Believed society should exist without religious supervision.

i)It was their job to discover how the world God created worked.

j)Rejected traditions and superstitions.

Deism/Nature

• The word "Deism" is derived from the Latin word for God: "Deus." Deism involves the belief in the existence of God, on purely rational grounds, without any reliance on revealed religion or religious authority.

• Deists:– Do not accept the belief of most religions that God

revealed himself to humanity through the writings of the Bible, the Qur'an or other religious texts.

– Disagree with strong Atheists who assert that there is no evidence of the existence of God.

Deism/Nature• Deists regard their faith as a natural religion,

as contrasted with one that is revealed by a God or which is artificially created by humans.

• They reason that since everything that exists has had a creator, then the universe itself must have been created by God.

• Thomas Paine concluded a speech shortly after the French Revolution with: "God is the power of first cause, nature is the law, and matter is the subject acted upon.”

Growth of Deism/Nature

• Intellectuals believe in God but see him as a "watchmaker"

• Deists skeptical of organized religion– Catholic Church was attacked

• Deists struggle with personal standards

• Denial of providence (Voltaire) disputed by others (Pope, Rousseau)

• Denial of evil

Example of Deism

• Natural Law – law that applied to everyone and could be understood by reason

• Thinkers tried to apply reason and scientific ideas to government

Happiness

*This was a time period of optimism.

*Believed every man had the right to develop his full potential.

*Focus on secular issues to make life better on earth.

Happiness• Living by Nature’s Laws brings happiness.

• Happiness for all is possible.

*Guaranteed freedoms/rights that everyone should have like press, speech, religion.

*Exploring the issues of equality amongst races and gender.

*Exploring what is the best form of government and why.

*Create a government that will help overcome human cruelty and violence by using its power to further social

improvements.

Liberty

Liberty• Envied liberties of

English (Glorious Revolution; Bill of Rights)

• Society could be set free through reason.

Progress• A SCIENTIFIC approach can lead to perfect humanity and science.

ProgressProgress

*The belief that man can improve and perfect society through education and scientific advances.*Attack existing institutions and concepts of:

a)absolutismb)Christianityc)views on how the

world works*Belief in the importance of social reform*By mastering both natural and human sciences, man can harness the natural world for its own benefit and learn to live peacefully with one another.

• Reached peak in 1700s

• Paris, center of intellectual activity

• Parisian women hosted social gatherings, salons

• Philosophers, artists, scientists, writers regularly discussed ideas

Peak of Enlightenment• Educated people throughout

Europe, beyond, inspired

• Held notion that world problems could be solved

• New ideas debated in coffeehouses, public spaces

• Writers published ideas in books, magazines, pamphlets

Ideas of Enlightenment

The Age of Reason

The Social Environment of the Philosophes

• Salons---Marie-Therese de Geoffrin

• Coffee Houses

• Societies dedicated to thoughtful discourse.– Select Society of Edinburgh and the American

Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.– Secret societies like the Free Masons.

Zoology & Biology

A dissection at the Royal Academy, LondonA dissection at the Royal Academy, London

The “Republic of Letters”

A. URBAN –-- gathering of elites in the cities (salons) –-- gathering of elites in the cities (salons)

B. URBANE --– cosmopolitan, worldly --– cosmopolitan, worldly - music, art, literature, politics - music, art, literature, politics - read newspapers & the latest - read newspapers & the latest books books

C. POLITENESS –-- proper behavior –-- proper behavior - self-governed - self-governed

Reading During the Enlightenment

► Literacy: - 80 % for men, 60 % women - 80 % for men, 60 % women

► Books were expensive (one day’s wages)Books were expensive (one day’s wages)

► Many readers for each book Many readers for each book

►- novels, plays & other literature- novels, plays & other literature - journals, memoirs, “private lives” - journals, memoirs, “private lives” - philosophy, history, theology - philosophy, history, theology - newspapers, political pamphlets - newspapers, political pamphlets

► - often censored by governments- often censored by governments

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

A Brief Chance for Equality

• Women ran the Salons, these small gathering places, and the sexes could exchange ideas on an equal basis.

• People wanted to become “enlightened” even monarchs wanted to be seen as “enlightened monarchs,” ones who used reason to govern their people.

• Meetings held in large rooms in wealthy mansion of women in France

• Artists, writers, philosophers, & other intellects met to discuss and share ideas

• Started in the home of Madame Geoffrin

Madame was not well educated but in close contact with philosophers & heads of state

A Parisian Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Salons and Their Hostesses

• The salons were cultural institutions dating back to the early 17th century, extending from the institutionalized court where royal women had entertained the city elite.

• Parisian salons were distinguished from all-male literary circles and the society of cabarets and cafes, for they were dominated by women.

• Aristocratic and upper bourgeoisie women, called salonnieres organized and ran the salons from their homes.

• They set the tone and goals of the gatherings and helped bring writers, artists, philosophers, and other various patrons together.

• From 1770 to 1830, Paris went through a number of political, social, and cultural changes.

• The arrival of the Enlightenment, French Revolution and the Restoration each left their mark on the Parisian salons.

• Enlightenment salons brought a new element of “seriousness and regularity” to the salon as they formed the social base of the Republic of Letters and thus contributed to the social project of Enlightenment.

The Salon of Madame Geoffrin

• Lacking in social status, attractiveness, and education, the salon of Madame Geoffrin was “one of the wonders of the social world.”

• She was orphaned at a young age and married the wealthy director of the royal glassworks at Saint-Gobain.

• In her twenties she began apprenticing at the salon of her neighbor, Madame de Tencin.

• Philosophes, artists, nobles, princes, ambassadors, politicians, and reformers flocked to Mme. Geoffrin’s.

• On Monday nights, her guests were mostly artists. Wednesday night dinners were primarily literary themed.

• Mme. Geoffrin’s salon was characterized by interested guests providing stimulating intellectual debate.

A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin (cont.)• Mme. Geoffrin made two innovative changes in the way her salon was run. SheMme. Geoffrin made two innovative changes in the way her salon was run. She

switched the traditional late night dinner to one-o’clock to allow for an entire switched the traditional late night dinner to one-o’clock to allow for an entire afternoon of discussionafternoon of discussion..

• She She created a regular weekly salon dinner schedulecreated a regular weekly salon dinner schedule..• Mme. Geoffrin’s salon became popular because she was a sympathetic listener, a Mme. Geoffrin’s salon became popular because she was a sympathetic listener, a

generous woman, and could bring the best out of others.generous woman, and could bring the best out of others.• On Sundays her salon wasn’t open, instead she distributed bags of money to the On Sundays her salon wasn’t open, instead she distributed bags of money to the

poorer folk.poorer folk.

The Salon of Madame Stäel

• Mme. Stäel was the daughter of famous salonniere Suzanne Necker and James Necker, the Swiss Director of Finance under Louis XVI.

• Mme. Stäel’s grew up in a setting rich in intelligence and learning, and was surrounded by all the facilities of affluence.

• Mme. Stäel was a frequent guest at her mother’s salon while growing up, giving her the opportunity to take interest in a variety of subjects and to converse at a level beyond her age.

• At the age of twenty she married the Baron von Stäel Holstein, the Swedish ambassador to France, and due to this marriage, she gained an influential position in the social world of Paris

• Mme. Stäel became a talented stateswoman, novelist, playwright, actress, metaphysician, and musician. Her kindness, generosity, animated writing, and clever tact earned her the respect and admiration of many

• The Salon that she came to run became considered as “the most brilliant in Paris…at the height of its vogue.”

Madame Stäel (cont.)• She was in the good graces of Marie Antoinette, but

commented that the court was so lavish and the members so spoiled that it demoralized life

• She was present when the king was violently dethroned on October 6, 1790, and often offered shelter at her home to popular leaders who needed protection and a place to hide

• Became close with Charles Maurice de Tallyrand and Louis de Norbonne, which caused many to question her intentions – she and Norbonne would often speak of democracy, even though they would support the monarchy until it fell

• When it did fall, however Mme Stäel was forced to escape to Switzerland, after saving so many other lives from the wrath of the lower classes

• She bravely returned to Paris in April of 1795 with a new lover in tow and began to host a dinner every ten days inviting people of all varying opinions and on particular days she “entertained separately the leaders of the various cliques.”

• Her book De la Littérature was considered the first serious effort to introduce France to the underlying characteristics of German and English literature

A Quick Sum Up of why Women did not

Benefit:• #1 Lack of Opportunities• #2 Views of Society• #3 Especially the views of men:

Remember Rosseau, the ANTI-FEMINIST guy.

• Along with educational setbacks, women still did not have many political rights during this time such as property owning, or voting like the men.

Impact of the Enlightenment: Religion And The Churches

• Religion continued to go strong through the 17th and 18th centuries.

• Both the Protestant churches or the Catholic churches were instruments of the establishment, supporting government and catering to the interests of the privileged class.

• Churches themselves were still an integral part of the power structure.

• Toleration and Religious Minorities– Enlightenment religious tolerance, but only successful in limited

areas.– Germany and France had reached a degree of religious

toleration after their religious wars.– France reverted when Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes.– Throughout most of Europe devote rulers either outlawed or

restricted the right of those of the “wrong” religion.

Impact of the Enlightenment: Popular Religion in the 18th Century

• Despite Deism and new rationalism, most average people remained devout

• Religious turmoil of the reformation and counter-reformation calmed down.

• Protestant churches settled down into more institutionalized, often state-supported and more bureaucratic institutions.

• This led some Protestants to seek a more spiritual church

Religion and the Churches• 18th cent., Protestant churches flourished throughout Europe

– Lutheranism (Germany & Scandinavia), Anglicanism (England), & Calvinism (Scotland, United Provinces, Swiss cantons, German states)

– Catholicism still strong in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, & Habsburg Empire

• 18th cent. – Catholic states started to push for more control over churches in their countries.– “Nationalization” meant controlling the papacy & Jesuit Order

– Jesuits had a great deal of political power based on influence in colonial holdings, made many political enemies

– 1773: Spain & France demanded Pope Clement XIV dissolve the Jesuit Order

– end of the Jesuits paralleled by decline in Papal power

Popular Religion in 18th Century• no records on regular attendance, but 90-95% Catholics went to

mass on Easter– people focused on veneration of saints, pilgrimages, worship of relics– seen by clergy as “more superstitious than devout”

• In areas of Europe where rationalism & deism became more influential, pietism developed– Pietism : movement to foster a personal experience w/ God as focus

of true religious experience– spread by teachings of Count Nikolaus Zinzendorf (1700-1760)– opposed rationalizing Christian faiths, said “He who wishes to

comprehend God with his mind becomes an atheist.”

• desire for deep spiritual experience in England unmet until the advent of John Wesley (1703-1791) & Methodism– sought to bring “glad tidings” of salvation to all people– appealed more to lower classes of society, ignored by Anglican

Church– “Methodists” proved that spiritual experience had not been totally

drowned out by the search for reason

Impact of the Enlightenment: Development of Methodism

• Founded by John Wesley, an Englishman. Complaint with Anglican Church?

• Wesley preached to the masses in open fields where people underwent conversion experiences.

• He was a very fiery preacher.• Converts were organized into Methodist societies in

each area so that people could work together to do good works and spread the gospel.

• Wesley remained the head of all these societies.• He tried to keep the movement within the Anglican

church, but after his death it broke off and became the Methodist Church.

Impact of the Enlightenment: European Jews• Jews remained the most persecuted group in Europe. • Ashkenazic Jews. Largest group. Lived in Eastern Europe.

– They were restricted in their movements and in the occupations they could engage in.

– Usually were prohibited from owning land and subject to special taxes.

– Poland more tolerant– Were often subject to outbursts of hatred and persecution—

Pogroms.• Sephardic Jews—descendents of those Jews kicked out of

Spain in the 15th century. – Some had migrated to Turkish lands– many settled in cities in Western Europe often worked in

banking and commerce. – Many found prominent positions in European courts.

• Generally they were discriminated against throughout Europe.

Toleration & Religious Minorities• out of political necessity, toleration of certain creeds began by 17th cent.• Louis XIV turned back the clock, persecuting Huguenots in the early 18th

cent.• Austria - Toleration Patent of 1781 recognized Catholic public practice &

granted right to private worship for Lutherans, Calvinists, & Greek Orthodox– in all other ways, Austrians were equal

Toleration of the Jews• remained the despised religious minority of Europe• largest # of Ashkenazic Jews lived in Eastern Europe

– restricted in movement– forbidden to own land or hold jobs– pay special taxes– subject to periodic popular wrath

• Sephardic Jews - had been expelled from Spain in 15th cent. – settled in Turkish lands, also cities such as Amsterdam, Venice, London,

& Frankfurt where they were free to work in banking & commercial activities

– many philosophes denounced persecution, but still ridiculed Jewish customs

– Austria: eased restrictions on Jews, but still own land or worship publicly

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Religious Population in Eighteenth-Century Europe

Impact of the Enlightenment• Today the Enlightenment is

often viewed as a historical anomaly – a brief moment when a number of thinkers infatuated with reason vainly supposed that the perfect society could be built on common sense and tolerance, a fantasy which collapsed amid the Terror of the French Revolution and the triumphal sweep of Romanticism.

Impact/ Effects of the Enlightenment• The Enlightenment birthed two revolutions

imperative to Western Civilization:– American Revolution– French Revolution

• The Enlightenment created an outlet for intellectuals/educated to openly debate issues w/in society

• This era allowed for a greater sense of ‘universalism’ where peoples did not live for their own sake, but sought betterment for others

England v. France• The English and French Enlightenments

exchanged influences through many channels.– Because England had gotten its

revolution out of the way early, it was able to proceed more smoothly down the road to democracy.

– But English liberty was dynamite when transported to France, where resistance by church and state was fierce.

Why should we care?• Because Thomas Jefferson

totally ripped off of these guys!• You remember that little paper

he wrote? It was called The Declaration of Independence and signed on July 4, 1776.

• This paper summarized how the Enlightenment ideas influenced our American forefathers (Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, James Madison).

Enlightenment in America• Meanwhile, across the Atlantic, many

of the intellectual leaders of the American colonies were drawn to the Enlightenment. – Jefferson, Washington, Franklin,

and Paine were powerfully influenced by Enlightenment thought.

– The God who underwrites the concept of equality in the Declaration of Independence is the same Deist God Rousseau worshipped.

American Revolution• The language of natural law,

of inherent freedoms, of self-determination which seeped so deeply into the American grain was the language of the Enlightenment.

• Separated geographically from most of the aristocrats against whom they were rebelling, their revolution was to be far less corrosive than that in France.

Enlightenment Ideas in America

• Natural Rights –life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness• Separation of Power – legislative, judicial, & executive branches• Social Contract• Freedom of speech, press, and religion• Purpose of Gov’t to serve the people• System of Checks and Balances• Capitalism• Importance of Education• Belief that science and eventually technology will solve most or all

problems• Idea of Human Rights• Helping others---social services, etc….