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Nikiya Crisostomo Urban Studies 165: Sustainable Transportation

Individual Essay 12/13/2013

The Philippine Jeepney’s Black Carbon Emissions: Sustainability Challenges and Solutions

TRANSPORTATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

As the Philippines pushes to rise out of its developing nation status, it is faced with the

difficulty of sustaining its growth in a way that is environmental, equitable and economical. This

difficulty is most evident in the country’s urban transportation system, especially in the nation’s

capital of Manila. Manila City is the densest city in the world, with 43,079 persons per square

kilometer.1 Due to this high density, transportation infrastructure takes center stage, as the 1.65

million people living in Manila constantly navigate the streets of the 38.55-square-kilometer

city.1 Approximately 80 percent of the residents of Metro Manila rely on public transportation.1

In 2007, the country’s road density was 0.67 kilometers per square kilometer—the second

highest among Asian countries, following Singapore.1 The transportation sector consumes the

most energy out of all the sectors in the country, taking up 37.7 percent of the total energy

consumption in 2009.1 Environmentally, emissions from mobile sources take up 65 percent of

the total air pollution nationwide.1 Economically, the high financial costs brought about by

perpetual traffic congestion inhibit the proper modernization of the aging transit infrastructure.1

In terms of equity, switching to a more sustainable mode of transport is hindered by high poverty

rates in the country, which leave many people with no choice other than to take the cheapest

form of transportation available, without taking sustainability into consideration.1 The metro is

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 http://www.futurarc.com/index.cfm/projects-2013/2013-manila-city-profile/

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serviced by three lines of light rail transit (LRT) and metro rail transit (MRT), 23,000 buses,

36,000 taxis, 90,000 tricycles, and 217,000 jeepneys.1 Jeepneys, which are the most affordable

mode for traveling medium to long distances, clearly dominate Philippine road travel. Dissecting

the environmental, equity, and economic effects of the jeepney as a uniquely Filipino mode of

public transportation shows not only the problematic effects on the Philippines as it tries to grow

sustainably, but also the global effects that pull other nations into the Philippine jeepney

sustainability issue.

THE PHILIPPINE JEEPNEY

Hailed as the “King of the Road” in the Philippines, the jeepney has been the most

popular mode of public transportation since the 1960’s.2 Its name was derived from combining

“jeep” and “jitney.” They came into existence towards the end of World War II, when the

Americans started to recall troops from the Philippines.2 Military vehicles were left behind,

including many jeeps that were sold or given to the Filipinos.2 Entrepreneurial Filipinos then

refashioned these U.S. jeeps to make them roadworthy, thereby creating a new form of mass

transit.3 The first jeepneys hit the roads in the 1950’s.3

In addition to its historical significance, the Philippine jeepney has become a symbol of

Filipino art and creativity.2 Each jeepney is garishly adorned with religious or nationalistic

artwork.3 Every surface of the jeepney is emblazoned with brightly colored scenes and names,

streamers and flags are attached to the antennae, the interior and windshield are covered with

stickers and ornaments, and some have special horn sounds that range from wolf whistles to

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2 http://matadornetwork.com/community/robertcipriano18/how-electronic-jeepneys-will-ease-the-philippines-air-pollution-problem/ 3 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23352851!

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classical music.4 Decorations are personal to the jeepney owner, so no two jeepneys are

identical.3

While they were adapted from World War II U.S. army jeeps, the Philippine jeepneys

have been transformed into mass transit vehicles that clearly chose utility over comfort or

safety.4 Compared to the original jeeps, jeepneys sit higher and are longer to accommodate more

passengers.4 Jeepneys can carry 18-20 people, with two people in the front with the driver, the

rest seated in the body of the jeepney, and up to four more people clinging to the bars at the rear

exit, completely exposed and vulnerable to trailing vehicles.4 The body of the jeepney is

composed of two rows of upholstered benches facing each other.4 Passengers sit on these

benches, packed shoulder-to-shoulder.3 There are no seat belts.4 Windows are glassless for

ventilation in the tropical climate,3 but this exposure means there is no accommodation for wet

weather; at best, a plastic tarpaulin could be loosely attached to the windows.4 Most of the

jeepneys use surplus diesel engines from Japan, which may not be the best option for human and

environmental health, but are the most accessible and cheapest for the poor Filipinos.2 For Ed

Sarao, one of the first makers of jeepneys, the jeepney represents the Philippines’ multi-cultural

history: Spanish influences in the vivid fiesta-like colors of the painted decorations, American

origins as U.S. army jeeps, Japanese contributions with the Japanese engine, and the Filipino

identity since it was built by Filipino hands.3

Similar to the convoluted physical attributes of the Philippine jeepney, its service

performance also exhibits conflicting advantages and disadvantages. Owner-drivers design their

jeepney routes depending on what they perceive would bring them the highest profits. Therefore,

jeepney routes end up covering the city in interlocking and redundant networks.4 While each !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4 http://news.bbc.co.uk/dna/place-lancashire/plain/A747065 !

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jeepney’s route is painted down the sides of the vehicle as names of general areas, regular stops

and stations do not exist other than at the extreme ends of the routes.4 This system becomes

confusing for everyone, even the natives.4 Additionally, throughout the entire trip, the jeepney is

demand-responsive, and could be hailed and could stop anywhere and at any time.4 Jeepney

drivers would frequently stop their vehicles right in the middle of traffic, just to let one of their

passengers out. Many Filipinos blame such unpredictable and seemingly inconsiderate driving

behavior as one of the major causes of congestion in the Philippine streets, with individual

jeepney passengers frequently interrupting the flow of traffic through their loading and

unloading. But while the jeepney’s service may cause confusion and congestion, the jeepney

continues to be the most popular mode of public transit in the Philippines. For average Filipinos,

it is the cheapest way to travel, costing around eight pesos (20 U.S. cents) for a ride.3

Black Carbon

But in recent years, the Philippine jeepney has been thrust into the international

spotlight for another reason besides its cultural uniqueness or its basic structural and

service shortcomings: black carbon. Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is a

byproduct of inefficient combustion of fuels—in this case, diesel fuel.5,6,7 It is part of a

larger type of emissions called aerosols, which are very small particles suspended in the

atmosphere.8 For diesel engines, the greater the inefficiency in the combustion to power

the vehicle and in the exhaust system, the greater the amount of black carbon produced.7

And for Philippine jeepneys, the commonly used low-cost but dirty Japanese diesel

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5 http://www.thecarbondesk.com/services/carbon-desk-black.html 6 http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/cutting-climate-changes-gordian-knot 7 http://manilajeepneyproject.com/black-carbon-and-the-manila-jeepney-project-2/ 8 http://www.pressrepublican.com/0800_special_sections/x511770118/Black-Carbon-Impact-on-Climate-Change-and-Human-Health

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engines, combined with high sulfur fuels, are responsible for the growing problem of

black carbon emissions in the nation.7 It has been found that around 500,000 diesel-driven

public utility vehicles, mostly jeepneys, are accountable for 70 percent of black carbon

emissions in the country’s urban regions, producing 22,000 metric tons of soot emissions

per year.9

THE JEEPNEY’S BLACK CARBON SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES

The jeepneys’ black carbon problem not only exacerbates the pre-existing environmental,

equity, and economic transportation issues of the country, but also affects the international

community, especially the environmental sector, due to the recent findings of black carbon’s

significant contributions to climate change. The sustainability of the Philippines’ transportation

has become a global sustainability issue.

Environmental Issues

Black carbon emitted by jeepneys is composed of ambient fine particles (PM2.5)

that are among the largest man-made contributors to global warming.9 By directly

absorbing light, reducing the reflectivity of snow and ice, and interacting with clouds,

black carbon impacts the climate in various ways, including increasing temperatures and

accelerating ice and snow melt.10 Sensitive regions, like the Arctic, are particularly

vulnerable to the warming and melting effects of black carbon.10 In these regions, black

carbon not only warms the ice caps with the retained heat it carries, but the layer of black

that lands on the ice prevents the sun from reflecting back into the atmosphere, greatly

increasing the speed of melting.5

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!9 http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/316247/govt-to-retrofit-metro-jeepneys-to-lessen-carbon-emissions 10 http://www.epa.gov/blackcarbon/effects.html

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Other indirect effects of black carbon include contributing to surface dimming,

the formation of atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs), and changes in the pattern and

intensity of precipitation.10 PM2.5, including black carbon, contributes to harmful

ecosystem impacts, visibility impairment, reduced agricultural production, and materials

soiling and damage.10

Though previously overlooked, black carbon is now emerging as the second most

important factor in global warming, following carbon dioxide (CO2).9 In fact, black

carbon has a climate change effect several thousand times that of CO2.11 With a warming

effect of about 1.1 Watts per square meter,12 one ton of black carbon has 27,000 times the

warming effect that CO2 has; in the sensitive Arctic, this number raises to 47,000 times.5

Equity Issues

In additional to environmental damages, black carbon emissions adversely impact

human health; in fact, up to half of the world’s population is directly affected by them.5

Black carbon’s tiny pollution particles (PM10 and PM2.5) penetrate the lungs and interfere

with its function, producing symptoms like coughing, increased phlegm production, and

shortness of breath.13 They cause respiratory illnesses like lung cancer and asthma,5 and

are associated with cardiovascular diseases and breast cancer among women.13 According

to the World Health Organization (WHO), black carbon causes up to 1.5 million

premature deaths per year.5 The social injustice in these health issues is that most of these

premature deaths are among the poor or the vulnerable.5 In Metro Manila alone, over !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11 http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/353117/diesel-powered-motor-vehicles-blamed-for-most-of-phs-air-pollution 12 http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/01/16/1452741/black-carbon-larger-cause-of-climate-change-than-previously-assessed/!13 http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/284212/economy/finance/diesel-emissions-costs-phl-economy-1-5b-annually

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100,000 deaths due to black carbon occur each year, and most of them occur in the very

young and elderly.7 Jeepney drivers, who are exposed to the diesel engine’s black carbon

emissions on a daily basis, have the lowest life expectancy of any group in the

Philippines.7 Because jeepneys are owned and used mainly by the populations who

cannot afford cleaner options, the individuals who are most exposed to the harmful health

effects of black carbon, like the drivers and the passengers, are usually individuals from

the poorest sectors of society.

This social inequity related to black carbon effects is evident beyond the regional

lens, and expands to the global arena. Black carbon emissions are highest among the

developing nations, since these countries—like in the Philippines and its use of

jeepneys—cannot afford the more expensive and cleaner modern technologies.5 Because

of this divide between developed and developing nations, a troubling side effect to

focusing on black carbon to mitigate climate change impacts is the perception by many

developing countries that the blame for climate change is being shifted to them.6

Economic Issues

Finally, both the environmental and health issues compound into high economic

values that actually harm the economic status of the Philippines more than they help. Air

pollution, in large part due to diesel vehicles, costs the Philippine economy $1.5 billion,9

or 1.5 percent of its GDP,7 per year. Health expenses caused by air pollution costs the

Philippine economy over $400 million, or 0.6 percent of its GDP, in direct costs per

year.9

Moreover, some economic issues worsen the pre-discussed equity issues

concerning the disproportionately negative effects of black carbon on the poorer and

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more vulnerable populations. Returning to the source of the jeepney’s black carbon—the

inefficient diesel engine—reveals that while the initial cost of jeepneys may be low due

to the fact that it is mainly a retrofitted vehicle, the operation and maintenance costs are

higher than normal due to the lower quality facilities. For instance, the fuel use of a 16-

passenger jeepney is almost the same as the fuel use of a 54-passenger air-conditioned

bus.14 This takes a heavy toll on the poor jeepney drivers’ pockets.

THE JEEPNEY’S BLACK CARBON SUSTAINABILITY POTENTIAL

But despite the currently grim case of the Philippine jeepney’s black carbon issues,

significant opportunities for sustainability improvements exist.

Environmental Potential

The bright side of black carbon’s environmental effects is that reducing current

black carbon emissions will lead to significant and immediate improvements on both the

local region and the global climate.5 If all CO2 emissions stopped today, the CO2 already

in the atmosphere would remain there and continue to warm for the next 100 years.5

However, since black carbon has a short atmospheric life,10 if all black carbon emissions

stopped today, they would be gone from the atmosphere within two weeks, along with

their warming effects.5 If black carbon levels were substantially cut through the use of

already existing and available technologies, the rate of global warming would be reduced

by 50 percent. This would increase the chance of keeping the temperature rise below two

degrees Celsius, slowing the climate change advance by several decades.9

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!14 http://www.forum-adb.org/BACKUP/Articles/200708-Bankwatch_6.htm

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Equity Potential

Once black carbon’s environmental effects are improved, much of the equity

issues involving the uneven distribution of negative health impacts would be reduced.

However, moving beyond the individual and local issues, the international concern of

black carbon pitting developed nations against developing nations poses great potential

for collaboration and cooperation. In targeting black carbon, everyone needs to remember

the continuing importance of CO2. Black carbon mitigation may be important due to its

immediate effect, but this immediate effect will be short-term, and CO2 mitigation is still

essential in order to achieve long-term cooling.15 The world is facing the war on climate

change together, so both developed and developing nations should be doing their parts to

mitigate global warming. While developing nations are working towards reducing their

black carbon emissions, developed nations must also be working towards reducing their

CO2 emissions and helping developing nations attain cleaner technologies.

Economic Potential

Most of the jeepney’s black carbon economic issues are associated with

environmental and equity issues, so targeting those problems would inadvertently lead to

greater economic vitality for the Philippine economy. The nation’s economic costs due to

air pollution and health impacts would decrease. Additionally, cleaner and more efficient

engines would reduce the poor jeepney drivers’ operation and maintenance costs.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!15 http://www.rtcc.org/2013/01/15/black-carbon-second-largest-global-warming-source/

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POTENTIAL FOR SUSTAINABLE GROWTH: SOLUTIONS TO THE JEEPNEY’S BLACK CARBON ISSUES

The existence of opportunities for improvement under each of the categories of the triple

bottom line provides a glimmer of hope for sustainable growth in the Philippines. In order to

achieve a meaningful sustainable solution to the black carbon issues, the problem must be

addressed at different levels: the international policy level, the regional transportation level, and

the jeepney unit level.

The Big Picture of Policy Change

While the problem of the jeepney’s black carbon begins with the jeepney as a unit

of transportation, it extends far beyond the Philippines’ transportation system, and must

be tackled from a global perspective of policy change. One example of a black carbon

policy initiative gaining ground is spearheaded by environmental groups calling for the

regulation of black carbon under the U.S. Clean Water Act, on the grounds that black

carbon impacts sea ice and glaciers.6 Another effort involves the Philippines and a

number of other countries that have been pushing for the international inclusion of black

carbon as one of the greenhouse gases responsible for global warming.9 Because black

carbon is presently excluded from many carbon trading programs, like the greenhouse

markets created under the Kyoto Protocol and the European trading markets, few

incentives exist to reduce black carbon emissions.6 By including black carbon into

climate schemes, governments can directly attack black carbon, immediately addressing

climate change by as much as 50 percent,9 improving global health, and assisting the

sustainable growth of developing nations.6

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The “King of the Road” Must Share the Road

Narrowing the focus closer to the source of the problem, solutions must also exist

on the regional level. The Philippines government must invest in other modes of transit

and shift the domination away from the jeepneys, without obliterating the cultural icon.

The relatively recent construction of the three LRT and MRT lines is a first step, but the

effort needs to be better. While the LRT and MRT lines exist, many Filipinos are

discouraged from using these modes due to the poorly maintained facilities, daily

excessive overcrowding, and high rates of theft during trips.16 Improving the LRT and

MRT experience, and possibly expanding the lines to accommodate the high numbers of

passengers, would help convert a significant number of motor vehicle users to a more

sustainable mode of transportation. Achieving this could lead to other benefits, like

easing congestion and reducing air pollution, thereby creating a more pleasant

atmosphere for leisure walking and cycling—modes that are currently non-existent on

Philippine urban streets due to safety and health issues connected to high volumes of

motor vehicle traffic.16

A Cleaner Jeepney: The Manila Jeepney Project

Finally, improving the jeepney itself in order to reduce its black carbon emissions

is essential if jeepneys are to be preserved for their historical and cultural significance.

The most well-known initiative focusing on reducing the Philippine jeepney’s black

carbon emissions is called the Manila Jeepney Project. It is led by ROTEC, an Asian-

based carbon company, in partnership with the Philippine government.7 The project

creates its own version of carbon credits for black carbon, in order to financially

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!16 Personal experience as a Filipino

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incentivize stakeholders. Black carbon reduction will be achieved using a low-cost,

ROTEC-developed technology that will be leased to the jeepney owner for a token cost.7

The plan is to convert the emission reductions into high-end, high-premium Verified or

Voluntary Emission Reduction (VER) credits, which will be offered to the international

marketplace.7 The VERs generated will repay the capital investment, which is an

appropriate approach to payment in a developing nation where competing solutions are

expensive.7 Beyond the token cost of $1 per year for the use of the black carbon-reducing

equipment, the cost to the jeepney owner will be zero.7

The Manila Jeepney Project seeks to modify around 500,000 jeepney engines over

a period of five years.11 The estimated project cost is $615 million, a majority of which is

sourced mainly from the international private sector.11 By the end of the project, the

expected outcome is to have an 80 percent reduction in black carbon emissions.11

This project is the prime example of the private and public sectors from different

levels of society and governance collaborating in order to use policy and technology to

develop a sustainable solution to a multi-layered, complex issue. If the Manila Jeepney

Project delivers on its promise, the “King of the Road” will be here to stay as a

sustainable mode of transportation, and the Philippines faces a bright future in its climb

toward becoming a developed nation.

APPENDIX- Images

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