The Paleolithic Period
Transcript of The Paleolithic Period
Prehistory
The Paleolithic Period Paleolithic Architecture TheoldestexamplesofPaleolithicdwellingsaresheltersincaves,followedbyhousesofwood,straw,androck.
Key Points
• Earlyhumanschoselocationsthatcouldbedefendedagainstpredatorsandrivalsandthatwereshieldedfrominclementweather.
• Weather,water,andtimehavedestroyedthemajorityofcampsites;ourunderstandingofPaleolithicdwellingsisthereforelimited.
• CavesarethemostfamousexampleofPaleolithicshelters.
KeyTerms
• Mammoth:Alarge,hairy,extinctelephant-likemammalofthetaxonomicgenusMammuthus.
• Hut:Asmallwoodenshed,aprimitivetemporarydwelling.• Paleolithic:Paleo(Old)Lith(Stone);EarlystageoftheStoneAge,when
primitivestonetoolswereused.
ThePaleolithicAge,orOldStoneAge,spannedfromaround30,000BCEuntil10,000BCEandproducedthefirstaccomplishmentsinhumancreativity.Duetoalackofwrittenrecordsfromthistimeperiod(Pre-history),nearlyallofourknowledgeofPaleolithichumancultureandwayoflifecomesfromarchaeologicandethnographiccomparisonstomodernhunter-gatherercultures.ThePaleolithiclasteduntiltheretreatoftheice,whenfarminganduseofmetalswereadopted.
Paleolithic Societies
AtypicalPaleolithicsocietyfollowedahunter-gatherereconomy.Humanshuntedwildanimalsformeatandgatheredfood,firewood,andmaterialsfortheirtools,clothes,orshelters.Theadoptionofbothtechnologies—clothingandshelter—cannotbedatedexactly,buttheywerekeytohumanity’sprogress.AsthePaleolithiceraprogressed,dwellingsbecamemoresophisticated,moreelaborate,andmorehouse-like.AttheendofthePaleolithicera,humansbegantoproduceworksofartsuchascavepaintings,rockart,andjewelry,andbegantoengageinreligiousbehaviorsuchasburialandrituals.
DwellingsandShelters
Earlymenchoselocationsthatcouldbedefendedagainstpredatorsandrivalsandthatwereshieldedfrominclementweather.Manysuchlocationscouldbefoundnearrivers,lakes,andstreams,perhapswithlowhilltopsnearbythatcouldserveasrefuges.Sincewatercanerodeandchangelandscapesquitedrastically,manyofthesecampsiteshavebeendestroyed.OurunderstandingofPaleolithicdwellingsisthereforelimited.
Asearlyas380,000BCE,humanswereconstructingtemporarywoodhuts.Othertypesofhousesexisted;theseweremorefrequentlycampsitesincavesorintheopenairwithlittleinthewayofformalstructure.Theoldestexamplesareshelterswithincaves,followedbyhousesofwood,straw,androck.Afewexamplesexistofhousesbuiltoutofbones.
Temporarywoodhut:Anartist’srenderingofatemporarywoodhouse,basedonevidencefoundatTerraAmata(inNice,France)anddatedtotheLowerPaleolithicera.
Caves
CavesarethemostfamousexampleofPaleolithicshelters,thoughthenumberofcavesusedbyPaleolithicpeopleisdrasticallysmallrelativetothenumberof
hominidsthoughttohavelivedonEarthatthetime.Mosthominidsprobablyneverenteredacave,muchlesslivedinone.Nonetheless,theremainsofhominidsettlementsshowinterestingpatterns.Inonecave,atribeofNeanderthalskeptahearthfireburningforathousandyears,leavingbehindanaccumulationofcoalsandash.Inanothercave,postholesinthedirtfloorrevealthattheresidentsbuiltsomesortofshelterorenclosurewitharooftoprotectthemselvesfromwaterdrippingonthemfromthecaveceiling.Theyoftenusedtherearportionsofthecaveasmiddens,depositingtheirgarbagethere.
IntheUpperPaleolithic(thelatestpartofthePaleolithic),cavesceasedtoactashouses.Instead,theylikelybecameplacesforearlypeopletogatherforritualandreligiouspurposes.
TentsandHuts
Modernarchaeologistsknowoffewtypesofshelterusedbyancientpeoplesotherthancaves.Someexamplesdoexist,buttheyarequiterare.InSiberia,agroupofRussianscientistsuncoveredahouseortentwithaframeconstructedofmammothbones.Thegreattuskssupportedtheroof,whiletheskullsandthighbonesformedthewallsofthetent.Severalfamiliescouldliveinside,wherethreesmallhearths,littlemorethanringsofstones,keptpeoplewarmduringthewinter.Around50,000yearsago,agroupofPaleolithichumanscampedonalakeshoreinsouthernFrance.AtTerraAmata,thesehunter-gatherersbuiltalongandnarrowhouse.Thefoundationwasaringofstones,withaflatthresholdstoneforadoorateitherend.Verticalpostsdownthemiddleofthehousesupportedroofsandwallsofsticksandtwigs,probablycoveredoverwithalayerofstraw.Ahearthoutsideservedasthekitchen,whileasmallerhearthinsidekeptpeoplewarm.Theirresidentscouldeasilyabandonbothdwellings.Thisiswhytheyarenotconsideredtruehouses,whichwasadevelopmentoftheNeolithicperiodratherthanthePaleolithicperiod.
Paleolithic Artifacts ThePaleolithicerahasanumberofartifactsthatrangefromstone,bone,andwoodtoolstostonesculptures.
KeyPoints
• ArtifactsdatingfromtheLowerandMiddlePaleolithicremaindisputedasobjectsofartisticexpression.
• ThereissomeevidencethatapreferenceforaestheticemergedintheMiddlePaleolithicduetothesymmetryinherenttodiscoveredartifacts.
• The(So-called)VenusofTan-TanisanallegedartifactfoundinMoroccothatisbelievedbysomearchaeologiststobetheearliestrepresentationofthehumanform.
• ThePaleolithicischaracterizedbytheuseofstonetools,althoughatthetimehumansalsousedwoodandbonetools.
KeyTerms
• ochre:Anearthpigmentcontainingsilica,aluminum,andferricoxide• incised:Tocutintothesurfaceofanobjectfordecorativepurposes• flint:Ahard,fine-grainedquartzthatfracturesconchoidallyandgenerates
sparkswhenstruck.• paleoliths:AstonerelicofthePaleolithicera.• artifacts:Objectsthatarecreatedbyahumanbeingwithculturaland
historicalsignificance.
ThePaleolithicorOldStoneAgeoriginatedaround30,000BCE,lastinguntil10,000BCE,andisseparatedintothreeperiods:theLowerPaleolithic(theearliestsubdivision),MiddlePaleolithic,andUpperPaleolithic.ThePaleolithiceraischaracterizedbytheuseofstonetools,althoughatthetimehumansalsousedwoodandbonetools.Otherorganiccommoditieswereadaptedforuseastools,includingleatherandvegetablefibers;however,duetotheirnature,thesehavenotbeenpreservedtoanygreatdegree.SurvivingartifactsofthePaleolithiceraareknownaspaleoliths.
Acheulean hand-axes: Acheulean hand-axes from Kent. The types shown are (clockwise from top) cordate, ficron, and ovate. Evidence shows these early hominids intentionally selected raw materials with good flaking qualities and chose appropriate-sized stones for their needs to produce sharp-edged tools for cutting.
TheearliestundisputedartoriginatedintheUpperPaleolithic.However,thereissomeevidencethatapreferenceforaestheticemergedintheMiddlePaleolithicduetothesymmetryinherentindiscoveredartifactsandevidenceofattentiontodetailinsuchthingsastoolshape,whichhasledsomearchaeologiststointerpretthese
artifactsasearlyexamplesofartisticexpression.Therehasbeenmuchdisputeamongscholarsoverthetermingofearlyprehistoricartifactsas“art.”Generallyspeaking,artifactsdatingfromtheLowerandMiddlePaleolithicremaindisputedasobjectsofartisticexpression,whiletheUpperPaleolithicprovidesthefirstconclusiveexamplesofartmaking.
DisputedArt(ifacts):Early“Venuses”
The“Venus”ofTan-TanisanallegedartifactfoundinMoroccothatisbelievedbysometobetheearliestrepresentationofthehumanform.Thename“Venus”isnolongerconsideredappropriatebecauseitsuggeststhattheseobjectswererepresentativeofgoddesses,orotherdeities,whenthereisnoproofthatthisisso.Thetermisstillinusebutherewewilldemotethesefigurestothedesignation“Woman”whichisusuallyundeniablebythephysicalgenderedcharacteristics,althoughtheTan-Tanfigureisarguablynotgendered.TheWomanofTan-Tan,a2.3inchlongpieceofquartziterockdatedbetween300,000and500,000yearsagoduringtheMiddlePaleolithic,wasdiscoveredin1999inariverterracedepositonthenorthbankoftheDraaRiver,justsouthoftheMoroccanvillageofTan-Tan.Thereiscontroversyamongarchaeologistsastoitsnatureandorigin.Somearchaeologistsbelieveitwascreatedbyacombinationofgeologicalforcesaswellastool-basedcarving.Visiblesmudgestainshavebeeninterpretedbysomeasremnantsofredochrepigments.Forothers,therock’sshapeissimplytheresultofnaturalweatheringanderosion,andanyhumanshapeisamerecoincidence.
Drawing of the Woman of Tan-Tan: The Woman of Tan-Tan is an alleged artifact found in Morocco that is believed by some to be the earliest representation of the human form.
Blombos Cave
DiscoveriesofengravedstonesintheBlombosCavesofSouthAfricahasledsomearchaeologiststobelievethatearlyHomosapienswerecapableofabstractionandtheproductionofsymbolicart.Madefromochre,thestonesareengravedwithabstractpatterns,andwhiletheyaresimplerthanprehistoriccavepaintingsfoundinEurope,somescholarsbelievetheseengravedstonesrepresenttheearliestknownartworks,datingfrom75,000yearsago.Although,muchliketheotherpieces,thisbeliefremainscontested.
Engraved ochre from the Blombos Cave: Engraved ochre from the Blombos Cave has led some historians to believe that early Homo sapiens were capable of symbolic art.
Paleolithic Cave Paintings Paleolithiccavepaintingsdemonstrateearlyhumans’capacitytogivemeaningtotheirsurroundingsandcommunicatewithothers.
KeyPoints
• Cavepaintingscanbegroupedintothreemaincategories:animals,humanfigures,andabstractsigns.
• Animalsdepictedincludefamiliarherbivoresandpredatoryanimals.• Animalswereshowninprofile• ThemostspectacularexamplesofcavepaintingsareinsouthernFranceand
northernSpain.
• Interpretationsvaryfromprehistoricstarcharts,accountsofpasthuntsormysticalritualsforfutureones,andshamanism.
KeyTerms
• chiaroscuro:AnartistictechniquedevelopedduringtheRenaissance,referringtotheuseofexaggeratedlightcontrastsinordertocreatetheillusionofvolume.
• shamanism:Arangeoftraditionalbeliefsandpracticesconcernedwithcommunicationwiththespiritworld.
• polychromy:Referstotheuseofmultiplecolorsinanobjectorartwork.• schematic:followingasetform,oftengeometric,andrepeatable.
ThePaleolithic,orOldStoneAge,rangesfrom30,000BCEto10,000BCEandproducedthefirstaccomplishmentsinhumancreativity,precedingtheinventionofwriting.ArcheologicaldiscoveriesacrossabroadswathofEurope(especiallysouthernFranceandnorthernSpain)includeovertwohundredcaveswithspectacularpaintings,drawings,andsculpturethatareamongtheearliestundisputedexamplesofrepresentationalimage-making.
ThemesandMaterials
Themostcommonthemesincavepaintingsarelargewildanimals,suchasbison,horses,aurochs(akindofbull),anddeer.Thespeciesfoundmostoftenweresuitableforhuntingbyhumans,butwerenotnecessarilythetypicalpreyfoundinassociatedbonedeposits.Forexample,thepaintersofLascaux,Franceleftmainlyreindeerbones,butthisspeciesdoesnotappearatallinthecavepaintings;equinespeciesarethemostcommon.
Drawingsofhumanswererareandwereusuallyschematicinnatureasopposedtothedetailedandnaturalisticimagesofanimals.Tracingsofhumanhandsandhandstencilswereverypopular,however,aswellasabstractpatternscalledfingerflutings.Animalswerepicturedinprofiletogivethemostidentifiableinformationabouteachoneaspossible.
Thepigmentsusedappeartoberedandyellowochre,manganeseorcarbonforblack,andchinaclayforwhite.Someofthecolormayhavebeenmixedwithfat.Thepaintwasappliedbyfinger,chewedsticks,orusingfurforbrushes.Sometimesthesilhouetteoftheanimalwasincisedintherockfirst,andinsomecavesmanyoftheimageswereonlyengravedinthisfashion,takingthemoutofastrictdefinitionof“cavepainting.”
MainExamplesofCavePaintings:FranceandSpain
France
Lascaux(circa15,000BCE),insouthwesternFrance,isaninterconnectedseriesofcaveswithoneofthemostimpressiveexamplesofartisticcreationsbyPaleolithichumans.
A horse from the "Panel of the Chinese Horses" from the Lascaux Cave. The second Chinese horse in the Axial Gallery, also known as the Painted Gallery. Note also the sign above the horse. PD-US; Photo: http://coursecontent.westhillscollege.com/Art%20Images/CD_01/DU2500/index.htm
Cave paintings in Lascaux, France: The most famous section of the cave is “The Great Hall of the Bulls,” where bulls, equines, and stags are depicted. CC BY-SA: Prof saxx Feb. 2006
Discoveredin1940,thecavecontainsnearlytwothousandfigures,whichcanbegroupedintothreemaincategories—animals,humanfigures,andabstractsigns.Overninehundredimagesdepictanimalsfromthesurroundingareas,suchashorses,stags,aurochs,bison,lions,bears,andbirds—speciesthatwouldhavebeenhuntedandeaten,andthoseidentifiedaspredators.Thepaintingscontainnoimagesofthesurroundinglandscapeorthevegetationofthetime.
TheChauvet-Pont-d’ArcCave(circa30,000BCE)intheArdèchedepartmentofsouthernFrancecontainssomeoftheearliestknownpaintings,aswellasotherevidenceofUpperPaleolithiclife.TheChauvetCaveisuncharacteristicallylarge,andthequality,quantity,andconditionoftheartworkfoundonitswallshavebeencalledspectacular.Hundredsofanimalpaintingshavebeencatalogued,depictingatleastthirteendifferentspecies—notonlythefamiliarherbivoresthatpredominatePaleolithiccaveart,butalsomanypredatoryanimals,suchascavelions,panthers,bears,andcavehyenas.
Drawings of horses from the Chauvet Cave in France: The Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave in the Ardèche department of southern France is a cave that contains some of the earliest known cave paintings. PD-Art US
Asistypicalofmostcaveart,therearenopaintingsofcompletehumanfiguresinChauvet.Thereareafewpanelsofredochrehandprintsandhandstencilsmadebyspittingpigmentoverhandspressedagainstthecavesurface.Abstractmarkings—linesanddots—arefoundthroughoutthecave.
Theartistswhoproducedtheseuniquepaintingsusedtechniquesrarelyfoundinothercaveart.Manyofthepaintingsappeartohavebeenmadeafterthewallswerescrapedclearofdebrisandconcretions,leavingasmootherandnoticeablylighterareauponwhichtheartistsworked.Similarly,athree-dimensionalqualityandthesuggestionofmovementareachievedbyincisingoretchingaroundtheoutlinesofcertainfigures.Theartalsoincludesscenesthatwerecomplexforitstime—animalsinteractingwitheachother.Forinstance,apairofwoolyrhinocerosesareseenbuttinghornsinanapparentcontestforterritoryormatingrights.
Spain
Altamira(circa18,000BCE)isacaveinnorthernSpainfamousforitsUpperPaleolithiccavepaintingsfeaturingdrawingsandpolychromerockpaintingsofwildmammalsandhumanhands.ThecavehasbeendeclaredaWorldHeritageSitebyUNESCO.
Painting of a bison in the Great Hall of Policromes, Altamira, Spain: Altamira’s famous Upper Paleolithic cave paintings feature drawings and polychrome rock paintings of wild mammals and human hands. CC BY-SA; MuseodeAltamirayD.Rodríguez
Thelongcaveconsistsofaseriesoftwistingpassagesandchambers.Humanoccupationwaslimitedtothecavemouth,althoughpaintingswerecreatedthroughoutthelengthofthecave.Theartistsusedpolychromy—charcoalandochreorhaematite(ironoxide)—tocreatetheimages,oftendilutingthesepigmentstoproducevariationsinintensity,creatinganimpressionofchiaroscuro.Theyalsoexploitedthenaturalcontoursinthecavewallstogivetheirsubjectsathree-dimensionaleffect.
Interpretations
Likeallprehistoricart,thepurposeofthesepaintingsremainsobscure.Inrecentyears,newresearchhassuggestedthattheLascauxpaintingsmayincorporateprehistoricstarcharts.Someanthropologistsandarthistoriansalsotheorizethatthepaintingscouldbeanaccountofpasthuntingsuccess,ortheycouldrepresentamysticalritualtoimprovefuturehuntingendeavors.Analternativetheory,broadlybasedonethnographicstudiesofcontemporaryhunter-gatherersocieties,isthatthepaintingspertainedtoshamanism,oramysticalconnectiontonature.
Paleolithic Sculpture Paleolithicsculpturesfoundincavesaresomeoftheearliestexamplesofrepresentationalart.
KeyPoints
• SculpturalworkfromthePaleolithicconsistsmainlyoffigurines,beads,andsomedecorativeutilitarianobjectsconstructedwithstone,bone,ivory,clay,andwood.
• “Venus”or“Woman”figurines”isanumbrellatermforanumberofprehistoricstatuettesofwomenthathavebeenfoundmostlyinEurope,butalsoinEurasiaandSiberia.
• Womanfigurinesarecharacterizedbysharedstylisticfeatures,suchasanovalshape,largebelly,wide-setthighs,largebreasts,andthetypicalabsenceofarmsandfeet.
KeyTerms
• flint:Ahard,fine-grainedquartzthatfracturesconchoidallyandgeneratessparkswhenstruck.
ThePaleolithicorOldStoneAgeexistedfromapproximately30,000BCEuntil10,000BCE,andproducedthefirstaccomplishmentsinhumancreativity.ArcheologicaldiscoveriesacrossEuropeandAsiaincludeovertwohundredcaveswithspectacularpaintings,drawings,andsculpturesthatareamongtheearliestundisputedexamplesofrepresentationalart-making.SculpturalworkfromthePaleolithicconsistsmainlyoffigurines,beads,andsomedecorativeutilitarianobjectsconstructedwithstone,bone,ivory,clay,andwood.Duringprehistorictimes,caveswereplacesofdwellingaswellaspossiblespacesforritualandcommunalgathering.Unsurprisingly,caveswerethelocationsofmanyarcheologicaldiscoveriesowingtotheirsecludedlocationsandprotectionfromtheelements.
Venus/Woman Figurines
“Venus”orWomanfigurinesisanumbrellatermforanumberofprehistoricstatuettesofwomenthathavebeenfoundmostlyinEurope,butalsoinAsiaandSiberia,datingfromtheUpperPaleolithic.Thesefiguresareallquitesmall,between4and25cmtall,andcarvedmainlyinsteatite(soapstone),limestone,bone,orivory.Thesesculpturesarecollectivelydescribedas“Venus”figurinesinreferencetotheRomangoddessofbeauty,asearlyhistoriansassumedtheyrepresentedanidealofbeautyfromthetime.WomanofWillendorfisusednowsincethefigures’statusasgoddessesisunknowable.
Thefigurineshavesometimesbeeninterpretedasrepresentingamothergoddess;theabundanceofsuchfemaleimageryhasledsometobelievethatUpperPaleolithic(andlaterNeolithic)societieshadafemale-centeredreligionandafemale-dominatedsociety.Variousotherexplanationsforthepurposeofthefigurineshavebeenproposed,suchasthehypothesisthatthefigurineswerecreatedasself-portraitsofactualwomen(unlikely)orwereusedasgesturesofgoodwillbetweenunrelatedgroups.
StylisticFeatures
Thesefiguresarecharacterizedbysharedstylisticfeatures,suchasanovalshape,largebelly,wide-setthighs,largebreasts,andthetypicalabsenceofarmsandfeet.Hundredsofthesesculptureshavebeenfoundbothinopen-airsettlementsandcaves.TheWomanofHohleFels,a6cmfigureofawomancarvedfromamammoth‘stusk,wasdiscoveredinGermany’sHohleFelscavein2008andrepresentsoneoftheearliestfoundsculpturesofthistype.
The Woman of Hohle Fels: a 6 cm figure of a woman carved from a mammoth’s tusk, was discovered in Germany’s Hohle Fels cave in 2008 and represents one of the earliest found sculptures of this type. CC Fair Use: image copyright H. Jensen / Universität Tübingen http://www.nature.com/nature/videoarchive/prehistoricpinup/
Additionally,theWomanofWillendorfisaparticularlyfamousexampleofthistypeoffigure.Whileinitiallythoughttobesymbolsoffertility,orofafertilitygoddess,thetruesignificanceofthefigureremainsobscure,asdoesmuchofprehistoricart.
The Woman of Willendorf: The Woman of Willendorf is a particularly famous example of the figure. CC BY 2.5: User: MatthiasKabel
Prehistoryisdividedroughlyintothreesections:
Paleolithic–OldStoneAge2.5millionyearsagotoendoflastIceAgec.9600BCE
Mesolithic–MiddleStoneAge–endoflasticeage,agriculture,domesticationofanimalsincludingthedog
Neolithic–NewStoneAge–farmingspreadstoWesternEurope,large-scalestonestructureslikeStonehengeinEngland
Women and Cattle, Rock painting at Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria. After 5000 BCE. http://nation.com.pk/blogs/09-Aug-2015/do-advances-in-technology-necessarily-signify-improvement-in-human-life
FurtherSouthinpresent-dayAlgeria,theSaharadesertwasavastsavannagrasslandsuitableforthehusbandingofherdsofanimals.Thisrockpaintingseemstopictureagroupofwomenwatchingtheherdandentertainingthemselvesby–possibly–dancing.Theartisthasusedthenaturalcoloringoftherockoutcroppingtocreateaplatformonwhichoneofthefiguresreclines.Thisimageconfirmstheactivityofanimalhusbandryaswellasadvancedculturalandcommunalexchangesamongthepeoplewholivedthere.
Mesolithic Age TheperiodbetweenthePaleolithicAgeandtheNeolithicAgeisknownastheMeso(Middle)Lith(Stone)icperiod.Theyearsattributedtothisperiodvaryfromregiontoregion,butitroughlycorrespondstothetimeinNorthernEuropeduringwhichtheclimatebegantowarmandtheglacierstorecede.
SomecharacteristicsoftheMesolithicAgeisatransitionfromlargechippedstonetoolsandhuntingingroupsoflargeherdanimalstosmaller(microliths)chippedstonetoolsandamorehunter-gathererculture.ItendswiththeintroductionofthegrowingofcropsandhusbandingofanimalsintheNeolithic.
English:Huntergatherer'scampatIrishNationalHeritageParkExhibitshowinghowa7000B.C.campsiteofMesolithicperiodhuntergathererswouldhavelooked.Theywerenomadicandbuilttemporaryhouses.Wood,boneandflintwerethematerialsoftheirtools.Theyfishedusingdugoutcanoes-thereisoneinthephoto.Morephotosinthepark,seehttps://www.geograph.org.uk/gallery/irish_national_heritage_park_county_wexford_10033,photobyDavidHawgoodCCBY-SA2.0
ThereisratherlessartattributedtotheMesolithicthanintheperiodpriorandsubsequent.Certainregionsdevelopedadistinctivepotteryduringthisperiod.Possiblythemostsignificantandlong-lastingdevelopmentduringtheMesolithicisthedomesticationofthedog.
TheElk'sHeadofHuittinenisarareMesolithicanimalcarvinginsoapstonefromFinland.CCBY-SARaunoTräskelin/TheFinnishNationalBoardofAntiquities-https://www.finna.fi/Record/musketti.M012:AKD58629:1
Neolithic Monuments NeolithicartinWesternEuropeisbestrepresentedbyitsmegalithic(largestone)monuments.
Key Points
• TheNeolithicorNewStoneAgewasaperiodinhumandevelopmentfromaround10,000BCEuntil3,000BCE.
• StonehengeandAvebury,bothlocatedinthecountyofWiltshireinEngland,arethebestknownmegalithichenges(circles).Bothwerebuiltinstagesoverseveralcenturies.Theirexactpurposesremainamatterofdebate.
• Passagetombsorgravesconsistofnarrowpassagesmadeoflargestonesandoneormultipleburialchambersbeencoveredinearthorstone.Acommonlayoutisthecruciformpassagegrave.
• ThecarvingsatNewgrangeandKnowtharealignedwiththesolsticesandequinoxes.
KeyTerms
• rectilinear:Inastraightline.• henge:Aprehistoricenclosureintheformofanarc,definedbyaraised
circularbankandacircularditchinsidethebank,withoneormoreentrancestotheenclosedopenspace.
• trilithon:Astructureconsistingoftwostonepillarssupportingahorizontalstone.
• cruciform:Havingtheshapeofacross.• serpentiform:Havingtheformofaserpent.• curvilinear:Formedbycurvedlines.• passagegrave:Aburialchamberconsistingofanarrowpassagemadeof
largestonesandoneormultipleburialchamberscoveredinearthorstone.
AlsoknownastheNewStoneAge,theNeolithicperiodinhumandevelopmentlastedfromaround10,000BCEuntil3,000BCE.ConsideredthelastpartoftheStoneAge,theNeolithicissignifiedbyaprogressioninbehavioralandculturalcharacteristicsincludingthecultivationofwildanddomesticcropsandtheuseofdomesticatedanimals.
AgrariansocietiesfirstappearedinsoutheastEuropeintheseventhmillenniumBCE.Throughmigrationandculturaldiffusion,NeolithictraditionsspreadtonorthwesternEuropebyaround4500BCE.Thedevelopmentofagricultureallowedgroupsofpeopletoformlargerpermanentsettlementsinsinglelocations,asopposedtolivingasnomadichuntergatherers.Permanentsettlementsresultedintheconstructionofmegalithicmonumentsrequiringconsiderabletimeandeffortthatwasunavailabletonomads.
Megalithic Henges
Neolithicsocietiesproducedfemaleandanimalstatues,engravings,andelaboratepotterydecoration.InWesternEurope,though,thisperiodisbestrepresentedbythemegalithic(largestone)monumentsandpassagetombstructuresfoundfromMaltatoPortugal,throughFranceandGermany,andacrosssouthernEnglandtomostofWalesandIreland.
Stonehenge
PerhapsthebestknownmegalithichengeisStonehenge,locatedonSalisburyPlaininthecountyofWiltshireinsouthcentralEngland.Archaeologistsbelieveitwasconstructedfrom3000BCEto2000BCE.Thesurroundingcircularearthbankandditch,whichconstitutetheearliestphaseofthemonument,havebeendatedtoabout3100BCE.RadiocarbondatingsuggeststhatthefirstbluestonesintheinnermostringofStonehengewereraisedbetween2400and2200BCE,althoughtheymayhavebeenatthesiteasearlyas3000BCE.
Plan of Stonehenge: Key to plan: (1) The Altar Stone, (2) barrow without a burial, (3) “barrows” without burials, (4) the fallen Slaughter Stone, (5) the Heel Stone, (6) two of originally four Station Stones, (7) ditch, (8) inner bank, (9) outer bank, (10) the Avenue, (11) ring of 30 pits called the Y Holes, (12) ring of 29 pits called the Z Holes, (13) circle of 56 pits, known as the Aubrey holes, (14) smaller southern entrance. CC BY_SA DrawnbyAdamsan
Althoughhumanremainshavebeenfoundatthesite,archaeologistsareuncertainwhetherthesiteservedfunerarypurposes,ritualpurposes,orboth.Itsalignmentswiththesunriseofthesummersolsticeandsunsetofthewintersolsticepresentthepossibilitythatthesiteservedasarudimentaryastronomicalcalendartohelpearlyagrariansocietiesacclimatetotheapproachinggrowingseasonandharvest.
Stonehenge: Salisbury Plain, England. CC BY 2.0 garethwiscombe, July 30 2007; https://www.flickr.com/photos/garethwiscombe/1071477228/in/photostream/
Eventhesmallestbluestonesweighseveraltonseach.Thesestones,so-calledbecausetheyappearbluewhenwet,werequarriedapproximately150milesawayinthePrescelliMountainsinsouthwestWales.Evenmoreimpressive,thequarryingandtransportofthestonestookplacewithouttheaidofthewheel,requiringasophisticatedmethodoftransportandconstructioninvolvingfelledtreesandearthenmounds.ThelargerSarcenstonesthatformthepost-and-lintelringandhefree-standingtrilithonswerequarriedapproximately25milestothenorthofSalisburyPlain,requiringthesametransportsystemoffelledtreesandearthenmounds.